Highlights On Second Order Analysis For Structural Steel

Structural Engineering Branch, ArchSD Page 1 of 35 File code : 2
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-order Analysis.doc
Information Paper on Second order Analysis CTW/MKL/MFY/
Issue No./Revision No. : 1/- First Issue Date : September 2013

Information Paper

Highlights
on
Second order Analysis for Structural Steel

STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING BRANCH
ARCHITECTURAL SERVICES DEPARTMENT
September 2013
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-order Analysis.doc

Table of Contents

1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 3
2. Second Order Effects ........................................................................................................ 4
3. First Order and Second Order Analysis ......................................................................... 7
3.1 First order analysis (linear analysis) for non-sway frames and sway frames
(
cr
5) ........................................................................................................................... 7
3.2 Second order analysis for ultra-sensitive sway frames (
cr
<5) ............................. 10
3.3 Summary of HK Code ............................................................................................. 13
4. Second Order Analysis Methods in Other National Codes ......................................... 14
5. Overview of Softwares Available in SEB for Second Order Analysis ........................ 24
6. Comparison of Different Softwares with Examples ..................................................... 27
7. Limitations and Recommended Settings ....................................................................... 31
8. Conclusions ...................................................................................................................... 33
References

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This Information Paper or any part of it shall not be reproduced, copied or transmitted in any form or
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Moreover, this Information Paper represents the opinions of the author (s). It serves as an
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should not be relied on by any third party. No liability is therefore undertaken to any third party.
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(including the formulae and data).

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1. Introduction

1.1 Clause 6.3.3 of Code of Practice for Structural Use of Steel 2011 (HK Code)
classifies frames into non-sway, sway, and ultra-sensitive sway, and Clause 6.3.5 of HK
Code specifies that either second order P-- elastic (direct) analysis in Clause 6.8 or
advanced plastic analysis in Clause 6.9 can only be used for ultra-sensitive sway frames
in their structural analysis and design. Though it is claimed that the second order
analysis and design can achieve economy, such ultra-sensitive sway frames are usually
very slender structures, and hence SEI No. 01/2012: Design Code for Structural Steel
(available: http://asdiis/sebiis/2k/MAIN%20DOC/sei/index.htm) requires PSEs to
consult his respective CSE via SSE in advance should ultra-sensitive sway frames is
adopted.

1.2 Should ultra-sensitive sway frame be adopted, PSE is required to use either second
order P-- elastic (direct) analysis or advanced plastic analysis for its analysis and
design. Currently, computer softwares providing full analysis functions for second
order P-A- elastic (direct) analysis or advanced plastic analysis are limited in the
market, and there are five softwares (QSE Space, SAP2000, OASYS GSA, SPACE
GASS, and NIDA) in SEB that are capable for carrying out analysis with second order
analysis functions. However, the second order analysis functions provided by those
softwares differ.

1.3 The purposes of this information paper are:

a) to explain the differences between first order analysis and various types of second
order analysis;
b) to highlight the second order analysis methods specified in other national codes
and to explain their differences with HK Code;
c) to introduce features of commercial softwares on the second order analysis
functions being included; and
d) to highlight the limitations of second order computation by using commercial
softwares and to recommend settings for different types of structures in using
second order analysis functions in these softwares.

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2. Second Order Effects

2.1 Eulers buckling theory was first developed by Leonhard Euler, a Swiss mathematician,
in 1757, and buckling is considered as a structural behaviour of any element under
compression. A member will buckle in compression when it is subjected to a
compressive force F exceeding:
2
2
(KL)
EI
F =

where E is the modulus of elasticity of material;
I is the moment inertia of the member;
L is unsupported length of the member;
and K is the effective length factor of the compressive length, whose value depends
on the conditions of end support of the column as follows:
for both ends pinned (hinged, free to rotate), K = 1.0;
for both ends fixed, K = 0.50;
for one end fixed and the other end pinned, K = 0.707;
for one end fixed and the other end free to move laterally, K = 2.0.

2.2 Types of Buckling

2.2.1 There are two types of buckling:
a) elastic buckling; and
b) inelastic buckling.

Instability due to elastic buckling (or the elastic buckling instability) is derived from
Eulers formula, which is applicable to a long member under compression. However,
most compression members are governed by inelastic buckling, and their structural
capacity is basically governed by its material strength instead of the elastic buckling
instability.

2.2.2 These two types of buckling have been formulated into all design codes for structural
steelwork and equations for the buckling resistance of structural sections with
consideration of the effective length and the radius of gyration. This design practice has
been familiar to structural engineers for nearly a century and is recognized as a usual
method to cater structural members for compression. As the buckling resistance is
defined by effective length and section properties, the section utilization of the member
for a member of a given effective length is linearly and solely proportional to the
magnitude of applied load.

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2.3 P-delta (P--) effect

2.3.1 Figure 1 shows the deformed shape of a frame with local deformation of the member
and frame sway under external load. Such local deformation and frame sway will
magnifies the forces on a frame, and is called the P-delta (the P--) effect. The
two sources of the P-- effect are:

(a) P- effect (or P-big-delta effect), which arises due to the geometric change of
the frame owing to applied loads to nodal displacement.
(b) P- effect (or P-small-delta effect), which may be due to the initial member
imperfection
i
(the P-
i
effect) or the local deformation of a member
m
(the
P-
m
effect). Initial member imperfection
i
is due to the fact that it is
extremely difficult (if not impossible) to manufacture perfectly straight members,
while local deformation of a member
m
is the deformation of the chord of a
member between end nodes under the external load. The latter local deformation
m
is, however, usually very small especially when compared with the P- and P-
i
effects.

Figure 1 Deformed shape of a frame in terms of and
(Source: Figure 6.1 of HK Code)

2.3.2 Both P- and P- effects are not accounted for in the conventional analysis using
stiffness matrix method to determine displacement, axial force, bending moment and
shear force of members in a frame, as such secondary effects do not dominate the
behaviour ordinary non-sway structures and can be neglected. Typically, the P--
effect only becomes significant at unreasonably large displacement values, or in
especially slender columns. Moreover, all national design codes now have included the
P-
i
effect in their design charts derived from buckling theories. Hence, designers
traditionally do not include the P- and P- effects in their analysis, since it may
significantly increase computational time without providing the benefit of useful
information.

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2.3.3 Classification of frame

The above discussion concludes that the P-
i
effect has been included in their design
charts, and the P--
m
effect will not usually dictate the structural design of a frame,
especially if the frame has been braced. Nowadays, some commercial softwares are
now able to provide an analysis function for the P- and/or P- effects by using
iteration technique to achieve the final result, which enables designers to decide whether
such effects are to be included in their analysis. Clause 6.3.5 of HK Code further
specifies that both effects should be included in the analysis for ultra-sensitive sway
frames. In order to classify whether such effects should be included in the analysis, it is
required to compute the elastic critical load factor (
cr
) for the frame.
cr
is the factor
by which the design load must be increased in order to cause the first member of a
structure to buckle elastically.
cr
can be obtained by the eigenvalue analysis or
deflection method. In order to explain in details of these two methods and to provide
examples of the calculation, SEB has issued Information Paper on Determination of
Elastic Critical Load Factor for Steel Structures (available:
http://asdiis/sebiis/2k/resource_centre/). Clause 6.3.3 of HK Code provides the
following classification:

a)
cr
10: non-sway frames, where the P-A effect is insignificant in both analysis
and design, and P- effect can be included in the design chart provided in HK
Code;
b) 5
cr
<10: sway frames, where the P- effect is not required to be included in
the analysis and can be included in the design chart provided in HK Code, and the
P-A may either be included in the analysis by using the second order P- elastic
(indirect) analysis or be included by using either the moment amplification
method or effective length method;
c)
cr
<5: ultra-sensitive sway frames, where both the P-A and P- effects should be
included in both their analysis and design.

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3. First Order and Second Order Analysis

3.1 First order analysis (linear analysis) for non-sway frames and sway frames (
cr
5)

3.1.1 First order analysis is the conventional analysis approach in BS 5950 (BSI 2000) or
design codes published earlier which assumes the deflection and stress of elements are
linearly proportional to load. Neither buckling nor material yielding are considered in
the analysis so that the internal forces of the original and undeformed structural
elements are not amplified by overall structural deformation and member imperfections.
Strength reduction owing to buckling behaviour based on Eulers theory with Perry-
Robertson formula is then applied to compression members in their design according to
various bucking curves which are related to section type, thickness and axis of buckling.
Appendix 8.4 of HK Code specifies an equation for determining compressive strength
of members in terms of Perry factor, which relates to Robertson constant according to
selected type of member section. Alternatively, the magnitude of Perry factor can also
be related to the magnitude of member imperfection. For HK Code, member
imperfection (the P- effect) of a member with various Robertson constants is included
for different design curves (Figure 2). Usually, the Roberson constants highly depend
on the member type, axis of buckling considered and material grade. In addition to P-
effect, these curves also include the residual stresses developed in the manufacturing
process.

Notes: Table 8.7 of HK Code classifies the section types into curves a, b, c and d. For
example, curve a is for hot-finished hollow section, and rolled I-beam with
thickness not greater than 40mm about x-x axis. Curve d is for is for rolled H-
section or I-beam with thickness greater than 40mm about x-x axis.
Figure 2. Buckling curves (a) to (d) for various Robertson constants
for Grade S275 steel (Source: HK Code)

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3.1.2 In Figure 2, slenderness ratio (determined by the effective length of the member and
the radius of gyration) is related to p
c,
which is the reduced compressive strength of the
member according to its slenderness ratio. P
c
is then calculated and is used as a basis for
checking member resistance. The following equations (which were referenced from the
simplified method in BS 5950) for member checking in HK Code can then be used for
design:
1 s + +
cy
y
cx
x
y g
c
M
M
M
M
p A
F
(8.78)
1 s + +
cy
y y
cx
x x
c
c
M
M m
M
M m
P
F
(8.79)
1 s + +
cy
y y
cx
x x
c
c
M
M m
M
M m
P
F
(8.80)
1 s + +
cy
y y
b
LT LT
cy
c
M
M m
M
M m
P
F
(8.81)
in which:
F
c
is the applied axial force;
P
c
is the smaller of P
cx
and P
cy
;
m
x
, m
y
is the equivalent uniform moment factor for flexural buckling about x-
and y-axes;
M
b
is the buckling resistance moment = p
b
S
x
for Class 1 and 2 sections;
M
x
is the amplified maximum design moment about the major x-axis;
M
y
is the amplified maximum design moment about the minor y-axis;

x
M is the applied moment about the major x-axis;
y
M

is the applied moment about the minor y-axis;
M
cx
is the elastic moment capacity p
y
Z
x
about the major principal x-axis;
M
cy
is the elastic moment capacity p
y
Z
y
about the minor principal y-axis;
M
LT
is the applied moment about major x-axis governing M
b
(may usually be
taken as M
x
);
c
P is the smaller of the axial force resistance of the column about x- and y-
axes, taking member length as the effective length.

The above method has been in use for years, and is still a valid and simple way for
analysis and design of both non-sway and sway frames.

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3.1.3 Non-Sway Frames (
cr
10)
:
For non-sway frames (i.e. with
cr
10), HK Code does not require the inclusion of the
P- effect in the analysis; but requires the P- effect to be included in the design
equations by using the design chart to determine compressive strength of member. HK
Code further requires applied moments
x
M and
y
M to be multiplied by the P-
amplification factor in Equation (8.83) as follows:
(8.83)
1
1
2
2
EI
L F
E c
t

In SEB Guidelines on Design to the Code of Practice for Structural Use of Steel 2005
(available: http://asdiis/sebiis/2k/resource_centre/), it has been noted that the P-
amplification factor in Equation (8.83) of HK Code will result in a rather conservative
result, and is therefore considered not necessary. Clause E8.9.2 of Explanatory
Materials to the Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel 2011 (BD 2013) also
states that a more economic design may be obtained without including such
amplification factor for plastic and compact steel sections. PSE should therefore refer
to the modification as stated in SEB Guidelines on Design to the Code of Practice for
Structural Use of Steel 2005.

3.1.4 Sway Frames (5s
cr
<10)

For sway frames (i.e. with 5
cr
<10), Clause 6.6.1 of HK Code allows the use of the
first order analysis followed by incorporating the P- effect in the design using both the
moment amplification and effective length methods. Clause E6.6.1 of Explanatory
Materials to Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel 2011 clarifies Clause 6.6.1
of HK Code by stating that the P- effect can be included in the design using either the
moment amplification method or effective length method. SEB Guidelines on Design to
the Code of Practice for Structural Use of Steel 2005, after reviewing the corresponding
clauses in EuroCode 3, GB50017 and BS 5950, concludes that the effective length
method will usually be more conservative than the moment amplification method for
typical frame structures, and recommends that either method can be used. PSE may
therefore refer to the discussion as stated in SEB Guidelines on Design to the Code of
Practice for Structural Use of Steel 2005. The P- effect can be included in the design
chart provided in HK Code.

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3.2 Second order analysis for ultra-sensitive sway frames (
cr
<5)

3.2.1 HK Code specifies the following three methods to carry out the second order analysis:
a) second order P- elastic (indirect) analysis (Clause 6.7);
b) second order P-- elastic (direct) analysis (Clause 6.8); and
c) advanced plastic analysis (Clause 6.9).

These methods (which will be described in the paragraphs followed) are first introduced
into HK Code in its 2005 edition. Clause 6.3.5 of HK Code further specifies that
second order P- elastic (indirect) analysis can only be used for sway or non-sway
frames (i.e. with
cr
>5), and that either second order P-- elastic (direct) analysis or
advanced plastic analysis should be used for ultra-sensitive sway frames (i.e. with
cr
<5).

3.2.2 Second order P- elastic (indirect) analysis

In addition to first order analysis for sway frames with 5
cr
<10, HK Code also permits
the use of a second order P- elastic (indirect) analysis, which only considers the P-
effect (but not P- effect) by including the global sway effect by an iterative process to
cater for the geometrical non-linearity. After getting the forces, the design of the
structural elements can then be carried out with consideration of the P- effect by using
Equations (8.78) (8.81) of HK Code using the member effective length factor of 1.0.

3.2.3 Second order P-- elastic (direct) analysis

Second order elastic analysis considers the P-- effect by incorporation of frame
imperfection, deformed nodal coordinates and initial member imperfection in the
analysis. The required initial member imperfections e
0
are related to the length of the
member L, and are specified for different section types as follows:

Buckling curve
*
e
0
/L
a
0
1/550
a 1/500
b 1/400
c 1/300
d 1/200
Notes:
*
Table 8.7 of HK Code classifies the section types into curves a
0
,
a, b, c and d. For example, curve a
0
is for high strength hot-
finished hollow sections with p
y
>460MPa, and curve a is for hot-
finished hollow section with p
y
s460MPa or rolled I-beam with
thickness not greater than 40mm about x-x axis.
(Source: Table 6.1 of HK Code)
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After iterations by elastic analysis with geometrical non-linearity, the forces in the
members will be obtained, and no calculation for effective length of structural members
is required. The design strength p
y
instead of p
c
serves as a basis to assess the sectional
capacity of the element under compression. HK Code then provides the following
equations (Equations (6.12) and (6.13)) for member checking:
(6.12) 1
) (
) (
s
+ A +
+
+ A +
+ = + +
cy
y y c
y
cx
x x c
x
y g
c
cy
y
cx
x
y g
c
M
F M
M
F M
p A
F
M
M
M
M
p A
F
o
o

in which (A
x
+
x
) and (A
x
+
y
) are the final member deflections through iteration process
in consideration of the sway, bending moment on member and initial member
imperfections about x- and y-axes, and ) (
x x c
x F M o + A + and ) (
y y c
y F M o + A + represent
the total moments obtained from the second order analysis. HK Code also specifies
that if moment equivalent factor m
LT
is less than 1, both Equation (6.12) and the
following Equation (6.13) are required for member resistance check:
1
)] ( [
)] ( [
s
+ A +
+
+ A +
+ = + +
cy
y y c
y
y
b
x x c x LT
y g
c
cy
y
cx
x
y g
c
M
F M m
M
F M m
p A
F
M
M
M
M
p A
F
o
o
(6.13)

However, there are not many guidelines in HK Code, and the drafting committee of HK
Code seems to rely on the commercial softwares to include the effects of P-- effect in
the analysis. Buildings Department would exercise control over the limitations of the
softwares. M
b
(the lateral torsional buckling of a member in bending), instead of M
cx
, is
used in Equation (6.13) because the softwares available in the market cannot account for
member lateral torsional imperfections in both axes during computational analysis and
hence, M
b
is specified to cater for this software deficiency.

3.2.4 Advanced plastic analysis

Advanced plastic analysis includes both P-- effects and member plasticity in its
analysis. Plastic design for structural steel has been introduced into BS 449 since 1948
and is also allowed in BS 5950, which has already allowed for material yielding and
plasticity in a structure. The principle of plastic design is that when maximum stress of
member exceeds yield point, a hinge is inserted to the member end close to the hinge
position and analysis continues until the collapse load (or limit point) is reached. The
collapse load is taken as the load level which does not allow further load increase
indicated as a curve reaches plateau, descends or stagnates in the load versus deflection
plot (Figure 3). In the design, this collapse load (or limit point) should be greater than
or equal to the factored design load in all load cases. Again, there are few guidelines in
HK Code, and the drafting committee of HK Code also relied on the commercial
softwares to include the P-- effects and member plasticity in the analysis.
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Figure 3 Load-Displacement Curve of Element under Compression

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3.3 Summary of HK Code

3.3.1 Table 1 summarizes features of first order and second order analysis in respect of initial
member imperfection, geometric and material nonlinearity in HK Code:

Table 1 Summary of various analysis methods in HK Code
Methods of
analysis
Geometric nonlinearity
Applicability
to type of
structure
Nodal
displacement of
frame
(P- effect)
Member bowing
(P- effect)
Initial member
imperfection
(P-
i
effect)
Effect from
bending
curvature
(P-
m
effect)
First
order
analysis
Non-
sway
frame
included by
effective length
included by
various
Robertson
constants
X
non-sway
(
cr
>10)
Sway
frame
included by
effective length
or moment
amplification
factor (Equation
(8.82))
included by
various
Robertson
constants or
moment
amplification
factor (Equation
(8.82))
X
sway frame
(10>
cr
>5)
Second order P-
elastic (indirect)
analysis

included by
various
Robertson
constants
not
mandatory
but analysis
are provided
in most
commercial
softwares
sway frame
(10>
cr
>5)
Second order P--
elastic (direct)
analysis

sway or ultra-
sensitive
sway frame
Advanced plastic
analysis (second
order plastic
analysis)

sway or ultra-
sensitive
sway frame

3.3.2 PSE should note that second order analysis is not a tool to make an unsafe structure to
become a safe structure. Clause E6.1 of Explanatory Materials to Code of Practice
for the Structural Use of Steel 2011 further remarks that second order analysis has
been mistakenly considered by many as a tool to reduce structural weight.

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4. Second Order Analysis Methods in Other National Codes

4.1 Other national codes for steelwork design such as EuroCode 3, AISC, AS 4100 and GB
50017 also specify second order methods and the conditions for applicability of such
methods. The second order methods specified in these codes include: effective length
method, moment amplification method and direct analysis method. The details of the
methods in these codes will first be elaborated in the following paragraphs, and then
their differences with HK Code are described.

4.2 EuroCode 3 (EC3)

4.2.1 EC3 allows first order analysis and second order analysis for steel structures. The first
order analysis (which is similar to that in HK Code) is applicable to non-sway frame
with a factor
cr
>10 (i.e.
cr
>10 in HK Code) and for sway frames with
cr
<10. For
sway frames, two methods are specified:

a) indirect second order method, i.e. first order analysis with allowance for P-
effect; or
b) direct second order method.

Design examples to EC3 can be found from Designers Guide to Eurocode 3: Design
of Steel Buildings EN 1993-1-1, -1-3 and -1-8 (Gardner and Nethercot 2011) and Steel
Designers Manual (Davison and Owens 2012).

4.2.2 Indirect second order method

This indirect second order method is similar to the first order analysis for sway
frame in HK Code. EC3 includes the P- effect by multiplying all horizontal loads
(e.g. wind) and equivalent loads due to initial sway imperfection, i.e. approximately
1/200 of the total design vertical load by following amplification factor:

1
cr
cr
o
o

where
cr
is similar to
cr
.

The above amplification technique is similar to that in HK Code except of the
amplification to horizontal loads instead of total moment, and is applicable for regular
frames with
cr
3 (as compared with
cr
5 in HK Code). The design can then be carried
out by using the member length as the effective length. Hence, though HK Code
considers that this method is only a first order analysis, EC3 already considers this
method to be a second order analysis indirectly, as both P-- effects have been
included in the design.

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4.2.3 Direct second order method

For frames with
cr
<3 (which is ultra slender structure), EC3 requires the designer to
adopt direct second order method that structure, which should include the effect of both
global and member imperfections. The global initial sway imperfections (Figure 4) can
be obtained by the following equation:
m h
o o | |
0
=

where
0
|
is the basic value and is taken as 1/200;

h
o is the reduction factor for height h applicable to columns and is given by:

h
h
2
= o

but

0 . 1
3
2
s s
h
o
;

h is the height of the frame ;
m
o is the reduction factor for the number of columns in a row = )
1
1 ( 5 . 0
m
+ ;
m is the number of columns in a row including only those columns which carry
a vertical load N
Ed
not less than 50% of the average value of the column in
the vertical plane considered.

Figure 4 Global Initial Imperfection (Source: EC3)

Similar to HK Code, EC3 tabulates (Table 2) the initial member imperfections e
0
for
section types. To facilitate designers to model the imperfections in the structural
analysis, EC3 offers a replacement of initial imperfections by equivalent horizontal
forces as shown in Figure 5.

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Initial Sway Imperfections Initial Member Imperfections
Figure 5 Equivalent Horizontal Forces for Global and Member Imperfection
(Source: EC3)
However, the specified initial member imperfection e
0
/L in EC3 is relatively stringent
as compared with those specified in HK Code. The UK National Annex to EC3
modifies those values by requiring the initial member imperfections for an individual
section about a particular axis to be back-calculated from the formula for the buckling
curves given in EC3 using the elastic section modulus and full plastic section modulus.
Brown (2011) gives some examples to back calculate the initial imperfection, and
shows that the initial imperfections given in EC3 are very conservative (Table 3).

Table 2 Initial Member Imperfections for Different Section Types in EC3
Buckling curve
Elastic analysis Plastic analysis
e
0
/L e
0
/L
a
0
1/350 1/300
a 1/300 1/250
b 1/250 1/200
c 1/200 1/150
d 1/150 1/100
(Source: EC3)
Table 3 Comparison of initial member imperfections specified in the UK
National Annex and EC3 for 20320346 S355 UC
Effective Length
(m)
The UK National Annex
back-calculated e
0
/L
EC 3Curve b
e
0
/L
1 1/4815 1/250
2 1/536
4 1/308
6 1/333
8 1/425
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4.3 AISC-360-10

4.3.1 There are three methods specified in AISC-360-10 (AISC) (AISC 2010):
a) first order analysis in Appendix 7 of AISC;
b) approximate second order analysis in Appendix 8 of AISC; and
c) direct analysis in Chapter C of AISC.

The 2010 edition of the AISC has moved the requirements of direct analysis into
Chapter C as the preferred method of the steel frame analysis, while the other two
methods were moved to Appendix 7 and Appendix 8 respectively. This move seems to
encourage designers to adopt direct analysis in the steel frame analysis; but concurrently
to permit designers to use approximation methods as an alternative to rigorous second
order analysis for sway structures.

AISC allows designers to adopt either Allowable Strength Design (ASD) method or
Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) method for the design. ASD method is an
older method (similar to BS 449) which applies a safety factor to nominal strength of
material to attain allowable strength. For LRFD, a partial safety factor is applied to each
of load cases to calculate the ultimate limit state. LRFD method (which is similar to BS
5950) is to proportion structural components such that the design strength equals or
exceeds the required strength of the component under action of the LRFD limit state.

Design examples to AISC using LRFD method can be found in Structural Steel Design
(LRFD Method) (Rokach 1991).

4.3.2 First order analysis

The first-order analysis in AISC is similar to the first order analysis in HK Code and
EC3 for non-sway frames (i.e.
cr
>10). It is therefore applicable for frames that:

a) support gravity loads primarily through nominally vertical columns, walls or frames;
and
b) the ratio of maximum second-order drift to maximum first-order drift in all stories is
not greater than 1.5, and the ratio may be taken as the B
2
multiplier. B
2
may be
calculated using the simplified equation (extracted in Section 4.3.3) given in
Appendix 8 of AISC instead of undergoing a calculation using second order analysis.

Trial calculations using this simplified equation show that the value of B
2
for frames
with
cr
5 is about 1.5, and hence the first order analysis in AISC is applicable to
frames with
cr
>5. With the forces obtained from the first order analysis, the effective
length method can be used for structural design. The effective length factor, K, of
components of the braced frame is normally taken as 1.0, and for moment frames, a
factor K>1.0 is normally adopted.
nd
-order Analysis.doc

4.3.3 Approximate second order analysis

The approximate second order analysis is similar to the first order analysis followed
by moment amplification method in HK Code and the indirect second order method in
EC3. The P-- effects are included in AISC by applying the amplification factors on
the internal forces obtained in first order analysis through multipliers B
1
and B
2
. The
following equations are detailed in Appendix 8 of AISC to calculate the designed
moment M
r
and axial force P
r
:
lt nt r
M B M B M
2 1
+ =

lt nt r
P B P P
2
+ =

where B
1
= multiplier to account for P- effect and may be taken as 1.0 for members not
subject to compression;
B
2
= multiplier to account for P- effect;
M
lt
= first order moment due to lateral translation of the structure only;
M
nt
= first order moment with the structure restrained against lateral translation;
P
lt
= first order axial force due to lateral translation of the structure only; and
P
nt
= first order axial force with the structure restrained against lateral translation.

AISC allows that the above equations are applicable to all members in all sway or non-
sway structures (including ultra-sensitive sway frames). The multipliers B
1
and B
2
for P-
and P- effects respectively may be calculated as follows:
1
/ 1
1
>
=
el r
m
P P
C
B
o
and
1
1
1
2
>
=
story
e
story
P
P
B
o

where = 1.0 (LRFD) or 1.6 (ASD);
C
m
= 0.6-0.4(M
1
/M
2
) or conservatively taken as 1.0, and M
1
and M
2
are the
smaller and larger moments in the member in the first order analysis;
P
el
= elastic critical buckling strength of the member in plane of bending and
may be calculated as follows:
2
1
* 2
) ( L K
EI
P
el
t
=

P
story
= total vertical load supported by the member;
P
estory
=elastic critical buckling strength for the storey in the direction of translation
being considered and may be calculated as follows:
H
HL
R P
M estory
A
=

R
M
= 1- 0.15(P
mf
/P
story
);
L = height of storey;
P
mf
= total vertical load in columns in the storey (=0 for braced frame systems);

H
= first order interstorey drift due to lateral forces;
H= storey shear produced by lateral forces used to compute
H
.
nd
-order Analysis.doc

The Commentary on AISC highlights that the P- effect will be significant when B
1
is
larger than 1.2. A rigorous second order elastic analysis is then advised to be carried out
for obtaining the internal forces of the members.

4.3.4 Direct analysis

The direct analysis in AISC is similar to the second order P-- elastic (direct) elastic
analysis in HK Code and the direct second order elastic method in EC, and is applicable
for all types of frame. Brief summary of the analysis is as follows:

1) Deformation of structures

The analysis should take account of member deformations due to flexural, shear
and axial behavior, and other component and connection deformations which
affect the deformation of the global structure. P- and P- effects should be
reflected in the analysis.

2) Initial Imperfections

AISC specifies that either direct modelling of imperfections in the analysis or the
application of notional loads can be adopted for inclusion of the effect. In general,
the imperfections include:
a) member out-of-straightness equal to L/1000, where L is the member length;
and
b) frame out-of-plumbness equal to H/500, where H is the storey height

3) Adjustments to Stiffness

AISC specifies that the reduction of stiffness of the all structures is required in the
analysis. A factor of 0.8 shall be taken in the consideration of axial and flexural
stiffness and applied to all members. Reduced stiffness, EI* and EA*, should be
as follows:
a) EI*=0.8
b
EI; and
b) EA*=0.8EA
where
b
=1.0 at P
r
/P
y
0.5 and
b
=4(P
r
/P
y
)[1-(P
r
/P
y
)] at P
r
/P
y
>0.5 in LRFD; but is
usually taken conservatively as 1.0 in all cases.

Unlike HK Code (where full design strength can be used to assess the sectional capacity
of the element), the design in AISC after analysis can be proceeded with the effective
length of members taken as L
e
=1.0L.

nd
-order Analysis.doc

4.4 Australian Standard AS 4100: 1998 (Standards New Zealand NZS 3404-1: 2009)

4.4.1 AS 4100 (Standards Australia 1998) (and NZS 3404:1 (Standards New Zealand 2009))
requires all steel structures incorporating P- effect by using one of the following
methods:

a) a first order elastic analysis with moment amplification; or
b) a second order elastic analysis; or
c) a second order plastic analysis.

Design examples to AS 4100 can be found in Steel Designers Handbook (Gorenc et al
2005).

4.4.2 First order elastic analysis with moment amplification

This method is generally applicable to non-sway and sway frames, and is similar to the
first order analysis followed by moment amplification method in HK Code and indirect
second order method in EC3. In this method, moment amplification factors
b
and
m
(defined as below) should be applied to both braced and non-braced frames respectively.
For members in braced frames, the design moment of the members should be multiplied
by
b
as follows:
1
1
*
>
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
omb
m
b
N
N
c
o

where N
omb
is the elastic buckling load; and C
m
= 0.6-0.4
m
1.0.

If C
m
is taken as 1.0,
b
can be calculated as follows:
1
1
1
2
2 *
>
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
EI
L N
e
b
t
o

For members in unbraced frames, moment amplification factor
m
should be multiplied
to the design moment, which may be taken as the greater of
a)
b
calculated above;
b)
s
calculated as follows:
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
*
*
1
1
V
N
h
s
s
s
o

where
s
is the translational displacement of the top relative to the bottom in the storey
of height (h
s
) by the design horizontal storey shears (V*) at the column ends, and N* is
the design axial force in a column of the storey.

nd
-order Analysis.doc

The above amplification methods are almost identical to the methods required in HK
Code. AS 4100 states that the moment amplification method is only applicable to the
structure with
b
and
s
1.4, which corresponds to
cr
>3.5 for sway frames in HK Code.

4.4.3 Second order elastic/plastic analysis

AS 4100 specifies that a second order elastic analysis should be adopted for frames with
b
or
s
>1.4 which corresponds to ultra-sensitive sway frames with
cr
<3.5 in HK Code.
In such frames, the further deformation of the structures due to P- should be directly
modelled in the analysis. For frame with
c
<5, changes in the effective stiffness of the
members due to axial forces should be considered in the model. The design bending
moment is directly obtained by the model accounting for the above considerations.
There are two possible methods in the second order analysis - the elastic and plastic
analysis. The main difference between these two methods is that material grade, type
and characteristic, section type and loading condition should be limited in the plastic
analysis.

4.5 Chinese National Standard GB 50017-2003

4.5.1 There are two methods specified in GB 50017-2003 (Ministry of Construction 2003):
a) first order analysis for non-sway frames;
b) second order P- elastic (indirect) analysis for sway frames.

In order to classify frames into non-sway or sway, GB 20017 specifies the calculation of
the coefficient
i
as follows:
A
=
i i
i i
i
h H
u N
u

where N
i
is the total axial forces of all columns at ith storey;
H
i
is the total shear forces at ith storey;
h
i
is the storey height above ith storey; and
u
i
is the storey displacement due to H
i

This formula is actually an inverse of
cr
in HK Code so that the formula can be re-
written as:
cr
u
1
=

GB 50017 states that first order analysis can be used for steel structures if
i
s 0.1 (i.e.
cr
>10 in HK Code), and that second order P- elastic (indirect) analysis should be used
if when
i
> 0.1. For ultra-sensitive sway frames, GB 50017, however, specifies the
size of the steel members or the lateral resistance of the frame to be adjusted if
i
> 0.25
(i.e.
cr
s 4 in HK Code). This tallies with the requirement in SEI No. 01/2012: Design
Code for Structural Steel (available:
nd
-order Analysis.doc

http://asdiis/sebiis/2k/MAIN%20DOC/sei/index.htm), which requires PSEs to consult
his respective CSE via SSE in advance should ultra-sensitive sway frames with
cr
s5
are adopted.

4.5.2 Second order P- elastic (indirect) analysis

For frames with
i
>0.1, the P- effect is calculated by a moment amplification factor
(which is similar to the first order analysis followed by moment amplification method in
HK Code), and the amplification factor
II
i
o is given by:
i
II
i
u
o
=
1
1

The design moment
II
M is then given by:
H
II
i q
II
M M M o + =
where
II
M is the design moment after the amplification;
q
M is the first order moment due to vertical load only; and
H
M is the first order moment due to lateral load only.

4.5.3 Draft revision of GB 50017

The draft revision of GB 50017 is now circulated to the industry for consultation, which
includes a direct second order analysis. Similar to HK Code, such direct second order
analysis requires designers to consider the effects of P--, imperfections of structural
members, residual stress, joint stiffness, non-linearity of materials and geometry in the
analysis. The initial member imperfection e
0
can be taken as 1/750 while the initial
frame imperfection cannot be less than h
i
/1000. Similar to EC3, equivalent notional
force method putting UDL on the members considered can be used to simulate the
initial member imperfection e
0
. When the design forces are obtained from the direct
analysis method, the following equation should be satisfied:

f
W
M
W
M
A
N
y
II
y
x
II
x
s + +
where
II
x
M and
II
y
M are the design moments about x-x and y-y axes obtained from the
direct analysis;
A is the cross sectional area; and
x
W and
y
W are the section modulus about x-x and y-y axes respectively.

nd
-order Analysis.doc

4.6 Summary of Codes on Structural Steel Design

Table 3 summarizes the comparison among the national codes on the methods to be
used in the analysis of structural steelworks with terminology used in HK Code. The
following are noted:
a) First order analysis without the P- effect followed by design by effective length
method is permitted in all national codes (except in AS 4100) for non-sway
frames, and generally the limiting elastic critical factor
cr
is taken as 10 as in HK
Code.
b) First order analysis followed by moment amplification method is available in
all national codes, and can be used to include the P- effect for sway frames
and is termed as second order analysis in most of other national codes as it
has included both P-- effects in the design. The limiting elastic critical factor
cr
of 5.0 in HK Code is the most stringent requirement, and EC3 requires
c
of at
least 3 only.
c) Second order P-- elastic (direct) analysis is required for ultra-sensitive frames,
and GB 50017 recommends designers to re-size the members or re-frame the
structures for frames with
cr
s 4.
d) Second order P-- elastic (direct) analysis is now allowed in all other national
codes except GB 50017, and the draft revision of GB 50017 also suggests the
introduction of such method. However, all these codes do not specify the detailed
procedures in the analysis, and they differ in their specified member imperfections.
In particular, AISC does not require P- effect due to initial member
imperfection in the analysis, and hence commercial softwares in the market
(such as SAP 2000) seldom include such features in their analysis.

Table 3 Comparison among National Codes on Analysis Methods
Methods of
analysis
Codes
HK Code
EC3
(BS EN
1993:2005)
AISC 360-10 AS 4100:1998
GB 50017:
2003
First order
analysis

Second order P-
elastic (indirect)
analysis

Second order P--
elastic (direct)
analysis

(member imperfection
need not be included in
the analysis, as it has
been included in the
design chart)
X
Advanced
analysis (Second
order plastic
analysis)

(member imperfection
need not be included, as
this has been included in
the design chart)
X
nd
-order Analysis.doc

5. Overview of Softwares Available in SEB for Second Order Analysis

5.1 Five computer softwares are available in SEB with second order analysis functions. In
the following paragraphs, the features of the second order analysis functions in these
softwares will be highlighted.

5.2 QSE Space

QSE Space is a pre-accepted software by Building Departments for the design of steel
structures according to BS 5950, and is applicable for both non-sway and sway frames.
It uses conventional stiffness matrix method. A second order P- elastic (indirect)
analysis with inclusion of P-A can be included. Demand on resources is small and
results are obtained quickly with results very comparable to those obtained using a more
rigorous analysis. As only the P-A effect will be included in the analysis, the P- effect
has to be included by using design charts in BS 5950.

5.3 SAP 2000, OASYS GSA and SPACE GASS

SAP 2000, OASYS GSA and SPACE GASS include the P-A effect and P-
m
(i.e. the
member deformation under load) but not the initial member imperfection P-
i
effect in
the analysis, and can carry out more iteration in their calculation than that in QSE Space.
Moreover, both geometric changes of the overall structures and individual member due
to the internal forces can be included in the analysis. However, the initial member
imperfections
i
cannot be included in the software. Since the P-A effect has been
included in the analysis, amplification factors in Equations (8.78) (8.81) of HK Code
are not required to obtain the design moment.

As the P-
i
effect has not been included in the design using SAP 2000 or OASYS GSA,
they have not yet been pre-accepted softwares by Buildings Department for the design
of steel structures according to HK Code, although they are pre-accepted softwares by
Building Departments for the design of steel structures according to BS 5950. SPACE
GASS is a pre-accepted software by Buildings Department for the design of steel
structures according to HK Code so that the industry for building projects has widely
used this software. However, as SPACE GASS, same as SAP 2000 or OASYS GSA,
does not include the P-
i
effect due to initial member imperfection, SPACE GASS,
rather than using design charts in HK Code, has a built-in analysis function to calculate
the effective length of the member according to Clause E.6 of BS 5950 in order to
obtain the compressive strength of the member.

nd
-order Analysis.doc

5.4 NIDA

5.4.1 The second order analysis of NIDA includes both second order elastic analysis and
advanced analysis, and was tailor-made for HK Code. Hence, it is a pre-accepted
software by Buildings Department for the design of steel structures according to HK
Code, and hence is also widely used in the industry for building projects. Users are
required to choose between these two options, i.e. whether they want to include material
plasticity in the analysis. Both analyses include the P-A- effects under applied external
load. Different initial member imperfections
i
(from L/550 to L/200 specified in HK
Code) depending on the section types are assumed in the software. Since initial member
imperfection has been included in the analysis stage, Equations (6.12) and (6.13) of HK
Code can be used in the design with the axial force and moments obtained after the
analysis.

5.4.2 As initial member imperfections
i
may occur in one of the two principal axes, NIDA
claims that initial member imperfection will be chosen to the direction that is more
likely to buckle. Alternatively, an option to specify initial imperfections (e.g. L/500)
to both principal axes is also provided in the program. However, in the latter case, the
designer needs to choose an appropriate combination of imperfections in both axes to
model the easiest buckling direction.

5.4.3 In addition, HK Code does not require designer to include imperfection for lateral
torsional buckling. A recognized method to determine accurate position of member
with correct imperfection magnitude for lateral torsional buckling is not available in HK
Code or literatures. NIDA still relies on conventional design chart to determine M
b

according to HK Code to satisfy Equation 6.13 of HK Code.

5.5 Summary of the key features of commercial softwares

Table 4(a) and Table 4(b) summarizes the key features included in the commercial
sofwares. It can be seen that NIDA is the only software available in SEB that can carry
out second order P-A- elastic (direct) analysis and advanced plastic analysis, as it was
tailor-made for HK Code. However, PSE may note that though SPACE GASS cannot
carry out the exact second order P-A- elastic (direct) analysis and advanced plastic
analysis according to HK Code, it is a pre-accepted software by Buildings Department
for the design of steel structures according to HK Code. In Section 6, calculation of
typical frames will be shown to show that the results of all these softwares are similar to
each other, and that the results from the first order analysis are also comparable to those
obtained by rigorous second order analysis.

nd
-order Analysis.doc

Table 4(a) Available Analysis functions of Softwares used for Second Order Analysis according to HK Code

Method of
analysis
QSE Space SAP2000 OASYS GSA SPACE GASS NIDA
Analysis Design Analysis Design Analysis Design Analysis Design Analysis Design
First order
analysis

Second order
P- elastic
(indirect)
analysis

Second order
P-- elastic
(direct)
analysis
(including
initial member
imperfection)
X X X X X X X X
Advanced
plastic
analysis
X X X X X X X X
Applicability Non-sway or sway frame Non-sway and sway frame Non-sway and sway frame
Non-sway, sway and ultra-
sensitive sway frame
Non-sway, sway and ultra-
sensitive sway frame

nd
-order Analysis.doc

Table 4(b) Second order effects included in sofwares available in SEB
Software
P-A P-
i
P-
m

Analysis Design Analysis Design Analysis Design
QSE Space X X X
SAP2000 X
OASYS GSA X
SPACE GASS X
NIDA

6. Comparison of Different Softwares with Examples

6.1 This section will compare the results of using QSE Space, SAP2000, OASYS GSA,
SPACE GASS and NIDA in the analysis and design of structural steel members in order
to compare their respective accuracy. The following examples will be presented:

a) a portal frame to study the differences among conventional first order analysis,
first order analysis with moment amplification method by HK Code and EC3, and
second order elastic (direct) method by NIDA (Example 1);
b) a portal frame to study the differences among QSE Space, OASYS GSA,
SAP2000 and NIDA (Example 1); and
c) a portal frame to compare the section utilization determined by SPACE GASS and
NIDA (since both of them are pre-accepted programs by Buildings Department)
(Example 2).

6.2 Example 1: Frame for comparison among different methods and softwares

6.2.1 Consider an unbraced frame made of sections UC 356368153 kg/m as shown in
Figure 11. This example serves to assess the differences of global analytical results
determined by conventional first order analysis, first order analysis followed by moment
amplification method in HK Code and EC3, and the second order P-- elastic (direct)
method in NIDA. The weak axis of all members in the portal frame is assumed fully
restrained. Table 6(a) summarizes the results.

nd
-order Analysis.doc

Table 6(a) Comparison among Different Methods for Second Order Effects
W
g
(kN/m)
H
(kN)
cr

Member CD
First Order Method
Moment Amplification Method
(HK Code)
P-
Moment Amplification Method
(EC3)
P-
Second Order P-
- Elastic
(Direct) Method
(NIDA)
P--
Moment
(kNm)
diff. to NIDA
Moment
(kNm)
diff. to NIDA
Moment
(kNm)
diff. to NIDA
Moment
(kNm)
5 60 14.2 606.7 -3.8% 612.8 -2.8% 606.8 -3.8% 630.6
6 60 11.9 668 -4.2% 675.3 -3.1% 668.1 -4.2% 697.1
7 60 10.3 729.4 -4.5% 738.9 -3.3% 729.5 -4.5% 763.9
8 60 9.0 790.7 -4.8% 889.3 +7.0% 828.2 -0.3% 830.9
9 60 8.0 852.1 -5.1% 973.4 +8.4% 894.8 -0.4% 898.0
10 60 7.3 913.4 -5.4% 1059.4 +9.7% 961.5 -0.4% 965.5
15 60 4.9 1220 -6.6% 1535.3* +17.6%* 1297.8 -0.6% 1306.0
20 60 3.7 1527 -7.7% 2100.2* +26.9%* 1639.6 -0.9% 1655.0
Note: * denotes for reference only
Table 6(b) Comparison among Softwares
W
g
(kN/m)
H
(kN)
cr

Member CD
QSE Space
P-
OASYS GSA
P--
m

SAP 2000
P--
m

Second Order P-- elastic
(Direct) Method (NIDA)
P--
Moment
(kNm)
diff. to
NIDA
Moment
(kNm)
diff. to
NIDA
Moment
(kNm)
diff. to
NIDA
Moment
(kNm)
5 60 14.2 628 -0.1% 635 +1.0% 629 +0.0% 628.7
8 60 9.0 827 -0.2% 837 +1.0% 829 +0.1% 828.5
10 60 7.3 961 -0.2% 973 +1.1% 965 +0.2% 962.8
15 60 4.9 1301 -0.2% 1317 +1.1% 1306 +0.2% 1303
20 60 3.7 1647 -0.2% 1670 +1.2% 1655 +0.3% 1650
Note: OASYS GSA and SAP2000 include P-
m
(effect of bending curvature) in the comparison.
nd
-order Analysis.doc

Figure 11 Portal Frame made of UC 356x368x153kg/m

6.2.2 Table 6(a) shows that the differences between the moment determined by first order
method and that by NIDA widen as
cr
decreases from non-sway to sway, and then to
ultra-sensitive sway frame. Amplified moment method by EC3 accounting for second
order effects is pretty similar to that by NIDA for
cr
ranges from 4 to 14. It is further
noted that amplified moment by HK Code is very conservative, especially for the sway
structure. The reason for such significant deviation is that HK Code requires designers
to multiply the amplification factor on the total moment rather than the moment due
horizontal action only. Thus, higher slender structures (i.e. smaller value of
cr
) results
in a highly conservative solution for HK Code. The comparison shows that it is
generally acceptable to multiply the amplification factor on the moment due to
horizontal action only.

6.2.3 In the first order analysis using five different softwares, all obtained analytical results
are exactly same, as they all base stiffness matrix method. For the second order analysis
accounting P-A-
m
effect, Table 6(b) shows that the differences among five analytical
outputs are less than 1.2%. This further illustrates that the analytical result of the
structure with
cr
=3.7 given by program accounting for P- is not far different
from that by program providing second direct elastic analysis. Therefore, the
comparison shows that HK Code is too stringent on limiting of first order and
second order P- elastic (indirect) method to non-sway and sway frames.

nd
-order Analysis.doc

6.3 Example 2: Members in a frame using SPACE GASS and NIDA

The unbraced frame example given in Clause E6.12.1 of Explanatory Materials to Code
of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel 2005 (Figure 12) is used for comparing the
softwares, SPACE GASS and NIDA. Table 7 shows the result of the member
utilization. The results calculated by SPACE GASS are similar to those by NIDA,
although SPACE GASS designs the member by using effective length method followed
by BS 5950 and NIDA bases on second order P-- elastic (direct) analysis with all
geometric imperfections included.

Figure 12 3010m Height Portal Frame

Table 7 Comparison between SPACE GASS and NIDA in Design of Members
Applied
Horizontal
Force at
Point B
(kN)
Applied
Vertical
Force at
Point C
(kN)
cr

F
c
of member CD
(kN)
M
x
of member CD
(kNm)
Section Utilization of
member CD
SPACE
GASS

NIDA
SPACE
GASS
NIDA
SPACE
GASS
NIDA
60 1000 2.23 1035 1034 529 518 0.90 0.93

nd
-order Analysis.doc

7. Limitations and Recommended Settings

7.1 Unlike other national codes which only requires P- effect and do not mandatorily
require inclusion of initial member imperfection
i
in the second order analysis, the HK
Code is the only code that specifies such requirement in its second order P-- elastic
(direct) method. Given such requirement, NIDA is the most versatile, among the five
softwares, capable of including the initial member imperfection in its analysis rather
than using design charts to include such effect. Yet, NIDA still cannot include
imperfections for lateral torsional buckling, and still relies on conventional design chart
to determine M
b
. Moreover, the following limitations and settings for NIDA are to be
noted:

(a) Initial member imperfections

The default setting of NIDA includes member imperfection on the major principal
axis, which can accurately calculate the allowable compressive load of CHS in all
range of slenderness ratio. For other sections with major and minor principal
axes (e.g. I-sections), NIDA program sets the member imperfection on the
major axis which may over-estimate the structural capacity as member tends
to buckle about minor axis. Therefore, the section utilization of the member
under pure axial force is not accurate, and PSE needs to adjust the default setting
accordingly. That is, the initial member imperfection in some cases should be
chosen to be set on the minor axis. This is the particular case for members of
steel truss designed for pure axial load only, as the buckling direction cannot
be effectively determined by means of imperfection of the major principal
axis in NIDA. PSE may then note that this is a tedious (if not impracticable) task
for frames with a large number of members. NIDA can enable setting the
imperfection on either one principal axis or both principal axes in the model, and
adjusting the default setting to imperfection on both principal axes would be a
conservative way to handle this limitation.

(b) Extra node in a member

The initial member imperfection set in NIDA is based on a specified ratio of
member length as Table 6.1 of HK Code, and is automatically included in the
option of second order analysis. However, if an extra node is created between
the ends of a member, the simulated member imperfection may be
underestimated and the modelled curvature does not follow the actual
deformation along the length. Although all extra nodes can be eliminated, the
limitation of assigning initial member imperfection still exists in the case that a
node is connected by a restraint element from only one direction. The continuous
section would not be cut down into two pieces for connecting lateral restraining
nd
-order Analysis.doc

elements in practical situation. The actual imperfection shape is not reflected in
the model analysis and the analytical result may be underestimated. To minimize
the underestimation, assigning the imperfection should not only be limited to the
displacement of individual member, but also consider the imperfection on the
deformed shape obtained in eigen-buckling mode. In the latest version of NIDA,
an option is now available to define the accurate effective length for consideration
of initial member imperfection. For such case, the conventional method for
checking buckling resistance of the member can be adopted to compare the
result from the second order analysis.

7.2 Economy in the design

The examples in Section 6 show that the second order analysis results from QSE
Space, OASYS GSA, SAP2000, SPACE GASS or NIDA are approximately equal
to each other for the cases studied. The maximum difference of outputs among these
commercial softwares is less than 1.2%, which is considered negligible. Hence, it is
widely believed that second order analysis can achieve a more economical design; but
such claim may not be valid for typical frames, though such claim may be valid for ultra
sensitive frames. Example 2 in Section 6 further shows that the moment amplification
method for accounting second order effect specified in HK Code is quite
conservative. The difference of design moment determined by EC3 which require
designers to apply amplification factor to horizontal actions only is less than 1% and
considered acceptable for all sway and ultra-sensitive sway frames. Thus, for typical
frames, the effects due to P-, P-
m
and P-
i
only results in negligible differences in
the section utilization from these methods.

7.3 Lateral Torsional Buckling Resistance

Lateral torsional buckling is more complex as compared with flexural buckling in view
of its buckling direction and involved parameters. Currently, no available softwares in
Hong Kong can include the lateral torsional buckling in the analysis stage. M
b
is still
required in Equation (6.14) of HK Code, even when the second order P-- elastic
(direct) analysis method is adopted. Members such as UB or UC under both bending
moment and axial load would normally be governed by lateral torsional buckling.
Therefore, second order P-- elastic (direct) method is not a necessary tool to
produce the most economical cost-saving design. PSE should note that in such case
effective length factor under lateral torsional buckling should also be defined for each of
members in NIDA.

nd
-order Analysis.doc

8. Conclusions

8.1 Clause 6.3.5 of HK Code specifies that both P- and P- effects should be included in
the analysis for ultra-sensitive sway frames with
cr
<5, and conventional first order
analysis can still be used in non-sway frames with
cr
>10 and for sway frames with
5<
cr
<10 by either moment amplification or effective length method. The comparison in
Section 6 further shows that HK Code is too stringent on limiting of first order and
second order P- elastic (indirect) method to non-sway and sway frames.

8.2 Second order analysis cannot make an unsafe structure to become a safe structure.
Examples in Section 6 show that for typical frames, the effects due to P-, P-
m
and P-
i
only results in negligible differences in the section utilization from these methods.

8.3 Conventional analysis followed by moment amplification method, though termed as
first order analysis, is called as second order analysis in most of other national codes,
as it has included both P-- effects in its analysis or design.

8.4 Most commercial softwares do not include the P-
i
effect in their analysis, and it has to
be included by designers using the design charts in their respective code. NIDA, which
was tailor-made for HK Code, is the only one software available in SEB that is capable
of including the P-
i
effect in its analysis. However, PSE should set the initial member
imperfections
i
in the appropriate directions in order to obtain the correct result.
Examples in Section 6 further show that for typical frames the differences by neglecting
such imperfections in the analysis is negligible.

8.5 In view of the above, for frames with
cr
>5 all softwares available in SEB can be used.
For frames with
cr
<5, both SPACE GASS and NIDA are pre-accepted softwares by
Buildings Department to carry out second order elastic P-- (direct) analysis. When
using NIDA, limitations and/or settings in Section 7 should be noted. PSE should
particularly note that the initial member imperfection is set on the major principal axis,
and in some cases (e.g. members subjected to pure axial load) such initial member
imperfection should be chosen to be set on the minor axis.
nd
-order Analysis.doc

References

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Brown, D. (2011), Member Imperfections, New Steel Construction, 19(8), pp.28-30
(available: www.newsteelconstruction.com; accessed: 28 August 2013).

Buildings Department (2005), Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel 2005
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Buildings Department (2011), Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel 2011
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Buildings Department (2013), Explanatory Materials to Code of Practice for the
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Davison, B. and Owens, G.W. (2012), Steel Designers' Manual (Chichester, West
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Chan, S.L. (2001), Non-Linear behaviour and design of steel structures, Journal of
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Chan, S.L. and Chan, S.T.P. (2005), Proper second-order and advanced analysis of
steel frames, Proceedings for Annual Seminar 2005, Joint Structural Division, 7 June
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Chan, S.L. and Zhou, Z.H. (1995), Second-order elastic analysis of frames using single
imperfect element per member, Journal of Structural Engineering, American Society of
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Chan, S.L. and Zhou, Z.H. (1998), On the development of a robust element for second-
order non-linear integrated design and analysis (NIDA), Journal of Constructional
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Chan, S.L. and Zhou, Z.H. (2000), Non-linear integrated design and analysis of skeletal
structures by 1 element per member, Engineering Structures, 22, pp.246-257.

nd
-order Analysis.doc

Chen, W.F. (2009), Toward Practical Advanced Analysis for Steel Frame Design,
Structural Engineering International, 19(3), pp.234-239.

Chen, W.F., Goto, Y. and Richard, J.Y. (1996), Stability Design of Semi-Rigid Frames
(New York: John Wiley & Sons).
Gardner, L. and Nethercot, D.A. (2011), Designers' Guide to Eurocode 3: Design of
Steel Buildings EN 1993-1-1, -1-3 and -1-8 (London: Thomas Telford, 2
nd
ed.).

Gorenc, B.E., Tinyou, R. and Syam, A.A. (2005), Steel Designers Handbook (Sydney,
NSW: UNSW Press, 7
th
ed.).

Ministry of Construction (2003), GB50017:2003 Load Code for Design of Steel
Structures (: ).
Rokach, A.J. (1991), Structural Steel Design (LRFD Method) (New York: McGraw-
Hill).
SCI (2007), Steelwork Design: Guide to BS 5950-1:2000, Volume 1: Section
Properties, Member Capacities (London: British Constructional Steelwork
Association, 7
th
ed).

Woolcock, S.T., Kitipornchai, S. and Bradford, M.A. (1999), Design of Portal Frame
Buildings (Milsons Point, NSW: Australian Institute of Steel Construction, 3
rd
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