Port Pavement Design Guide

3780 Kilroy Airport Way, Suite 600, Long Beach, California 90806 (562) 426-9551
DISCLAIMER

This Design Guide was prepared for the sole purpose of providing general information on the
selected subject matters. However, this Design Guide is only intended to provide general
guidance related to container terminals and intermodal rail yard operational areas, and this
information, is not intended for use for any specific project. The use of this Guide for actual
projects should only be done in conjunction with the services of a qualified engineer or
consultant to assure that specific project circumstances are taken into consideration. While all
reasonable care has been taken in the preparation of this Design Guide, Moffatt & Nichol does
not guarantee the correctness of the data or information contained within, and disclaims any
responsibility or liability in connection with its use.

Photographs and drawings of equipment used in this publication are for illustration only and do
not imply preferential endorsement of any particular manufacturer by Moffatt & Nichol and
their contributors.

CONTAINER TERMINAL AND INTERMODAL RAIL YARD
OPERATIONAL AREA CONSIDERATION FOR PAVEMENT DESIGN

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Executive Summary
Traffic disruptions and the cost associated with rehabilitating and maintaining distressed or failed
pavements in container terminals signifies the importance of optimizing pavement design
procedures within these facilities. This pavement design guide aims at providing general
concepts and instructions on the pavement design of the heavily loaded conditions encountered
in container terminals and intermodal rail facilities. The guide stresses the importance of the
coordination between the pavement designer and terminal planner; this is because the design
guidelines are greatly dependent on the loading conditions associated with the different terminal
operation schemes.

The guide starts by giving an overview of typical container terminal areas focusing on the
different operational loading conditions and their significance on the pavement design. The
different container terminal operational areas are: the wharf, the container storage yard, the
intermodal rail yard, the truck gate facility, and the buildings and automobile parking. With the
modernization of container terminals, several options became available to accomplish the
required tasks in each of these areas. The loading conditions in each sector vary with the type of
equipments used and the nature of commodities handled.

Section 2 of the guide describes the equipment configuration, motion, and usage in the terminal.
It classifies the terminal operational options according to the different equipment used within
each area. For the container yard operations, three options are presented: the use of rubber tire
gantry (RTGs), front-end loaders (FELs), or straddle carriers. The usage conditions along with
the corresponding truck motion are discussed for each of these options. Similar analyses
portraying the operation scenarios for the RTGs and FELs in the intermodal yard are presented.
Section 2 also describes the machinery loads involved in operating wheeled container yards and
gate areas. Having configured the terminal usage and operation schemes, the next step is
calculating the corresponding pavement loads.

Section 3 provides a guide for calculating the design loads and design load repetitions in a
container terminal. The pavement is subject to both dynamic loading from container handling
equipment and static loading from corner castings on containers and either dolly wheels or sand
shoes on the chassis. Different equipment types, container load distributions, tire loads, axle and
tire configurations, and repetition of loads are considered for different areas. Typical
specifications for different makers are provided for each equipment type. An analysis procedure
for determining the container weight distribution is presented. Depending on the container
terminal operational area and equipment used, typical load repetition calculations are derived.
Two approaches for computing load repetitions are discussed; the first requires converting the
various loads and repetitions to equivalent single axle loads (ESAL), and the second
characterizes the loads directly by the number of axles, configuration, and weight. Equipment
weight distribution and wheel loads are stated as seen in the British Port Association 1982 Heavy
Duty Pavement Manual. Accounting for the contact stress and wheel loads, damages to the
pavement are quantified using PAWLs (Port Area Wheel Load). Section 3 concludes by
presenting a comprehensive example to demonstrate the analysis schemes discussed in the
chapter.


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Section 4 of the manual details the process of site investigation. Proper site investigation is
essential for enabling an economic pavement design and safety and predictability during the
construction operations. Typically, site investigation is carried out by geotechnical consultants,
and it aims at determining the properties of the soils within the influence zones below the
underside of the pavement. Different options and approaches for improving the ground soil
conditions, in order to reduce the consequences of the problems experienced in port facilities, are
discussed in this section.

Section 5 discusses the influence of the subgrade on the pavement type, section and performance
for a particular type of operation. Failure to characterize the subgrade properties can result in
high maintenance costs or premature pavement failure. This section sets out the material
characteristics that affect the pavement performance, and the test methods that can be used to
determine design values. It details the classification of soils as either fine or coarse grained,
granular or cohesive soils. The section also describes the soil mass volume relationships,
different classifications, and moisture density relationships. In-situ and lab testing procedures for
determining these properties are also presented in this section.

Building on the acquired knowledge about the terminal operation and subgrade properties, it is
up to the designer to select a suitable pavement design. Three pavement designs are presented in
this guide: hot mixed asphalt (HMA), Portland cement concrete pavement (PCCP) and roller
compacted concrete pavement (RCCP). The design selection is based on the designers vision as
to how the pavement will perform. Generally, the site environmental conditions, the traffic loads
and speed, the pavement structure, and the design life/cost play a major role in determining the
performance of the pavement. Not all pavement options are suitable for all operational areas.
HMA pavement is not usually considered in areas subject to heavy wheel loads. While PCCP
(jointed or continuously reinforced) are considered applicable for most operational areas, RCCP
is best suited for large contiguous areas subject to heavy loading conditions.

Section 6 stages the details of the design, construction, and quality assurance of HMA. The HMA
design yields a flexible pavement that is both rut resistant and durable. Three major design
procedures for HMA mix design are discussed in this section: Marshall, Hveem, and Superpave.
All three procedures share common steps:

1) materials selection;
2) selection of the design aggregate structure;
3) determination of the optimal asphalt content;
4) evaluation of moisture sensitivity.

The primary difference between the three approaches is the laboratory compaction method and
the effort used in the determination of the optimal asphalt content.

The layered elastic analysis theory, Section 7, is used for the analysis of the thickness of the
HMA pavement. It is based on the fact that the stresses and strains, which develop in the
pavement and subgrade due to a wheel load application on a flexible pavement, are distributed


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according to the elastic properties of the various layers. A pavement design software, Kenlayer,
can be used to analyze the pavement sections and develop strains at critical points in the
pavement. It analyzes elastic multilayer systems under circular loads and superimposes values
for multiple loads. It also has some iterative capabilities for the analysis of nonlinear viscoelastic
layers. The section concludes by presenting a design example for flexible pavements using the
methods discussed in section 6.

Section 8 provides the design guidelines for PCCP, a system of subgrade soil, base course
material, and the surface course of Portland cement concrete. The concrete used for PCCP must
meet the combined requirements of durability under repeated heavy loads, dimensional stability
to minimize shrinkage and curling, and non-reactivity of its constituent material. Joints are
typically used in non-reinforced concrete pavements to limit warping and curling stresses which
are due to temperature and moisture gradients through the slab, prevent control cracking due to
volume changes, prevent damage to immovable structures, and facilitate construction. The
thickness of the designed pavement is based upon providing a sufficient structural capacity. The
key structural design factors include:

1) slab thickness;
2) slab concrete flexural strength;
3) foundation support (from base and subgrade);
4) wheel loads and repetition loads.

The PCCP thickness analysis, warping stress analysis, temperature reinforcement analysis, and
dowel bar analysis are demonstrated in two design examples at the end of section 8.

Section 9 provides the guidelines for the design of roller compacted concrete pavements. RCC is
a zero-slump concrete consisting of dense graded aggregates, cement and water. Because of its
low water content, it is usually placed using asphalt pavers and densified by compacting with
vibrating rollers. The design philosophy of RCC pavements is based on limiting the stresses in
the pavement to a level such that it can withstand repeated loadings of this stress magnitude
without failing in fatigue. The critical stress is the maximum tensile stress at the bottom of the
concrete slab. Several methodologies for calculating this stress are well developed and
documented in the literature. Knowing the expected traffic expressed in terms of wheel loads,
load configuration, and number of load applications expected over the design period, the
designer varies the following parameters to optimize the flexural strength of the RCC pavement:

1) modulus of subgrade reaction;
2) flexural strength of the concrete mix;
3) thickness of concrete slab.

Design examples are provided at the end of the section to demonstrate the design methodology
discussed in this section.


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Section 10 of this guide introduces the Pavement Management System (PMS). PMS is a decision
making tool that assists the engineer, budget director, and management to make cost effective-
decisions regarding maintenance and rehabilitation for a pavement network. Section 11 present
some of the PMS software packages currently used for pavement management.

The following flow chart is designed to enable the user to smoothly navigate through this design
manual.


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Determine Container
Terminal Operation:
Terminal Planner
(Section 2)
Calculate Wheel Loads
and Load Repetitions
(Section 3)
Site Investigation &
Subgrade Properties:
Geotechnical Engineer
(Sections 4 & 5)
Pavement Design, Thickness Analysis
Hot Mixed
Asphalt, HMA
(Section 6)
Layered Elastic
Analysis
(Section 7)
Portland cement
Concrete, PCC
(Section 8)

Roller Compact
Concrete
(Section 9)
Pavement Management
(Sections 10 & 11)


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1. Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 1-1
1.1 Description of the Pavement Design Guide ................................................................... 1-1
1.2 Container Terminal Operation Area............................................................................ 1-1
1.2.1 Wharf Area........................................................................................................................................................1-3
1.2.2 Container Storage Yard.................................................................................................................................1-3
1.2.3 Intermodal Rail Yard .....................................................................................................................................1-4
1.2.4 Truck Gate Facility .........................................................................................................................................1-5
1.2.5 Buildings and Automobile Parking .............................................................................................................1-5


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1. Introduction
1.1 Description of the Pavement Design Guide
Pavement is one of the most important facility in container terminals and occupies a significant amount of
the costs for container terminal constructions and maintenance. This pavement design guide, prepared for
the Port of Los Angeles (POLA), provides general concepts and instructions on pavement design but
tailored for the intensive loading conditions encountered in container terminals and intermodal rail
facilities. Detailed design examples are also included to illustrate those concepts. Targeted at a United
States audience, this guide is intended to provide a comprehensive reference of alternative design
procedures and material options available to the engineers undertaking the design of pavement for such a
facility, both inside and outside the pavement community. After coving these pavement concepts, you
should, in general, be able to:

Describe the concept of container terminal and intermodal rail yard operations;
Describe the pavement concept covered;
Describe the typical equipment, methods and procedures used for pavement design;
Implement typical pavement design analysis for container terminals;
Develop a number of appropriate solutions for economic analysis;
Apply these concepts and methods into practice;

In this pavement design guide, the following topics will be covered:

State of the art container terminal and intermodal rail pavement design;
Container terminal and intermodal rail yard operational area;
Container terminal operational options;
Typical container handling equipment and the load repetition analysis;
Site investigation to determine characteristics of subgrade materials;
Subgrade test and analysis to determine design values;
Flexible pavement design;
Layered elastic analysis and the Asphalt design example;
Rigid Pavement Design and the Portland Cement Concrete (PCC) pavement analysis examples;
Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC) pavement design;
Pavement management and Pavement Management System (PMS) software;

The rest of this chapter describes typical container terminal operational areas and the importance of
identifying these areas in the pavement design.

1.2 Container Terminal Operation Area
Pavement designer has to consider dividing the container yard area into various operational areas based
on the anticipated variety of type of traffic and wheel loads. This will allow optimizing the pavement cost
by providing appropriate pavement thickness for each operational area. Identifying the limits of each
operational area for current and future operation would require the pavement designer to work closely
with the container terminal planner.


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Container terminal complex includes wharf, container storage yard, intermodal rail yard, truck gate
facility, container handling equipment parking areas, buildings, and automobile parking areas. These
operational areas are identified on a typical container terminal layout in Figure 1-1.

Figure 1-1 - Typical Container Terminal Layout

Container facilities buildings include administration, maintenance buildings, and various service facilities.
Intermodal rail facility includes area for working tracks (loading and unloading of containers), area for
storage tracks (storing loaded or empty cars), container storage area, and some times a separate truck gate
facility. The intermodal facility operational areas are shown on Figure 1-2.

Figure 1-2 Intermodal Facility Operational Areas


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Pavement designers need to work closely with the container terminal and intermodal facility planners to
understand the startup operational areas and future possible changes within the operational areas. Since
the operational changes can be made by just changing yard striping, the pavement designer needs to
understand the possible changes and provide an appropriate pavement section that would allow changes in
mode of operation in the future.

1.2.1 Wharf Area
Wharf is where the transfer of containers from ship to shore and from shore to ship occurs. The most
common method employed in moving containers from ship to shore and shore to ship is using a container
gantry crane that handles one or two 20-foot containers or a single 40 foot container. However, some
container terminals have started to deploy container cranes that can lift four 20 foot or two 40 foot
containers. These cranes are available with different capacities, different outreach and inreach, and leg
spread. Most of the current cranes have 100 ft. leg spread.

There are several methods of moving containers from the storage area to the wharf or from the wharf to
storage area. The most common methods are chassis with yard tractors and straddle carriers. In addition
three truck traffic lanes and hatch cover storage area are required on the land side of the crane rail. Hatch
covers range in sizes from 30 to 55 feet. Typical wharf area is presented on Figure 1-3.

Figure 1-3 - Typical Wharf Area

1.2.2 Container Storage Yard
Container storage yard is where containers are stored for duration prior to leaving the terminal on ship,
rail, or truck. Transporting within the container yard are used for chassis with yard or road tractors, and
straddle carrier. In smaller terminals and as a backup top loader type of equipment can be used to
transport containers. In automated terminals containers are transported using automated guided vehicles
(AGVs) or automated lifting vehicles (ALVs).

The major equipment used for storing containers in container yard are wheeled (container on chassis),
rubber tire gantry (RTG), straddle carrier, top loader or other similar equipments, and rail mounted gantry
(RMG). Terminals may use combination of RTG and top picks to store containers.


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Most terminals have designated import, export, and empty container storage areas. In the US where the
chassis are owned by the shipping industries the container terminals have designated chassis storage areas
as well. Typical container terminal storage yard is presented on Figure 4.

Figure 1-4 - Typical Container Terminal Storage Yard

1.2.3 Intermodal Rail Yard
An intermodal rail facility is used to stage, load and unload containers to and from the ports. Double stack
trains are loaded and unloaded by standard container handling equipment. A typical intermodal facility
consists of working tracks, storage tracks, arrival and departure tracks, and a run around track. The
pavement designer needs to work with the terminal planner to identify the tracks that will be paved and all
possible affected operational modes such as: top picks, RMGs, RTGs, reach stacker. They will also need
to identify areas designated for pre-staging inbound and outbound containers. Typical container storage
yard is presented on Figure 1-5.

Figure 1-5 - Typical Container Storage Yard Intermodal Rail Yard


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1.2.4 Truck Gate Facility
Container terminal and Intermodal rail gate facilities have very similar functions. They are used to obtain
information on the incoming and outgoing container trucks for operational and security purposes. Prior to
implementation of technologies, incoming trucks would be stopped by security, followed by a transaction
process via communication pedestals, and finally a physical inspection of container and chassis by
mechanics. Some or all of the processes have been automated and/ or eliminated. However, even the most
automated gates require trucks to stop for processing.

The Pavement designer should make assumptions that the gate will be operating 7 days a week with very
limited tolerance for maintenance during its operation. The stop and go nature of the gate operation
should also be considered in selecting the pavement material as well as the over all pavement thickness. A
typical Gate facility is presented on Figure 1-6.

Figure 1-6 Typical Gate Facility
Most of the container handling equipment is located near the maintenance and repair facility areas. The
current and future types of equipments that would be stored in this area should be identified prior to
designing the pavement system.

1.2.5 Buildings and Automobile Parking
Typical container terminals and Intermodal rail require administration buildings, maintenance and repair
facilities and other operational buildings that have designated employee and visitors parking areas. Prior
to development of pavement sections pavement designer should work closely with the terminal planner in
identifying current and possible future use of these areas.

The following chapters will discuss: operational options, pavement subgrade, flexible and ridge
pavements, and pavement management.


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2. Container Terminal Operational Options ................................................................................. 1
2.1 Grounded Container Yard Operations with RTGs .......................................................... 1
2.1.1 Equipment Motions ............................................................................................................................................1
2.1.2 Container Truck Motions .................................................................................................................................2
2.1.3 Usage.......................................................................................................................................................................3
2.2 Grounded Container Yard Operations with Front-End Loaders..................................... 4
2.2.1 Machine Configuration.....................................................................................................................................4
2.2.3 Truck Motions .....................................................................................................................................................7
2.2.4 Usage.......................................................................................................................................................................8
2.3 Grounded Container Yard Operations with Straddle Carriers ........................................ 9
2.3.1 Machine Configuration.....................................................................................................................................9
2.3.3 Strad-Truck Interchange................................................................................................................................11
2.3.4 Usage.....................................................................................................................................................................12
2.4 Intermodal Yard Operations with RTGs or Travelifts................................................... 13
2.4.1 Machine Configuration...................................................................................................................................13
2.4.2 Equipment Motions ..........................................................................................................................................13
2.4.3 Truck Motions ...................................................................................................................................................14
2.4.4 Usage.....................................................................................................................................................................14
2.5 Intermodal Yard Operations with Front-End Loaders .................................................. 14
2.5.2 Equipment Motions ..........................................................................................................................................15
2.5.3 Truck Motions ...................................................................................................................................................15
2.5.4 Usage.....................................................................................................................................................................16
2.6 Wheeled Container Yard Operations............................................................................. 16
2.6.2 Truck Motions ...................................................................................................................................................18
2.6.3 Usage.....................................................................................................................................................................18
2.7 Gate Areas with Highway Tractors and Chassis ............................................................ 19
2.7.1 Configuration.....................................................................................................................................................19
2.7.2 Usage.....................................................................................................................................................................19


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2. Container Terminal Operational Options
This section describes typical operational options in the modern container terminals.

2.1 Grounded Container Yard Operations with RTGs
Figure 2.1 shows a typical modern rubber-tired gantry crane in container yard operations.

Figure 2-1 Rubber-Tired Gantry Crane in Container Yard Operations
Deltaport, Vancouver, British Columbia

The typical modern RTG spans a space that includes six container stacks and a truck travel lane, and has a
gage of about 77 feet. Other widths are common. RTG height is expressed in terms of the maximum
effective stack height, plus the pass-over space. The machine in Figure 2-1 has a one-over-four
configuration. Other heights, up to one-over-six, are common.

The most common machine has eight wheels, such as that shown in Figure 2-1. Some older machines
have four wheels, one wheel on each leg. A few machines have sixteen wheels, in eight dual-wheel
trucks. Each truck can be rotated 90.

2.1.1 Equipment Motions
The following equipment motions are defined:
Hoist: Vertical motion with the main hoist drive.
Trolley: Horizontal motion perpendicular to the gantry runway, with the trolley drive.
Gantry: Horizontal motion parallel to the gantry runway, with the gantry drive.


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Virtually all container handling is done with only the hoist and trolley motions. Gantrying with a
container is not generally done, because unequal weight distribution makes precise steering difficult.

Gantry motion perpendicular to the runways is possible in dedicated areas. There are three ways to
traverse an RTG perpendicular to its runway:
Spin Trucks: Spin all trucks 90, traverse to a new position, and spin trucks back to their original
position.
Turn Around Truck: Spin all trucks but one, so that their rotation axes pass through the static truck. Turn
the entire RTG 90 about the static truck, spin the trucks back, traverse, and repeat.
Turn Around Center: Spin all trucks, so that their rotation axes pass through the RTG center-point. Turn
the entire RTG 90 about the center-point, spin the trucks back, traverse, and repeat.
All three of these motions generate high friction loads on the pavement, and are frequently done at
embedded metal plates. The Spin Trucks method is the most common.

2.1.2 Container Truck Motions
Container trucks commonly traverse the entire length of the RTG block in a single lane, with a bare
chassis part of the way, and a loaded chassis the rest of the way. In many terminals, adjacent RTG blocks
are laid out to create some weaving and bypass room for trucks, as shown in Figure 2-2 and Figure 2-3.

Runway
Runway
Runway
Runway
Stacks
Access Lane
Bypass Lane
RTG
Truck

Figure 2-2 Truck Access and Bypass Lanes for RTGs
RTGs in Same Orientation


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Runway
Runway
Runway
Stacks
Access Lane
Access Lane
RTG
Truck Bypass Lane

Figure 2-3 Truck Access and Bypass Lanes for RTGs
RTGs in Opposing Orientation with Shared Bypass
Where weaving and bypass lanes are available, trucks will generally use them only if the access lane is
obstructed downstream.

2.1.3 Usage
RTGs are used in conditions requiring high storage density and frequent container re-handling between
adjacent stacks. The need to re-handle means that some empty slots will always be needed.

Figure 2-4 depicts the empty spaces required to accommodate re-handling containers. The container in
the white slot labeled T is the target for retrieval. The containers in the grey slots labeled 1, 2, etc.,
need to be moved to the corresponding white slots, which need to be left empty. This reduces the
effective stacking height.


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RTG 6 Wide, 1+6 High
5.2 Effective Height
RTG 6 Wide, 1+4 High
T
5
4
3
2
1 5 4 3 2 1
T
3
2
1 3 2 1

Figure 2-4 Container Rehandling Space for RTGs

A typical work sequence for an RTG retrieval operation would be as follows:

Truck arrives adjacent to target storage location with a bare chassis.
RTG is assigned, and gantries to trucks location.
RTG re-handles obstructing containers to other stacks without gantrying.
RTG retrieves target container, and sets it on the truck chassis.
Truck departs with loaded chassis.

Export loads are typically arranged to mimic the ultimate ship stowage pattern. In many RTG terminals,
a single set of adjacent export stacks would have a single common ship-stowage designation. Import
loads are typically arranged in the order they are retrieved from the ship, since the order of delivery to the
gate is unknowable. These patterns minimize the number of gantry moves required during ship
operations, but maximize the number of gantry moves required during gate operations.

The need to keep open slots for re-handling, along with the tendency to sort containers within RTG
blocks, tends to limit overall RTG space utilization. When calculating annual truck trips through RTG
operating areas, this reduced utilization needs to be taken into account.

2.2 Grounded Container Yard Operations with Front-End Loaders
2.2.1 Machine Configuration
Front-end loader (FEL) is a generic term for a broad class of equipment. All types of FEL pick up a
container in a position cantilevered outside and in front of the machines wheelbase. FELs come in three
common configurations:


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Top-Pick (TP): The spreader is mounted on a vertical mast. The container is picked up by its four top
corner castings. The machine is used for both loads and empties. Top-picks frequently have a forklift
attachment that allows picking up loaded 20-foot containers by their bottom forklift slots.
Side-Pick (SP): The spreader is mounted on a vertical mast. The container is picked by the two top
corner castings closest to the FEL. The machine is used for empties only.
Reach-Stacker (RS): The spreader is mounted on a hydraulically-lifted, extensible boom. The container
is picked up by its four top corner castings. The machine is used for both loads and empties, and can
handle containers at some distance from the machine.
Figure 2-5 shows a typical top-pick. Figure 2-6 shows a typical side-pick. Figure 2-7 shows a typical
reach-stacker.

Figure 2-5 Typical Top-Pick FEL with Spreader at 20'


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Figure 2-6 Typical Side -Pick FEL Serving 7-High Stack

Figure 2-7 Typical Reach-Stacker FEL with Spreader at 20'

All FELs having rotating rear trucks and are fairly maneuverable. The following motions are defined:
Hoist: Vertical motion along the mast on TPs and SPs, or vertical motion of the boom on RSs


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Extend: Extension of the boom on RSs.
Travel: Straight-line motion of the FEL.
Turn: Spinning of the rear truck, and rotation about one of the front trucks.
Most container handling is done without turning, simply traveling forward and backward perpendicular to
a storage stack.

TPs and SPs can only access the top-most container in the outer-most stack in any container block. If re-
handling is required, the obstructing container must be moved to an adjacent block. This requires the
FEL to do the following:

Load re-handled container
Back up
Turn
Traverse to the next block
Turn
Align to the block
Set the re-handled container
Back up
Turn
Traverse to the original block
Turn
Align to the block
Load target container

Reach stackers have some ability to re-handle containers into the stack second from the front, but re-
handling is usually done the same as for TPs and SPs.

This sequence takes quite a bit of time, and so most FELs are restricted to operations involving simple
fore-and-aft motions.

2.2.3 Truck Motions
Trucks commonly traverse the entire length of the FEL block in a single lane, with a bare chassis part of
the way, and a loaded chassis the rest of the way. The gap between adjacent FEL storage blocks is fairly
large, frequently 65 or more, so there is usually room for maneuvering. However, simultaneous access
of both adjacent FEL blocks can reduce this flexibility. Figure 2-8 shows a common FEL and truck
traffic configuration.


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Access Lane
Access Lane
FEL
FEL Tire Path
Truck

Figure 2-8 Truck Access for FELs Working Adjacent Blocks
Note the intersection of the FEL and truck tire paths in Figure 2-8. This area is subject to numerous
repetitions, since the FEL must retreat each time to clear the truck access lane, then advance all the way to
the face of the container stack.

In grounded CY operations, the stacks are in fixed locations, and so the FEL tire wear patch does not vary
over time.

2.2.4 Usage
FELs are used in conditions requiring high storage density, in which container re-handling is expected to
be rare or non-existent. The long cycle time for re-handling between blocks makes re-handling very
expensive and unproductive.
A typical work sequence for an FEL retrieval operation is as follows:

Truck arrives, and stops short of the FEL travel path.
FEL arrives, aligns to the block, and advances across the truck access lane to the face of the
block.
FEL picks the container, and retreats to clear the truck access lane.
Truck advances, aligning to the FEL.
FEL advances, and sets the container on the truck.
FEL retreats or hoists to clear the truck.
Truck departs.

A typical work sequence for an FEL storage operation is as follows:

Truck arrives, and aligns to the stack.
FEL arrives, and aligns to the truck.
FEL advances, and picks the container from the truck.


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FEL retreats or hoists to clear the truck.
Truck departs.
FEL advances across the truck access lane to the face of the block.
FEL sets the container atop the stack.
FEL retreats to clear the truck access lane.

TPs are commonly used to handle pre-sorted export loads. RSs are less-commonly used. SPs are
commonly used to handle empties. FELs are almost never used to handle import loads, because the
randomness of retrieval order generates a high re-handle incidence. In facilities where FELs are used to
handle imports the stack height and width is kept at two or less containers.

As with RTGs, export loads are sorted in FEL blocks according to ship stowage designations. During
ship load-out operations, all of the containers in a block will be considered logically interchangeable, so
that the FEL can always work the most accessible container and avoid re-handling.

Empties in FEL blocks are sorted according to their physical type and ownership. During delivery of
empties to the ship or a trucker, all of the containers in a block will be considered logically
interchangeable, minimizing the need for re-handles. Some physical types, e.g., dry 40-foot standard
cubes are quite common, and generate large, full blocks. Some physical types or ownership categories
are rare, and generate poorly utilized blocks.

The need to avoid re-handling in FEL blocks places a practical limit on the utilization of these areas.
Utilization will vary from terminal to terminal, based on local commercial patterns. These utilization
patterns need to be considered when calculating annual FEL and truck trips.

2.3 Grounded Container Yard Operations with Straddle Carriers
Figure 2-9 shows a typical modern straddle carrier.

Straddle carriers (strads) combine the ability to stack and transport containers over long distances. Most
straddle carriers are eight-wheeled machines, with the steering of the wheels coordinated to generate a
tight turning radius. Most strads are built for one-over-two operations. Some terminals are now using
one-over-three straddle carriers. One high strads are also available as transporters only.

Straddle carriers can drive equally well, forward or backward. The operators cab is at the top, at one
end. The driver is typically on a swivel chair, and can orient to see either direction of travel. However,
many drivers prefer to drive longer distances with the cab forwards, because visibility and safety are
improved. Many terminals have operating rules that dictate this behavior.


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Figure 2-9 Typical Straddle Carrier, One -Over-Two
The hoist and spreader move vertically, with some limited ability to adjust spreader position for fine
alignment to stacks.

Long-distance travel is supposed to be done with the container in the lowered position, so that stability is
increased. There is usually a transition between long-distance travel over the open roadway and motion
over container stacks. During this transition, the spreader is raised and the strad slows down to ensure
proper alignment.

There is limited clearance between stacked containers and the inner face of the drive equipment. Travel
speed over stacks is reduced, and the driver must take some care to avoid striking the stacked containers.
It has been found that when traversing long strad stacks, the drivers attention may wander, increasing the
probability of collision. Any irregularities in the pavement may cause the strad to wander, further
increasing the probability of collision. To minimize collision probability, the length of strad stacks is
generally limited to twelve or fourteen 20-foot slots.

Figure 2-10 shows a typical stack configuration in a straddle carrier storage area. It is important to note
that adjacent blocks of containers share strad tire paths, so that strads may not pass one another in
adjacent blocks. This is done to maximize storage density. It affects the number of tire passes over any
one tire path.


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Stacks Strad Tire Paths

Figure 2-10 Typical Strad Stack Configuration
Storage run positions are painted onto the pavement, and do not vary much with time. The strad tire wear
paths can stay in one place for years, concentrating load repetitions in fairly tight bands.

2.3.3 Strad-Truck Interchange
Strad-based terminals have an interchange area where trucks and straddle carriers can exchange
containers. This area is generally laid out for maximum safety and visibility, because of the hazards
inherent to the operation. The layout of this area will vary considerably between terminals, depending on
local safety practices, truck-driver skill, and strad-driver skill.

Figure 2-11 shows the interchange area at Portsmouth Marine Terminal in Virginia.

Figure 2-11 Strad/Truck Interchange Area
Portsmouth Marine Terminal, Virginia
Figure 2-12 shows the layout of a typical strad/truck interchange area. The layout of the area allows
strads to simultaneously serve adjacent trucks. The tire paths between adjacent interchange slots are not


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shared. Depending on local safety rules, trucks may either be backing into the interchange slot, or driving
forward into it from inside the strad work zone. Herringbone configurations are also common.

Strad
Truck
Interchange
Slot
Driver
Zone
Tire Paths

Figure 2-12 Strad/Truck Interchange Area
2.3.4 Usage
Strads are used in conditions requiring moderate storage density and high productivity. Strads are capable
of effective re-handling. Figure 2-13 shows the empty spaces required to accommodate re-handling of
containers in 1-over-3 and 1-over-2 configurations. Terminal operators typically want to limit the
distance a strad driver needs to move to find an open slot for a rehandled box. This requires that a certain
number of slots be kept clear, reducing the effective stacking height.

1 1
Strad 1+2 High
Target
Target
2
Strad 1+3 High
1 2 1

Figure 2-13 Container Rehandling Space for Strads
Strads are used for both loaded and empty container operations, although many terminal operators prefer
to keep the bulk of their empty containers in side-pick configurations for higher density.

Each container storage or retrieval operation typically requires that the strad traverse the entire length of
the storage run.


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Export loads are typically sorted in runs corresponding to ship stowage patterns, so re-handles are
relatively rare. Re-handling is more common in import load areas, and the additional strad motions up
and down the run need to be considered in calculating load repetitions.

2.4 Intermodal Yard Operations with RTGs or Travelifts
Figure 2-14 shows an RTG serving an intermodal double-stack rail car.

Figure 2-14 RTGs Serving Intermodal Doublestack Car

The configuration of the machine is similar to that used in grounded container yard operations. One
common difference is the presence of a stabilizer system that restricts the side-sway of the spreader. This
stabilizer system is critical in the handling of trailers, as it allows the rapid attachment of trailer kingpins
to support stanchions on piggyback cars. Stabilizer systems are more common in inland intermodal
yards, where domestic trailer operations are more common. Maritime intermodal yards frequently use
standard, non-stabilized, wire-rope RTGs.

The motions of the RTG are similar to those described in Section 2-1.1 for grounded container yard
operations using RTGs.


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2.4.3 Truck Motions
Trucks commonly traverse the length of the RTG run along bypass lanes, because of the great length of
many of the rail car cuts. See Figure 2-15 below. The trucks weave into the loading access lane just
upstream of the target location, and weave back to the bypass lane when they are clear of the RTG.

2.4.4 Usage
Figure 2-15 shows one common layout for high-density intermodal working tracks, using RTGs. There
are many variations on this theme, based on the dimensions of the RTGs, the nature of the truck and rail
traffic, and the configuration of the site.

Runway
Runway
Runway
Runway
Access Lane
Access Lane
Bypass
Bypass
RTG Rail Car
Truck
Tracks
Tracks

Figure 2-15 Typical RTG Intermodal Rail Layout

The amount of gantrying by the RTGs is much less than in grounded container yard operations, because
the RTGs are generally working in a systematic way from one end of the track to the other. There are, of
course variations between terminals, but most RTG assignments are pretty well-organized.

The utilization of double-stack rail equipment is fairly high, so it is reasonable to assume, for the purposes
of traffic counts, that cars arrive loaded and depart loaded.

2.5 Intermodal Yard Operations with Front-End Loaders
Figure 2-16 shows an FEL working an intermodal double-stack car.


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Figure 2-16 Front End Loader Serving Intermodal Car

Top-picks and reach-stackers are commonly used on intermodal operations. Side-picks are not commonly
used.

Reach-stackers have the advantage of being able to reach a second track, by extending the boom. This is
particularly useful in serving tracks set against a terminal boundary.
FELs are capable of serving curved working tracks, while RTGs are not.

The motions of FELs in serving rail cars are similar to those described in Section 2.2.2 for ground
container yard operations. The FEL typically moves fore and aft, turning frequently to move from car to
car. The area of pavement immediately adjacent to the track sees a great deal of traffic, as depicted in
Figure 2-17.

In grounded CY operations, the stacks are in fixed locations, and so the FEL tire wear patch does not vary
over time. In intermodal operations, the alignment of cars is not constant, as each train has different
mixture of car and platform lengths and positions. The tire wear patch shifts constantly, spreading the
repetitions over a much greater area.

2.5.3 Truck Motions
Trucks generally traverse the length of the working track segment along the access lane, as shown in
Figure 2-17. The access lane thus sees the combined traffic of trucks running parallel to the track, and
FELs moving back and forth perpendicular to the tracks.


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2.5.4 Usage
Figure 2-17 shows one common layout for high-density intermodal working tracks, using top-picks.
There are many variations on this theme, based on the nature of the truck and rail traffic, and the
configuration of the site. Note the differing car alignments, and their impact on the location of FEL tire
wear paths.

Track
Track
Track
Track
Access Lane
Access Lane
Access Lane
Access Lane
FEL
FEL Tire Path
Truck
Rail Car

Figure 2-17 FEL and Truck Access for Inermodal Operations

2.6 Wheeled Container Yard Operations
Figure 2-18 shows a typical wheeled storage row.

Figure 2-18 Typical Wheeled Storage Row


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In wheeled container storage, containers are mounted and parked on street-capable chassis. While
parked, the chassis are sitting on their landing legs, which can be retracted for travel. The pads on the
landing legs generate a high ground pressure, frequently causing local pavement damage.

Street chassis have twist locks at each corner to secure the container for road travel. Chassis for 40
containers are just over 40 long. They have a gooseneck which mates to a well built into the underside
of the standard container. Chassis for 20 containers are generally 28 or longer, to avoid exceeding
highway axle load limits.

Containers may also be mounted on dedicated terminal chassis, known as bomb carts. Bomb carts are
not generally street-legal, because they are wider than 8 feet. They are equipped with flare guides at each
corner, making container mounting faster and easier. Bomb carts are typically 40 or 45 long, and can
hold two 20 containers with a total rated load of 48 long tons. Figure 2-19 shows the rear flare guides on
a typical bomb cart.

Figure 2-19 Rear Flare Guides on a Bomb Cart

A mixture of in-terminal tractors, and off-terminal, or street, trucks typically accesses wheeled
container storage. The configuration of street trucks varies considerably. Terminal tractors are much
more uniform, and differ from street trucks in a number of ways:

Shorter wheel base
Hydraulically-liftable fifth wheel
Tighter turning radius
Single rear axle

The hydraulic-lift wheel on terminal tractors allows them to back under a parked chassis, pick the chassis
up off its landing legs using the fifth wheel, hook up the brakes and electrics, and drive away. The


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terminal tractor can park chassis just as quickly. The act of lowering the chassis using the fifth wheel
increases the impact load under the landing leg pads, exacerbating pavement damage.
A typical terminal tractor is shown in Figure 2-20.

Figure 2-20 Typical Terminal Tractor
2.6.2 Truck Motions
Removing a chassis from storage is a fairly simple truck motion.
Placing a chassis into storage generally requires some maneuvering, especially for street tractors. Parking
slots are typically ten feet wide, and long-wheelbase tractors have some difficulty backing a 40-foot
chassis gracefully into this width.

The access aisles running between rows of parked containers frequently double as general traffic
circulation roads for the terminal. As such, the number of truck repetitions is not directly related to just
the storage and retrieval operations within a row. Truck repetitions within a row will depend on the
overall traffic layout of the terminal. If the terminal is amply supplied with dedicated arterial circulation
roads, traffic will be diminished in the storage rows.

2.6.3 Usage
Wheeled storage is used where low storage density is acceptable, and high container accessibility is
required. Wheeled storage is used for import and export loads, and for empties. Wheeled storage is
commonly used for reefer containers, since plugging, unplugging, and servicing reefers is easier when
they are mounted and accessible.

Peak storage utilization is typically very high, because re-handling is not required in any circumstance.
When utilization is high, drivers may have to search a bit to find an empty slot to park a chassis in. This
increases driving time, and increases the number of pavement load repetitions.

When wheeled storage is in use, bare chassis can make up a considerable portion of the total storage
demand. At times, the high population of bare chassis mandates that their storage be densified. Figure
2-21 shows a typical high-density storage area for bare chassis. Note these chaises are stacked to save
yard spaces.


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Figure 2-21 High Density Bare Chassis Storage

2.7 Gate Areas with Highway Tractors and Chassis
2.7.1 Configuration
There are many different configurations in use for gate complexes. In general, however, they have in
common a number of basic components:
Queuing Lanes: In-stream queuing space for trucks waiting for processing.
Remote Processing Stations: Locations where the truck driver can interact with terminal staff through
telecommunications equipment, without leaving the truck cab.
Scales: Weigh scales.
Inspection Stations: Locations where the truck is visually inspected, and paperwork is exchanged.
Holding Areas: Locations where trucks are parked awaiting resolution of problem transactions, or are
otherwise out of the main gate traffic stream.
Only street tractors pass through terminal gates, and only with street-legal chassis. Neither terminal
tractors nor bomb carts are suitable for open-road use, and they are generally not registered as such. The
configuration of street trucks varies widely, based on local commercial conditions.

A typical gate can process about 20 to 25 trucks per hour, per lane. The number of gate lanes is
established through queuing analysis based on the exact nature of the gate process.

2.7.2 Usage
A typical truck process through a gate requires many stops and starts, within queuing areas, at processing
and inspection stations, at stop-lines established to protect pedestrians, and around holding areas.

Gate traffic tends to be concentrated at the interfaces between the gate and road, and gate and container
yard. Within the gate, truck traffic is diffused across many processing lanes, spreading the repetition load
out to a considerable degree.


JN: 5552-06
3. Typical Container Handling Equipment Wheel Load Calculation........................................ 3-1
3.1 Container Handling Tires and Pressures ...................................................................... 3-1
3.2 Yard Equipment........................................................................................................... 3-2
3.2.1 RTGs ..................................................................................................................................................................3-2
3.2.2 Straddle Carriers .............................................................................................................................................3-3
3.2.3 Top Picks............................................................................................................................................................3-3
3.2.4 Side Picks............................................................................................................................................................3-4
3.2.5 Reach Stackers..................................................................................................................................................3-5
3.2.6 Yard Hustlers....................................................................................................................................................3-6
3.3 Container Distribution.................................................................................................. 3-6
3.4 Static Loads .................................................................................................................. 3-8
3.5 Typical Load Repetition Analysis for Container Terminals and Intermodal Facilities . 3-8
3.5.1 Entrance Gate ...................................................................................................................................................3-9
3.5.2 Wheeled Storage Area ....................................................................................................................................3-9
3.5.3 Side/Top Pick and Truck Operations ...................................................................................................... 3-10
3.5.4 RTG and Truck Operation........................................................................................................................ 3-11
3.6 Equipment Weight Distribution and Wheel Loads ......................................................3-14
3.6.1 RTG.................................................................................................................................................................. 3-14
3.6.2 Side or Top Pick ............................................................................................................................................ 3-15
3.6.3 Yard Trucks ................................................................................................................................................... 3-17
3.7 Pavement Damage .......................................................................................................3-18
3.7.1 Damage ............................................................................................................................................................ 3-18
3.7.2 Proportional Damaging Effect.................................................................................................................. 3-19
3.7.3 Average Damage............................................................................................................................................ 3-19
3.7.4 Critical Damage............................................................................................................................................. 3-19
3.7.5 Total Damage of a Plant and Wheel Proximity Factors..................................................................... 3-20
3.8 Equivalent Load Repetitions ........................................................................................3-21
3.8.1 RTG.................................................................................................................................................................. 3-21
3.8.2 Yard Trucks ................................................................................................................................................... 3-21
3.8.3 Side and Top Picks........................................................................................................................................ 3-22
3.9 A Comprehensive Wheel Load Calculation Example ...................................................3-22
3.9.1 Key Notations ................................................................................................................................................. 3-23
3.9.2 RTG Operation RTG Repetitions ......................................................................................................... 3-23
3.9.3 RTG Operation Truck Repetitions ....................................................................................................... 3-24
3.9.4 Side/Top Pick Repetitions ........................................................................................................................... 3-24
3.9.5 Damage Top Pick....................................................................................................................................... 3-25
3.9.6 Damage RTG ............................................................................................................................................... 3-31
3.9.7 Design Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 3-33


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3. Typical Container Handling Equipment Wheel Load Calculation
One important function of the pavement on the container handling equipment runways is to distribute
repetitive load into earth structures. Therefore, calculation of design load and design load repetitions
(Load Repetition: Number of time that an area undertaking a certain amount of load.) plays an important
role in the pavement design. This section provides a guide on calculation of design load and design load
repetitions in a container terminal. Different equipment types, container load distribution, tire load, axle
and tire configuration, and repetitions of loads are considered for different areas such as RTG runways
and top pick operation area. At the end of the section, a comprehensive example is presented to illustrate
the described concepts and methods.

3.1 Container Handling Tires and Pressures
Container handling equipment, including FELs, RTGs, strads, hustlers with bomb carts, hustlers with
chassis, and street legal trucks with chassis, is typically used in container terminals and intermodal rail
facilities. Table 3-1 lists typical tire pressures for different makers and different tire sizes of container
handling equipment.

Table 3-1. Typical Tire Pressures
Tire Pressures
Maker Size psi. bars
Goodyear 11R22.5 144 9.9
Nokian 14.00-24 161 11.1
Goodyear 14.00-24 144 9.9
Kalmar spec. 14.00-24 138 9.5
AVE 14.00-24 148 10.2
Goodyear 16.00-25 152 10.5
Nokian 16.00-25 131 9.0
Nokian 16.00-25 170 11.7
Kalmar spec. 16.00-25 116 8.0
AVE 16.00-25 142 9.8
Goodyear 18.00-25 131 9.0
Goodyear 18.00-25 167 11.5
Paceco spec. 18.00-25 139 9.6
Nokian 18.00-25 165 11.4
Kalmar spec. 18.00-25 131 9.0
AVE 18.00-25 147 10.1
Nokian 18.00-33 145 10.0
Goodyear 18.00-33 144 9.9
AVE 18.00-33 145 10.0
Goodyear 21.00-25 112 7.7
Kalmar spec. 21.00-25 116 8.0
AVE 21.00-25 114 7.9

Other manufacturers:
Michelin
General Tire


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3.2 Yard Equipment
This section presents various yard equipments, such as RTGs, straddle carriers, top picks, side picks,
reach stackers, and yard hustlers. Pictures, typical dimensions, and typical specifications for different
makers are provided for each equipment type.

3.2.1 RTGs

Figure 3-1 A typical RTG

Kalmar 402315-2045C
16 wheels, 5+1 lift, 40.6t max lift, 125.6t dead weight, 16.00-25 tires.

PACECO PTD 200503

Noel (Gottwald)
PMC
Taylor
Fantuzzi


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3.2.2 Straddle Carriers

Figure 3-2 A typical Straddle Carrier

Kalmar CSC
8 wheels, 4 container stack capacity, 50t max lift, 74.95t dead weight, 16.00-25 tires.
Kalmar Shuttle Carrier
4 wheels, 2 container stack capacity, 50t max lift, 45t dead weight, 18.00-33 tires.
Other manufactures:
Belotti
Nelcon
Noel (Gottwald)
MHI

3.2.3 Top Picks

Figure 3-3 A typical Top Pick


3-4
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Kalmar DCF450CSG
6 Wheels, 5 container stack capacity, 100,000 lbs. max container weight, 165,000 lbs. dead
weight, 18.00x33 tires.
Kalmar DCF410CSG
6 wheels, 5 container stack capacity, 90,000 lbs. max container weight, 154,000 lbs. dead weight,
18.00x33 tires.
Taylor 954
6 wheels, 4 container stack capacity, 95,000 lbs. max container weight, 157,800 lbs. dead weight,
18.00x25 tires.

Hyster
Fantuzzi

3.2.4 Side Picks

Figure 3-4 A typical Side Pick
Kalmar DCE80-45 E8
6 wheels, 7/8 (9.5/8.5 containers) container stack capacity, 17,600 lbs. max lift, 81,600 lbs. dead
Kalmar DCE100-45 E8
6 wheels, 7/8 (9.5/8.5 containers) container stack capacity, 25,400 lbs. max lift, 92,400 lbs. dead
Kalmar DCD70-40 E5
6 wheels, 5 container stack capacity, 15,400 lbs. max lift, 68,100 lbs. dead weight, 12.00x20 tires.
Taylor
Hyster
Fantuzzi
SMV


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3.2.5 Reach Stackers

Figure 3-5 A typical Reach Stacker
Kalmar DRF4000C-450C
6 wheels, 5-4-3 (9.5) 5-5-4 (8.5) stacking capacity, 99,200 max lift, 194,000 dead weight,
18.00x25 tires.
Kalmar DRS4527-4531
18.00x25 tires.
Kalmar DRD450-80S
21.00x35 tires.

Taylor
Hyster
Fantuzzi
SMV


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3.2.6 Yard Hustlers

Figure 3-6 A typical Yard Hustlers

Ottawa 50
6 wheels, 63,300 maximum capacity, 14,500 dead weight, 11R22.5 tires
Ottawa DOT/EPA 60
Kalmar YT-50

Other manufactures
Magnum
Capacity of Texas

3.3 Container Distribution
Heaviest load will cause most damage but may only make up less than one percent of the containers
transported. Therefore, to accurately analyze heavily loaded port pavements it is important to understand
the weights of cargoes that will be handled. Such container distribution will be used to calculate
proportional damage effect, as seen in section 3.7.2.

Typical container weights range from approximately 10,000 to 67,000 pounds. Containers over 67,000
pounds are within a very small percentage and generally overweight for highway transport. A vessel
discharge report summarizing all containers sizes and weights discharged and loaded during a vessel call
in representative month can be obtained from a container terminal operator. A simplified tabulation of
the combined import/export container distribution for a container terminal in the northwest is shown in
Table 3-2 below. Figure 3-7 shows the comparison between measured and assumed container
distributions. It should be noted that container weight distributions are highly sensitive to changes in the
types of commodities handled. Therefore, the pavement designer should work closely with terminal
planners to understand possible changes to commodities types in the region.


3-7
JN: 5552-06
Table 3-2. Container Weight Distribution

0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
0
-
1
0
,0
0
0
1
0
,0
0
1

-

2
5
,0
0
0
2
5
,0
0
1

-

3
5
,0
0
0
3
5
,0
0
1

-

4
0
,0
0
0
4
0
,0
0
1

-

4
5
,0
0
0
4
5
,0
0
1

-

5
0
,0
0
0
5
0
,0
0
1

-

5
5
,0
0
0
5
5
,0
0
1

-

6
0
,0
0
0
6
0
,0
0
1

-

6
5
,0
0
0
6
5
,0
0
1

-

7
0
,0
0
0
7
2
,5
0
1

-

1
0
0
,0
0
0
Container Weight (pounds)
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

o
f

I
n
v
e
n
t
o
r
y
Measured Vessel Distribution Assumed Yard Distribution

Figure 3-7 Measured vs. Assumed Container Distribution
Using the assumed container distribution discussed above, container handling equipment wheel loads, tire
contact pressure, and tire contact radius (Typical pavement design generally assumes the tire loads is
uniformly distributed over a circular area.) for each load increment can be tabulated. A typical table for
straddle carrier is shown in Table 3-3. Empty container handler wheel loads, with and without an empty
refrigerated container are shown in Table 3-4.

Container Weight
Range
(pounds)
Container Weight
(pounds)
Container Weight
Distribution
0 10,000 10,000 (empty box) 25%
10,001 25,000 25,000 17%
25,001 35,000 35,000 12%
35,001 40,000 40,000 7%
40,001 45,000 45,000 8%
45,001 50,000 50,000 8%
50,001 55,000 55,000 8%
55,001 60,000 60,000 7%
60,001 65,000 65,000 6%
65,001 70,000 70,000 1%
72,501 100,000 100,000 1%


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JN: 5552-06
Table 3-3. Kalmar CSC-350 Straddle Carrier Wheel Loads
Container Weight
(pounds)
Single Wheel Load
(pounds)
Tire Contact Radius
(inches)
Tire Contact Pressure
(psi)
0 17,088 6.12 145
10,000 18,338 6.34 145
25,000 20,213 6.66 145
35,000 21,463 6.86 145
40,000 22,088 6.96 145
45,000 22,713 7.06 145
50,000 23,338 7.16 145
55,000 23,963 7.25 145
60,000 24,588 7.35 145
65,000 25,213 7.44 145
70,000 25,838 7.53 145
100,000 29,588 8.06 145

Table 3-4. Taylor TEC-155H Wheel Loads With or Without An Empty Container
Container
Weight
(pounds)
Front Axle
Dual Wheel
Load
(pounds)
Front Axle
Single Tire
Contact
Radius
(inches)
Front
Tire
Contact
Pressure
(psi)
Rear Axle
Single
Wheel Load
(pounds)
Rear Axle
Single Tire
Contact
Radius
(inches)
Rear
Tire
Contact
Pressure
(psi)
0 22,000 5.40 120 11,900 6.15 100
11,000 31,167 6.43 120 8,233 5.12 100

3.4 Static Loads
In addition to dynamic loading from container handling equipment, port pavements are typically
subjected to static loading from corner castings on containers and either dolly wheels or sand shoes on
chassis. Corner castings measure 7-inches by 6 3/8-inches and project approximately -inch below the
container base. While containers may be stacked in a block arrangement up to four high, it is unlikely
that all containers in the stack will be fully loaded. Two high container stacks exert an average load of
approximately 120,950 pounds and a contact stress of 677 pounds per square inch. Chassis dolly wheels
are typically 4-inches wide by 9-inches diameter. The contact area of each wheel is approximately
-inch by 4-inches and generates a stress of 5,600 psi. Sand shoes are typically 6-inches by 9-inches and
exert a contact stress of 280 psi.

3.5 Typical Load Repetition Analysis for Container Terminals and Intermodal Facilities
Different areas in container terminals may have different equipment and subject to different load
repetitions. This section presents formulas of typical load repetition calculation for different areas in a
container terminal.

Areas of the yard that can be converted to other use, such as the conversion of wheeled parking to side-
pick empty storage or top-pick storage to RTG storage, need to be designed for more severe loading


3-9
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condition. In order to achieve the maximum flexibility, some terminals use a uniform design for the
majority of the pavement.

Typically, there are two approaches to compute load repetitions of vehicles. One approach is to convert
various loads and repetitions to an equivalent number of standard or equivalent loads. This is called
ESAL (Equivalent Single Axle Loads) approach. The most common equivalent loads used in the U.S. is
the 80 kN (18,000 lbs). Another more complex but more accurate approach characterizes loads directly by
number of axles, configuration and weight. No conversion to ESAL is involved. In the following sections,
both approaches are discussed.

3.5.1 Entrance Gate
Obtain the estimated throughput capacity per year for the terminal in Twenty Equivalent Units (TEUs)
and a conversion factor from lifts to TEUs from terminal planners. Also obtain the assumed percentage
(%) of the total throughput going through the gate (D
T
). If there is no on-dock rail intermodal facility the
100% of the throughput would go through the gate. Use the following equation to compute Equivalent
Single Axle Loads (ESAL).

Given:
C
4
= TEU/Lift (typical number of TEU per lift between 1.7 to 1.85)
C
5
= Transactions/Lift (typical number of truck transaction per lift between 1.5 to 2)
D
D
=50 % (directional split, 50% in and 50% out)
D
L
= 90% (% of traffic in the preferred lane)
D
T
= % (% of lifts moved by truck 100% for no on-dock intermodal facility)
T
F
= 3 ESAL/Trans (estimated number of ESAL per transaction)
YC = total annual terminal capacity in TEUs
We have:
Design Lane ESALs = YC / C
4
C
5
D
T
D
D
D
L
T
F
(3-1)

3.5.2 WheeledStorage Area
Given:
PS = estimated number of wheeled storage slots
C
5
= 2 Transactions/Slot (typical number of truck transaction per slot)
T
F
= 3 ESAL/Trans (estimated number of ESAL per transaction)
SU = estimated slot utilization between 70 to 90%
DW = assumed average chassis/container dwell time


3-10
JN: 5552-06
We have:
Design ESALs = PS SU 365 / DW C
5
T
F
(3-2)

3.5.3 Side/Top Pick and Truck Operations
It is assumed the containers will be delivered using truck and stacked using side or top-picks. Assuming
that the storage area has the configuration as shown in the Figure 3-8, the calculations are as follows:

In the Side/Top Pick yard, the heaviest traffic will be directly in front of the first row. At this location
there are two types of traffic - Side/Top Loader and Truck traffic. The Side/Top Pick traffic is limited to
the number of boxes in the first row, while the truck traffic is defined by the size of the whole stack,
because the trucks follow each other along the length. For Side/Top Picks, the storage area can be
accessible from only one side or two sides. If Side/Top Picks and trucks can access both side, the
repetitions will be decreased to a half. In the calculation, the variable, "Number of accessible sides (C7)",
is added for this purpose.

Given:

DW = assumed average container dwell time in days
C
4
= TEUs per lift (typical number of TEU per lift between 1.7 to 1.85)
C
5
= trips per box (2 for Side/Top Pick area)
C
6
= moves per trip
C
7
= number of accessible sides (1 or 2)
L = length of the stack in TEUs
W = width of the stack in TEUs
H = height of the stack in TEUs


3-11
JN: 5552-06

Figure 3-8 Dimensions of a yard block

We have:
Truck Load Repetitions = C
5
C
6
(365 / DW) SU L H W / C
4
/ C
7
(3-3)
Side/Top Pick Load Repetitions = C
5
C
6
(365 / DW) SU H W / C
7
(3-4)

3.5.4 RTG and Truck Operation
We use the following method to compute RTG repetitions. For truck operation in the RTG area, same
formula as in side or top pick area is used. Two scenarios needs to be considered: RTG Gantrying and
RTG Lifting.

Scenario 1: RTG Gantrying

Case I: RTG retrieving boxes
In order to compute RTG repetitions, we need to count how many times RTG pass a point along a run
way in a block. If a uniform distributed storage block (i.e., boxes in a block have equal dwell times
averagely) is assumed, it is easy to see that the worst point at which the maximum repetition occurs is at
the middle point along the run way. The following argument is used to compute the RTG repetitions at
the middle point for the case that RTG takes boxes out of a block, as shown in Figure 3-9.

L
H
W


3-12
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Figure 3-9 illustration of RTG repetitions

When taking a box out of a block, there is a chance that the RTG will cross the middle point. This will
happen only when the RTG and the box are at the different side of the block. The probability of this event
is:

P
G
= Prob( RTG cross the middle point)
= Prob(RTG at the left and box at the right) + Prob(RTG at the right and box at the left)
= + = 0.5 (under the assumption of uniform distribution)

This is the probability that one operation of RTG will cross the middle point. The number of times the
RTG cross the middle point is obtained by multiplying the probability with the number of operations per
year. During peak/semi peak times when there is more than one truck waiting for a box, the Operator may
get the closest box first, creating an efficiency factor (C8). This factor will always be less than one, but
can be adjusted according to port productivity. The busier they are, the more trucks are waiting, which
means the potential for efficiency raises, causing the factor to go down. Thus, the load repetition for RTG
gantrying when receiving boxes is given by:

Efficiency factor Prob( RTG cross the middle point) (Number of operations/year)
= C
8
P
G
(365/DW) SU H W L / C
4
/C
9

Case II: RTG receiving boxes
When putting a box into the storage area, there will be less gantry reps than taking out a box, because the
RTG Operator can put the box in the first available space. Thus, the formula for the case of retrieving
boxes to compute load repetitions may still be used since that is the worse case.

Combining Case I and Case II, we obtain the following formulas.

Truck
L/2 L/2
The middle point along the run way,
where the maximum repetition occurs.


3-13
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Given:

DW = assumed average container dwell time in days
C
4
= TEUs per lift (typical number of TEU per lift between 1.7 to 1.85)
C
5
= trips per box (2 for RTG area)
C
7
= number of sides (1 for a RTG setup)
C
8
= efficiency factor (1: inefficient, 0.5: efficient, .25: very efficient)
C
9
= number of RTG cranes working stack
L = length of the stack in TEUs
W = width of the stack in TEUs
H = height of the stack in TEUs
P
G
= Probability that an RTG crosses the worst point along the run way (1/2 for a uniform
distributed storage block)
We have:
Truck Load Repetitions = C
5
C
6
(365 / DW) SU L H W / C
4
(3-5)
RTG Retrieval Load Repetitions (retrieving boxes) = C
8
P
G
(365/DW) SU H W L / C
4
/C
9
(3-6)
RTG Storage Load Repetitions (receiving boxes) = same as (3-6) (3-7)

Scenario 2: RTG Lifting

Calculation methods are as follows:

The RTG repetitions when lifting can be computed by counting the boxes will go into and out of a bay.
For each box, there will be one lift in and one lift out (C
5
= 2). Thus, we have:

RTG Lifting Repetitions = C
5
C
6
(365 / DW) SU H W (3-8)


3-14
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3.6 Equipment Weight Distribution and Wheel Loads
Weight distribution and wheel load calculations are stated as seen in the British Ports Associations 1982
heavy duty pavement manual (refer as British Manual from here on). This section summarize the
formulas used to calculate wheel loads for RTG, side or top picks, and yard trucks.

3.6.1 RTG
For RTG, when the container is at the right-most (or left-most) position, the weight distribution (as shown
in Figure 3-10) gives the maximum wheel loads.
A
1
= 1 (x
c
/ x
2
) (3-9)
A
2
= x
c
/ x
2
(3-10)
W
1
= f
D
( ( (W
c
A
1
) / M ) + U
1
) (3-11)
W
2
= f
D
( ( (W
c
A
2
) / M ) + U
2
) (3-12)
Where:
W
1
= wheel load of engineless side
W
2
= wheel load of engine and container side
W
c
= weight of container
x
2
= distance from side 1 to side 2 (wheel to wheel)
x
c
= distance from side 1 to the center of the lifted container when it is fully trolleyed to side
2 (engine side)
U
1
= unladen weight of gantry crane on each wheel of side 1
U
2
= unladen weight of gantry crane on each wheel of side 2
A
1
, A
2
= weight distribution ratios
M = number of wheels on each side
f
D
= dynamic factor (See British Manual for values, typically 1.0, 1.1, and 1.2.)


3-15
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Figure 3-10 Weight distribution RTG

3.6.2 Side or Top Pick
The weight distribution for the side or top pick is as shown in Figure 3-11. We have:
A
1
= -x
2
/ ( x
1
x
2
) (3-13)
A
2
= -x
1
/ ( x
2
- x
1
) (3-14)
B
1
= ( x
T
- x
2
)

/ ( x
1
x
2
) (3-15)
B
2
= ( x
T
-x
1
)

/ ( x
2
- x
1
) (3-16)
W
1
= f
D
( (W
c
A
1
) + (W
T
B
1
) ) / M (3-17)
W
2
= f
D
( (W
c
A
2
) + (W
T
B
2
) ) / M (3-18)

W
1
W
2

x
2

x
c

W
c


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JN: 5552-06
Where:
W
1
= front wheel load
W
2
= rear wheel load
W
c
W
T
= weight of vehicle
x
1
= distance from container center to front wheels
x
2
= distance from container center to rear wheels
x
T
= distance from container center to lifts center of mass
A
1
, A
2
, B
1
, B
2
= weight distribution ratios
M = number of wheels on the respective axle (usually 2 for rear, and 4 for front)
f
D
= dynamic factor

Figure 3-11 Weight distribution Top Pick

W
c

W
1

W
T

W
2

x
2

x
T

x
1


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3.6.3 Yard Trucks
The weight distribution is as shown in Figure 3-12. We have:
A = x
c
/ x
3
(3-19)
B = x
B
/ x
2
(3-20)
W
1
= ( ( W
C
(1 - A) (1 B) / M
1
) + U
1
) f
D
(3-21)
W
2
= ( ( W
C
(1 - A) B / M
2
) + U
2
) f
D
(3-22)
W
2
= ( ( W
C
A / M
3
) + U
3
) f
D
(3-23)
Where:
W
1
= front wheel load
W
2
= rear wheel load
W
3
= trailer wheel load
W
c
U
1
= unladen load on front axle wheels
U
2
= unladen load on rear axle wheels
U
3
= unladen load on trailer wheels
x
2
= distance between front and rear wheels
x
3
= distance between fifth wheel and trailer wheel
x
B
= distance between front wheels and fifth wheel
x
C
= distance between fifth wheel and container center of mass
A, B

= weight distribution factors
M
1
= number of wheels on front axle
M
2
= number of wheels on rear axle
M
3
= number of wheels on trailer
f
D
= dynamic factor


3-18
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Figure 3-12 Weight distribution Yard Truck

3.7 Pavement Damage
Different magnitudes of wheel loads will cause different degrees of damages to the pavement. Typical
pavement design will use a single load and load repetition as the design criteria. Therefore, different
wheel loads and repetitions due to different container weights should be combined into a single wheel
load and repetition. Such a conversion is based on the pavement damage.

The damage calculation is modified from the British Ports Associations 1982 heavy duty pavement
manual to accept imperial U.S. unit values (pounds and pounds per square inch). Damages account for
how both contact stress (tire pressure) and wheel loads combine to degrade the pavement, and are
quantified using PAWLs (Port Area Wheel Load). The following Equations are used for all yard
equipment.

3.7.1 Damage
D = (W / 26455)
3.75
(P / 116 )
1.25
(3-24)
Where:
D = damage (PAWL)
W = wheel load on a single tire (lbs.)
P = tire pressure (psi)
W
C

x
3
x
B

x
2

W
3

W
2

W
1

x
C


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JN: 5552-06
Note that the relationship between damage and wheel load is exponential, and increasing wheel loads will
causing much more damages than increasing pressures. The above formula only calculates damage caused
by a single wheel. Damage caused by equipment should be combined using the method presented in the
section 3.75.

3.7.2 Proportional Damaging Effect
The damage value D along can be deceiving since an 88,000 pound container creates the greatest damage,
but only makes up less than one percent of the containers transported. Because of this a proportional
damaging effect is often calculated using the container distribution measured for the container terminal,
as discussed in the section 3.3.

D
P
= D f (3-25)
Where:
D
P
= proportional damaging effect (PAWL)
D = damage (PAWL)
f = container frequency/distribution (%)

3.7.3 Average Damage
Average damage is the mean of the damages (D
P
).
D
A
= average damage = mean (D
P
) (3-26)

3.7.4 Critical Damage
The critical damaging effect is the damage value (D) of the container (critical load) with the largest
proportional damage value (D
P
).

D
C
= critical damage = max (DP) (3-27)

Typically, the wheel load causing the critical damage will be used as the design wheel load.


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3.7.5 Total Damage of a Plant and Wheel Proximity Factors
Damages (in PAWLs) calculated for each wheel of a plant (i.e., a piece of equipment) should be added
together along the line of the plants moving direction. If only one wheel of the equipment is considered,
the strain under the wheel is maximized directly under the center of the wheel and decreased along with
the increase of the radius. If two wheels of the equipment are close enough to each other, the strain under
each wheel will increase a certain amount. The factors determine the amount of increase is called
proximity factors, which can be found in the British Ports Associations 1982 heavy duty pavement
manual. The wheel configuration of a yard truck and the associated proximity factors are illustrated by the
Figure 3-13.

Figure 3-13 Wheel configuration of a yard truck

Figure 3-13 shows the wheel configuration of a yard truck. On each side of truck, there are four tractor
rear wheels and four trailer rear wheels. If the interaction between two wheels in the X direction is
considered, the wheel proximity factor is 1.42. If the interaction between two wheels in the Y direction is
considered, the wheel proximity factor is 1.95. Note that these two factors cannot be added up into one
factor since their actions are in different directions. Instead, the total PAWLs should be calculated using
the two factors respectively and the maximum PAWLs is taken as the final total PAWLs. Thus,

D
x
=
25 . 1 75 . 3
3
75 . 3
2
75 . 3
1
116 26455
42 . 1
2
26455
42 . 1
2
26455

,
_
1
1
]
1
,
_

+
,
_

+
,
_
P W W W
(3-28)

D
Y
=
25 . 1 75 . 3
3
75 . 3
2
75 . 3
1
116 26455
95 . 1
2
26455
95 . 1
2
26455

,
_
1
1
]
1
,
_

+
,
_

+
,
_
P W W W
(3-29)
Where:
D
x
= total damage combined along the X direction (PAWLs);
D
Y
= total damage combined along the Y direction (PAWLs);
W
1
, W
2
and W
3
= single wheel load (lbs)
P = tire pressure (psi)
W
1
4W
2

4W
2

4W
3

4W
3

f
p
=1.42
f
p
=1.95 f
p
=1.95
f
p
=1.42
X
Y
Wheels
W
1


3-21
JN: 5552-06

The final total damage for a plant is the maximum of the above two, which is the D
Y
in this case.

3.8 Equivalent Load Repetitions
The equivalent load repetition is the equivalent number of movements (repetitions) of the critical load
causing the critical damage. Various equipments equivalent repetitions are combined to give the design
life of a given area. The calculated repetition is the number of movements in one year. For a design life
of 20 years, the design life equivalent load repetitions can be obtained by multiplying the equivalent load
repetition by 20.

3.8.1 RTG
Given:
R
eq
= equivalent load repetitions
D
Ai
= average damage for a given dynamic factor
D
E
= unladen damage
D
C
= critical damage
f
Di
% = percentage of movements that experiences the given dynamic factor (total percentages
must sum to equal 100%)
R
Ai
= lifting repetitions of the average load for the given dynamic factor
R
G
= gantry load repetitions

The equivalent load repetition for RTG is,
R
eq
= { (D
E
R
G
) + (f
D1
% R
A1
D
A1
) + (f
D2
% R
A2
D
A2
) + } / D
C
(3-30)

3.8.2 Yard Trucks
Given:
R
eq
D
A
= average damage


3-22
JN: 5552-06
D
E
= unladen damage
D
C
= critical damage
R
A
= lifting repetitions of the average load
R
E
= unladen load repetitions

The equivalent load repetit ion for yard trucks is,
R
eq
= { (D
E
R
E
) + (R
A
D
A
) } / D
C
(3-31)

3.8.3 Side and Top Picks
Given:
R
eq
D
Ai
= average damage for a given dynamic factor
D
E
= unladen damage
D
C
= critical damage
f
Di
% = percentage of movements that experiences the given dynamic factor (total percentages
must sum to equal 100%)
R
Ai
= lifting repetitions of the average load for the given dynamic factor
R
E
= unladen repetitions

The equivalent load repletion for side or top picks is,
R
eq
= { (D
E
R
E
) + (f
D1
% R
A1
D
A1
) + (f
D2
% R
A2
D
A2
) + } / D
C
(3-32)

3.9 A Comprehensive Wheel Load Calculation Example
This section presents a comprehensive example calculating critical load and load repetitions for Top Pick
and RTG areas, using the background described in the previous sections. The usage of the formulas is
illustrated in the following tables and charts.


3-23
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3.9.1 Key Notations
The following notations are used in the example:
SU estimated slot utilization between 70 to 90%
DW assumed average container dwell time in Days
C
4
TEUs per lift (typical number of TEU per lift between 1.7 to 1.85)
C
5
trips per box (1 / No. of empty spaces per address)
C
6
moves per trip
C
7
number of sides
C
8
efficiency factor (1: inefficient, 0.5: efficient, .25: very efficient)
C
9
number of RTG cranes
L length of the stack in TEUs
W width of the stack in TEUs
H height of the stack in TEUs
R repetitions (the number of times passing in front of each address or the stack length)
P
G
Probability that a gantry will cross a point

3.9.2 RTG Operation RTG Repetitions
The calculation is bases on the formulas presented in the section 3.5.4.

3.9.2.1 RTG Repetitions When Gantrying
Given:

L = 45 TEU
W = 6 TEU
H = 5 TEU
SU = 75%
DW = 5 Days
C
4
= 1.75
C
5
= 1/3
C
6
= 1
C
8
= 0.5
C
9
= 2 cranes
P
G
= 0.5

Using the formula (3-6) and (3-7), we have,

Load repetitions (Storage)
= C
8
P
G
(365/DW) SU H W L / C
4
/C
9

= .5 .5 (365 / 5) .75 5 6 45 / 1.75 / 2 = 5279 REP/YEAR
Load repetitions (Retrieval)
= C
8
P
G
(365/DW) SU H W L / C
4
/C
9

= .5 .5 (365 / 5) .75 5 6 45 / 1.75 / 2 = 5279 REP/YEAR

Total repetitions when gantrying = 5279 + 5279 = 10558 REP/YEAR

Note that all gantry moves are unloaded.


3-24
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3.9.2.2 RTG Repetitions When Lifting
Given:

W = 6 TEU
H = 5 TEU
C
4
= 1.75
C
5
= 2
C
6
= 1
SU% = 75%
DW = 5 Days

Using the formula (3-8), we have,

RTG repetitions when lifting
= C
5
C
6
(365 / DW) SU H W
= 2 1 (365 / 5) .75 5 6 = 3285 REP/YEAR

Note that all the above repetitions are loaded.

3.9.3 RTG Operation Truck Repetitions

Given:

L = 45 TEU
W = 6 TEU
H = 5 TEU
C
4
= 1.75
C
5
= 2
C
6
= 1
SU% = 75%
DW = 5 Days


Truck Repetitions
= C
5
C
6
(365 / DW) SU L H W / C
4

= 2*1*1*365/5*0.75*45*5*6/1.75 = 84,471 REP/YEAR

Note that half of the above truck repetitions will be loaded and half will be unloaded. Thus,

Unloaded truck repetitions in RTG area = 84471/2 = 42,386 REP/YEAR
Loaded truck repetitions in RTG area = 84471/2 = 42,386 REP/YEAR

3.9.4 Side/Top Pick Repetitions
The calculation in this section is based on the formulas presented in the section 3.5.3.


3-25
JN: 5552-06

Given:

L = 24 TEU
W = 6 TEU
H = 5 TEU
DW = 5 Days
SU = 75%
C
4
= 1.75
C
5
= 2
C
6
= 2 (picks) = 1 (trucks)
C
7
= 2 sides


Side/Top Loader Storage Repetitions
= C
5
C
6
(365 / DW) SU H W / C
7

= 2*2*(365/5)*0.75*5*6/2 = 3285 REP/YEAR


Truck Stack Delivery Repetitions
= C
5
C
6
(365 / DW) SU L H W / C
4
/ C
7

= 2*1*(365/5)*0.75*5*6*24/1.75/2 = 22526 REP/YEAR

Note that half of the above repetitions will be loaded and half will be unloaded. Thus, we have,

Unloaded Side/Top Loader Storage Repetitions = 3285/2 = 1643 REP/YEAR
Loaded Side/Top Loader Storage Repetitions = 3285/2 = 1643 REP/YEAR
Unloaded Truck Stack Delivery Repetitions = 22526/2 = 11263 REP/YEAR
Loaded Truck Stack Delivery Repetitions = 22526/2 = 11263 REP/YEAR

3.9.5 Damage Top Pick
The damage calculation in this section and the following sections is based on the formulas presented in
the section 3.6 and 3.7. Due to the complexity of the calculation, a spreadsheet model is developed to
compute the critical load and the equivalent critical load repetition. The spreadsheet model is presented
here as an example of pavement damage calculation. Inputs are highlighted with the yellow color and
final outputs are highlighted with the red color. Step-by-step calculation is not shown in the table due to
the limited space.


3-26
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Top Pick Operation:
f
D
= 1.0 f
D
= 1.1 f
D
= 1.2

x
1
9.19
x
2
27.94
x
T
18.78
A
1
1.49
A
2
-0.49
B
1
0.49
B
2
0.51
Equipment Weight, W
T
154000.00
Number of Tiers, M 4
Tire Pressure, P 144.00
Unladen Damage, D
E
10.73 15.34 21.26
Unladen Wheel Load 39,398.33 43,338.17 47,278.00
Average Damage, D
A
68.05 97.28 134.82
Average Wheel Load 75,425.41 82,967.96 90510.497
Critical Damage, D
C
98.49

140.81 195.13
Critical Wheel Load 83,493.67

91,843.03 100,192
Maximum Damage 841.13 1202.50 1666.44
% of f
D
= 1.0 0.50
% of f
D
= 1.1 0.40
% of f
D
= 1.2 0.10

Top Pick Load Repetition
Average Load, R
A
1643
(1)

Unladen, R
E
1643
(1)


3-27
JN: 5552-06

Truck Repetition Top Pick Area

Number of Front Wheels on Tractor, M
1
2
Number of Rear Wheels on Tractor, M
2
8
Number of Wheels on Trailer, M
3
8
Load on Front Wheels - Unladen , U
1
6000
Load on Rear Wheels - Unladen, U
2
4000
Load on Trailer Wheels - Unladen, U
3
4000
x
C
21.0
x
B
18.0
x
2
18.0
x
3
42.0
A 0.5
B 1.0
Unladen Damage, D
E
0.06
Unladen Wheel Load 4,000.00
Average Damage, D
A
0.48
Average Wheel Load 7138.73978
Critical Damage, D
C
0.68
Critical Wheel Load 7,850.00
Maximum Damage 5.80
% of f
D
= 1.0 100%
% of f
D
= 1.1
% of f
D
= 1.2

Truck Repetitions Top Pick Area

Average Load, R
A
11263
(1)

Unladen, R
E
11263
(1)

Design Life (Years) 1

Design life equivalent load repetition for critical loading 1,682
Design Load (lb) 83,494

Note:
(1) The load repetitions are calculated in the section 3.9.4.
(2) The calculation of equivalent load repetition considers both top picks and trucks.


3-28
JN: 5552-06
The following table presents the calculation of proportional damaging effects for top-picks.
f
D
= 1.00
container frequency front corner rear wheel Front rear Total Proportional
weight
(lbs) % loads loads PAWL PAWL PAWL Damage
W
C
f W
1
x 2
(1)
W
2
D D
P

0 0.00 37602 39398 4.898 5.835 10.733 0.000
2200 0.00 39241 38859 5.748 5.541 11.289 0.000
4400 0.00 40880 38320 6.701 5.258 11.959 0.000
6600 0.00 42519 37781 7.765 4.986 12.751 0.000
8800 4.00 44158 37242 8.948 4.725 13.673 54.692
11000 4.00 45797 36703 10.259 4.473 14.732 58.929
13200 4.00 47436 36164 11.705 4.232 15.937 63.747
15400 0.00 49075 35625 13.295 4.000 17.295 0.000
17600 0.00 50714 35086 15.038 3.778 18.816 0.000
19800 0.08 52353 34547 16.943 3.565 20.508 1.641
22000 0.26 53992 34008 19.020 3.361 22.380 5.819
24200 0.65 55631 33469 21.277 3.165 24.442 15.887
26400 1.07 57270 32930 23.724 2.978 26.703 28.572
28600 1.39 58909 32391 26.372 2.800 29.172 40.549
30800 1.66 60548 31852 29.231 2.629 31.860 52.887
33000 2.49 62187 31313 32.310 2.466 34.776 86.593
35200 2.58 63826 30774 35.621 2.310 37.932 97.864
37400 2.97 65465 30235 39.174 2.162 41.337 122.770
39600 3.83 67104 29696 42.981 2.021 45.002 172.358
41800 4.83 68743 29157 47.052 1.887 48.939 236.374
44000 4.38 70382 28618 51.398 1.760 53.158 232.832
46200 4.94 72021 28079 56.033 1.638 57.671 284.895
48400 4.36 73660 27540 60.966 1.524 62.490 272.455
50600 4.75 75299 27001 66.211 1.415 67.626 321.221
52800 4.93 76938 26462 71.779 1.312 73.091 360.337
55000 5.04 78577 25923 77.683 1.214 78.898 397.644
57200 5.61 80216 25384 83.936 1.122 85.058 477.177
59400 7.02 81855 24845 90.550 1.035 91.586 642.932
61600
(2)
8.54 83494 24306 97.539 0.954 98.492 841.126
63800 7.72 85133 23767 104.915 0.877 105.792 816.712
66000 4.33 86772 23228 112.692 0.805 113.497 491.441
68200 1.97 88411 22689 120.884 0.737 121.621 239.593
70400 0.70 90050 22150 129.504 0.673 130.178 91.124
72600 0.47 91689 21611 138.567 0.614 139.181 65.415
74800 0.51 93328 21072 148.087 0.558 148.645 75.809
77000 0.37 94967 20533 158.077 0.507 158.584 58.676
79200 0.30 96606 19994 168.553 0.459 169.011 50.703
81400 0.20 98245 19455 179.529 0.414 179.943 35.989
83600 0.02 99884 18916 191.021 0.372 191.393 3.828
85800 0.02 101523 18377 203.043 0.334 203.377 4.068
88000 0.01 103162 17838 215.611 0.299 215.910 2.159


3-29
JN: 5552-06
Note:
(1) For front corner loads W
1
is doubled, this is done because the front two wheels are so close that
they behave, to an extent, like one large wheel. This must be accounted for in order to calculate
the damage. Realistically the multiplying factor will most often be a value between 1.95-1.98
depending on the exact wheel spacing.
(2) The highlighted row is the row with critical load.

The following table presents calculation of proportional damaging effects for trucks.

f
D
= 1.00

container frequency front wheel rear wheel
trailer
wheel X Y total

Damage
weight
(lbs) %
loads -
Tractor
loads
tractors load PAWL PAWL PAWL

W
c
f W
2
W
3
W
1
D
x
D
Y
D
(1)

D
P

0 0.00 6,000.00 4,000.00 4000.00 0.02 0.06 0.06 0.00
2,200 0.00 6,000.00 4,137.50 4137.50 0.02 0.07 0.07 0.00
4,400 0.00 6,000.00 4,275.00 4275.00 0.03 0.07 0.07 0.00
6,600 0.00 6,000.00 4,412.50 4412.50 0.03 0.08 0.08 0.00
8,800 4.00 6,000.00 4,550.00 4550.00 0.03 0.09 0.09 0.37
11,000 4.00 6,000.00 4,687.50 4687.50 0.03 0.10 0.10 0.41
13,200 4.00 6,000.00 4,825.00 4825.00 0.04 0.11 0.11 0.45
15,400 0.00 6,000.00 4,962.50 4962.50 0.04 0.13 0.13 0.00
17,600 0.00 6,000.00 5,100.00 5100.00 0.05 0.14 0.14 0.00
19,800 0.08 6,000.00 5,237.50 5237.50 0.05 0.15 0.15 0.01
22,000 0.26 6,000.00 5,375.00 5375.00 0.05 0.17 0.17 0.04
24,200 0.65 6,000.00 5,512.50 5512.50 0.06 0.18 0.18 0.12
26,400 1.07 6,000.00 5,650.00 5650.00 0.06 0.20 0.20 0.22
28,600 1.39 6,000.00 5,787.50 5787.50 0.07 0.22 0.22 0.31
30,800 1.66 6,000.00 5,925.00 5925.00 0.08 0.24 0.24 0.40
33,000 2.49 6,000.00 6,062.50 6062.50 0.08 0.26 0.26 0.65
35,200 2.58 6,000.00 6,200.00 6200.00 0.09 0.28 0.28 0.73
37,400 2.97 6,000.00 6,337.50 6337.50 0.10 0.31 0.31 0.91
39,600 3.83 6,000.00 6,475.00 6475.00 0.10 0.33 0.33 1.27
41,800 4.83 6,000.00 6,612.50 6612.50 0.11 0.36 0.36 1.73
44,000 4.38 6,000.00 6,750.00 6750.00 0.12 0.39 0.39 1.70
46,200 4.94 6,000.00 6,887.50 6887.50 0.13 0.42 0.42 2.06
48,400 4.36 6,000.00 7,025.00 7025.00 0.14 0.45 0.45 1.96
50,600 4.75 6,000.00 7,162.50 7162.50 0.15 0.48 0.48 2.29
52,800 4.93 6,000.00 7,300.00 7300.00 0.16 0.52 0.52 2.55
55,000 5.04 6,000.00 7,437.50 7437.50 0.17 0.56 0.56 2.80
57,200 5.61 6,000.00 7,575.00 7575.00 0.18 0.59 0.59 3.33
59,400 7.02 6,000.00 7,712.50 7712.50 0.20 0.64 0.64 4.46
61,600 8.54 6,000.00 7,850.00 7850.00 0.21 0.68 0.68 5.80
63,800 7.72 6,000.00 7,987.50 7987.50 0.22 0.72 0.72 5.59


3-30
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66,000 4.33 6,000.00 8,125.00 8125.00 0.24 0.77 0.77 3.34
68,200 1.97 6,000.00 8,262.50 8262.50 0.25 0.82 0.82 1.62
70,400 0.70 6,000.00 8,400.00 8400.00 0.27 0.87 0.87 0.61
72,600 0.47 6,000.00 8,537.50 8537.50 0.29 0.93 0.93 0.44
74,800 0.51 6,000.00 8,675.00 8675.00 0.30 0.98 0.98 0.50
77,000 0.37 6,000.00 8,812.50 8812.50 0.32 1.04 1.04 0.39
79,200 0.30 6,000.00 8,950.00 8950.00 0.34 1.11 1.11 0.33
81,400 0.20 6,000.00 9,087.50 9087.50 0.36 1.17 1.17 0.23
83,600 0.02 6,000.00 9,225.00 9225.00 0.38 1.24 1.24 0.02
85,800 0.02 6,000.00 9,362.50 9362.50 0.40 1.31 1.31 0.03
88,000 0.01 6,000.00 9,500.00 9500.00 0.42 1.38 1.38 0.01

Note:
(1) The calculation of total PAWL considering proximity factors as seen in the British Ports
Association heavy duty pavement manual, as described in the section 3.7.5. The total damage D
is the maximum of the D
x
and D
Y
.

(2) The highlighted row is the row with critical load.


3-31
JN: 5552-06

3.9.6 Damage RTG
RTG Operation: (77') f
D
=1 f
D
=1.1 f
D
=1.2
PACECO 126t 5+1 Lift
x
C
67.17
x
2
77
Unladen Weight of RTG on each wheel of side 1 (lb), U
1
42327
Unladen Weight of RTG on each wheel of side 2 (lb), U
2
27119
Number of Wheels on Each Side, M 4
A
1
0.13
A
2
0.87
Unladen Damage, D
E
191.78 274.17 379.95
Unladen Wheel Load 42,327.10 46,559.81 50,792.52
Average Damage, D
A
426.67 609.98 845.32
Average Wheel Load 52,387.62 57,626.38 62,865.14
Critical Damage, D
C
539.14 770.77 1068.14
Critical Wheel Load 55,760.43 61,336.48 62,865.14
Maximum Damage 4604.24 6582.34 9121.94
% of f
D
= 1.0 0.75
% of f
D
= 1.1 0.25
% of f
D
= 1.2 0.0

RTG Load Repetition
Average Load, R
A
3285
(1)

Gantry (Unladen), R
G
10558
(1)

Truck Repetitions RTG Area

Average Load, R
A
42386
(2)

Unladen, R
E
42386
(2)

Design Life (Years) 1

Design life equivalent load repetition for critical loading 6,677
Design Load (lb) 55,760

Note:
(1) RTG repetitions are calculated in the section 3.9.2.
(2) Truck repetitions are calculated in the section 3.9.3.


3-32
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RTG Wheel Load and Damage Sample Calculations
f
D
= 1
container wheel Proportional
weight frequency load Damage Damage
lbs % lbs PAWL PAWL
W
C
f W D D
P

0 0 42,327 191.78 0.00
2200 0 42,807 200.06 0.00
4400 0 43,287 208.59 0.00
6600 0 43,766 217.40 0.00
8800 4 44,246 226.47 905.88
11000 4 44,726 235.82 943.26
13200 4 45,206 245.44 981.77
15400 0 45,685 255.35 0.00
17600 0 46,165 265.56 0.00
19800 0.08 46,645 276.05 22.08
22000 0.26 47,125 286.85 74.58
24200 0.65 47,604 297.96 77.47
26400 1.07 48,084 309.38 201.09
28600 1.39 48,564 321.11 343.59
30800 1.66 49,044 333.17 463.11
33000 2.49 49,524 345.56 573.63
35200 2.58 50,003 358.28 892.11
37400 2.97 50,483 371.34 958.06
39600 3.83 50,963 384.75 1142.70
41800 4.83 51,443 398.51 1526.28
44000 4.38 51,922 412.62 1807.30
46200 4.94 52,402 427.10 2109.90
48400 4.36 52,882 441.95 1926.92
50600 4.75 53,362 457.18 2171.60
52800 4.93 53,841 472.78 2330.82
55000 5.04 54,321 488.78 2463.43
57200 5.61 54,801 505.16 2833.96
59400 7.02 55,281 521.95 3664.07
61600 8.54 55,760 539.14 4604.24
63800 7.72 56,240 556.74 4298.03
66000 4.33 56,720 574.76 2488.71
68200 1.97 57,200 593.20 1168.61
70400 0.7 57,679 612.08 428.45
72600 0.47 58,159 631.39 296.75
74800 0.51 58,639 651.14 332.08
77000 0.37 59,119 671.35 248.40
79200 0.3 59,599 692.01 207.60
81400 0.2 60,078 713.13 142.63
83600 0.02 60,558 734.72 14.69
85800 0.02 61,038 756.79 15.14
88000 0.01 61,518 779.33 7.79


3-33
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3.9.7 Design Summary
3.9.7.1 Top Pick
Design Load: 1,682 lbs

Design Load Repetitions: 83,494 REP/YEAR

Pressure: 144 psi

1.9
W
1

Front Corner Load
W
1
x 1.98


3-34
JN: 5552-06
8.25
3.9.7.2 RTG
Design Load: 6,677 lbs

Design Load Repetitions: 55,760 REP/YEAR

Pressure: 139 psi

W


JN: 5552-06
4. Site Investigation.................................................................................................................. 4-1
4.1 Methods of Ground Improvement ................................................................................ 4-1
4.1.1 Options ................................................................................................................................................................4-2
4.2 Global Ground Improvement ....................................................................................... 4-2
4.2.1 Surcharging and Wick Drains ......................................................................................................................4-2
4.2.2 Removal and Replacement............................................................................................................................4-3
4.2.3 Shallow Stabilization.......................................................................................................................................4-3
4.2.4 Dynamic Compaction......................................................................................................................................4-4
4.3 Transitions.................................................................................................................... 4-5
4.3.1 Vibro-Compacted Stone Columns...............................................................................................................4-5
4.3.2 Pressure Grouting ............................................................................................................................................4-5
4.3.3 Articulations ......................................................................................................................................................4-5
4.4 Localized Improvement................................................................................................ 4-6
4.4.1 Vibro-Compacted Concrete Columns ........................................................................................................4-6
4.4.2 Jet Grouting.......................................................................................................................................................4-6
4.4.3 Deep Soil Mixing ..............................................................................................................................................4-7
4.4.4 Geopier System.................................................................................................................................................4-7


4-1
JN: 5552-06

4. Site Investigation
The purpose of site investigation is to determine the location, characteristics, and extent of the subgrade
materials that will be affected by the pavement construction and the operations on the pavement. The site
investigation must obtain sufficient information to enable an economic pavement design and to enable
construction operations to be undertaken in a safe and predictable manner. Skimping on the extent of the
investigation may result in conservative design input or even undersign of the pavement section, and may
lead to unpredicted conditions being encountered during construction that could affect the price of the
construction contract. In the long term, an effect site investigation with a thorough scope tailored to
address pavement requirements is likely to be more cost effective than interpreting values from a basic
investigation aimed at the design of the structural elements of the development.

The wheel loads from the heaviest container handling equipment operating on the pavement are likely to
influence the soils within six to ten feet below the underside of the pavement, or formation level. These
soils will be subject to repeated, short duration, moving loads. The strength and stiffness properties of the
soils are therefore important. The imposed loads from the container stack are likely to affect the soils to a
greater depth. The deeper soils will be subject to medium term, stationary loads. The consolidation
properties of these soils are therefore important. The purpose of the site investigation is to determine the
properties of the soils within these zones of influence. The investigation should include determining the
depth to bedrock or to competent layers, the extent, depth and thickness of weak or soft layers and the
depth to the water table or any perched water. As the types of testing change with depth below formation,
it is important to have an understanding of the final elevations on the terminal. It may be the case that
several feet of fill will be required over the area proposed for the terminal, and therefore some of the
critical materials may not be present at the site.

4.1 Methods of Ground Improvement
Port and rail yard facilities are generally flat in grade to enable safe and efficient operation of the
equipment. With the large depths of compressible soil, the variable fill regimes and buried obstructions,
settlements takes place, often with large-scale surface distortion created by the differing loading
conditions. On such flat surfaces this settlement can lead to ponding of surface water, which can
penetrate into the pavement and subgrade. The ingress of water into the pavement and subgrade can
accelerate pavement damage, and result in areas of high maintenance and potential loss of use. Increased
grades can often hamper equipment operation and provide safety concerns. It can also lead to equipment
and vehicle damage.

Settlement problems are not merely confined to the surface furnishings. They can also cause problems to
drainage runs, sub-surface utilities and communication ducts. The poor bearing capacities of the soils
mandate deep foundations for buildings and other structures and fixtures. Frequently, differential
settlement can lead to problems at light pole foundations, crane rails and buildings that are often
supported on piles. These resistant islands or break-points across large areas of an unsupported dockside
area provide more sources of differential settlement.

The challenge is to utilize a construction process that will increase the bearing capacity of the soils so that
deep foundations can be avoided. The shallow foundations resulting from the increased bearing capacity
will then settle in sympathy with the adjacent areas. The Geopier system has the potential to do just this.
As with other continuously heavily trafficked areas such as intermodal and automotive yards, this will


4-2
JN: 5552-06
reduce the loss of use of large areas of paving, reduce disruption to operations and prevent diminishing
throughput.

4.1.1 Options
There are a number of different approaches that can be adopted to reduce the consequences of the
problems experienced in port, facilities. These include undertaking global ground improvement to the
soils, forming transition zones between areas and providing soil improvement that will be sympathetic to
ground movement. When reviewing the potential options for these large external areas, several
conditions have to be satisfied, as each has a technical and commercial consideration.

4.1.1.1 Option 1 Global Ground Improvement
The first approach is to improve the ground globally so that settlements are minimized and predictable,
and such that the bearing capacity is improved. There are a few different options that can be employed to
achieve this. They include surcharging, removal and replacement, shallow stabilization and dynamic
compaction. Frequently a mix of two systems is employed when a crust of imported or stabilized material
is placed after settlement has occurred, to help increase the bearing capacity. This solution is often
insufficient to support heavy point loads.

4.1.1.2 Option 2 Transitions
The second approach is to provide localized improvement that eases the transition between soft ground
and areas supported on deep foundations such as piles. This can be achieved by local use of the global
systems described above as well as by using vibro-compacted stone columns, stabilization by pressure
grouting or by including articulations that will accommodate the movement. It can be beneficial to select
a pavement system around such locations that can quickly and easily be reapplied to compensate for
extremes of settlement.

4.1.1.3 Option 3 Localized Improvement
The final approach is to create a zone that will have increased bearing capacity, but that will settle in a
controlled manner and at a similar rate to surrounding areas. This can be achieved by using vibro-
compacted concrete columns, vibro-compacted stone columns, jet grouting or deep soil mixing. This type
of solution can also be achieved by the use of Geopiers.

4.2 Global Ground Improvement

4.2.1 Surcharging and Wick Drains

Surcharging is one of the most common ground improvement techniques in the backland development of
port areas. In this method, material is spread over the area to be treated to a predetermined height causing
primary consolidation to occur. The height is designed so that the applied load exceeds any future
loading resulting from fill material, construction work and stored cargo. The primary consolidation under
the surcharge generally exceeds the long-term consolidation under the permanent loading conditions. As
such, settlement potential can be greatly reduced. In addition the materials are densified so that they have
greater stiffness and bearing capacity.


4-3
JN: 5552-06
Surcharging can be accomplished in a number of ways, subject to the constraints of time and cost.
Providing twenty or more feet of fill over the whole area can be the most expedient option, but it requires
the import and subsequent export of large quantities of material. If time permits, it is more economical to
undertake a rolling surcharge program, whereby one section of the site is surcharged after another, as the
material is moved around the site. However, this can take a matter of years rather than months.

The time for primary consolidation to occur is a factor of many geotechnical parameters, but one of the
most important is the length of the drainage path. By shortening the drainage path, the duration of
loading can be reduced. One of the most common procedures for achieving this is to install vertical wick
drains so that there is a permeable connection between the materials being consolidated and the surface,
or to other free draining layers. Vertical drains can be installed to depths in excess of 100 feet. When the
drainage path leads to the surface, it is necessary to install a drainage blanket under the surcharge if the
surcharge material is not free draining in and of itself.

The price of surcharge is often only dependent upon the cost of transport and machinery required to bring
material to site and spread it. The system can be highly economical. However, the time necessary to
generate the maximum available level of compaction can be prohibitive. Rarely is a three or four week
window of opportunity available once the development clock starts ticking, let alone the year or often
longer time period demanded for effective surcharging. The improvements in bearing capacity achieved
by this system may be insufficient to support heavy foundation loads, and other improvement systems
may need to be used locally.

4.2.2 Removal and Replacement
This system involves the excavation of large areas of material that will create problems in the final
development. This is more commonly used at shallow depths, but can also be used locally for deeper
pockets in the areas of proposed structures. Generally these materials are too weak, too elastic or too wet
to be treated. Removing large volumes of material can create issues with disposal and can have financial
and program implications if the work is extensive. For older ports and rail yards the presence of buried
obstructions could make major excavation work difficult and more expensive. Problems can frequently
be experienced when excavation reaches the water table or very soft underlying soils, where equipment
can become bogged down.

It is frequently necessary to include geotextiles and / geogrids in the replacement layers to avoid overly
deep excavations, and to achieve the required long term stiffness in the crust. The stiffer the near surface
or crusted soils can be made, the better the distribution of load to soft and highly compressive soils at
depth.

At best this solution is slow and expensive, and as a settlement preventative measure, might be only
partially successful. There are rarely any significant gains in bearing capacity at the depths of
foundations, unless the removal has been carried out to significant depths. In order to get the best out of
this form of surface densification, this process needs to be combined with different techniques of ground
improvement.

4.2.3 Shallow Stabilization

This process involves shallow stabilization or modification of the poor soils with lime, cement or other
additives or modifiers. This is a process that involves in-place mixing of near surface soils with


4-4
JN: 5552-06
quantities of lime, cement or other modifier, transforming the existing near-surface soils into a hard and
durable layer that is ideal for the construction of a port pavement. However, shallow soil stabilization is a
thin layer form of treatment although it can be carried out in multiple thickness layers is rarely suitable for
localized deep treatment.

This form of stabilization is unlikely to offer much protection against settlement, particularly if settlement
is an on-going consequence of load and time versus deep-seated soft alluvial estuarine soils. In order to
get the best out of this form of surface densification, this process needs to be combined with different
techniques of ground improvement.

4.2.4 Dynamic Compaction

The Dynamic Compaction (DC) process is used to create a stiffened soil raft of limited thickness over a
large surface area. The raft of improved ground can safely and continuously provide settlement
resistance, and the technique can cope with changes in ground conditions, buried obstructions and
variations in groundwater levels. Typical treatment depths in clays and silts are up to 25 feet and in sands
and gravels up to 30 feet. The construction process depends on the material to be compacted. It is a
universally tried and tested system having been around for many years.

The simplicity of site operation i.e. pounding the site surface with a large weight dropped from a great
height belies the complexity of interaction within the soils matrix. Essentially, DC injects high levels of
energy into the ground, which in turn responds by particle re-distribution and achieved stiffening.
However the practical drawbacks inherent with the process very often preclude its use.

Large cranes are required to lift and drop sizeable flat tamper weights of up to 20 tons, and vibration tends
to limit the techniques suitability for many port applications. The size of the treatment area can discount
many technically responsive sites with 8,000 square feet normally being the absolute minimum area
where cost efficiency of the DC process can be considered. The need to provide a thick granular working
blanket together with the consequence of reducing the working level of the site further limits the
attraction of the DC process particularly on existing sites.

Modern techniques of using shaped tamper weights have generated true three-dimensional ground
distortion with lower levels of vibration. Dropping shaped tamper weights at regular grid centers requires
far less effort in energy input for a similar output of ground stiffness than can be expected from high
energy drops using flat plates, and can provide increases in stiffness in much thinner depths of soil.
Smaller rigs are purpose built and workable site areas can be reduced in size without compromising cost-
efficiency.

Dynamic Compaction, although quick and relatively cheap to carry out, can only look to improve ground
to modest levels of bearing capacity. Attempts to produce big improvement percentages attract risks of
much larger plant and equipment, (which may be difficult to source in some parts of the world),
progressively greater levels of applied energy and resultant vibrations as well as major cost penalties.


4-5
JN: 5552-06
4.3 Transitions
4.3.1 Vibro-Compacted Stone Columns

The use of vibro-compacted stone columns is a well understood ground improvement technique. Its
versatility and low operational costs have made this system a popular choice for many years. It can be
used to treat clays and silts to a depth approaching 75 feet and in sands and gravels to a depth of around
100 feet. The construction method depends on the native soils. Stone columns are nearly always
installed using a vibrator suspended from a crane or operating within purpose built leaders, which
frequently have the advantage of providing a pull-down force. Penetration of the ground is usually a
function of the weight and frequency of vibration of the lance.

Stone is tipped in to the vertical hole produced on withdrawal of the vibro lance. Re-insertion of the lance
into successive charges of stone causes the surrounding indigenous soils to be laterally displaced during
penetration of the lance. More modern developments of bottom feed equipment allow stone infill to be
discharged at the toe of the each column thereby eliminating any risk of soil collapse, which can occur on
withdrawal of the lance in soft or waterlogged conditions. The quality of the stone column whether
formed with top feed or bottom feed process, is largely similar.

When attempting to cap an area treated by stone columns a thick stone blanket is required. Otherwise in
time pavements can become deformed as the heads of the stone columns punch through as the ground
settles around them. The use of geogrid reinforcement can mitigate against this problem. While the
provision and placement of a stone blanket may not adversely affect the overall efficiency offered by
stone columns, it serves to illustrate the relatively low state of change produced within the near surface
soils.

When it comes to using stone columns for the support of large open areas, particularly those with high
and/or variable loading conditions, there are limitations. While stone columns produce a level of
improvement, unless they terminate in competent soils, their ability to create their own stiffened soil raft
is limited as the confining pressure of the stone columns cannot be maximized in very soft ground. This
is a consequence of the relatively low value of input energy used to form the stone column.

4.3.2 Pressure Grouting
In some soil types the upper layer of material can be improved by pressure grouting to depths of up to ten
feet. Cementitious materials in slurry form are injected into the ground under pressure. This material fills
the seams and voids in the soil and stiffens the materials forming a crust. As a settlement preventative
measure, this system might be only partially successful. It may also be insufficiently deep to distribute
the loads from foundations into the underlying soils.

4.3.3 Articulations
Localized areas found between structure and external service yard can be designed as a form of
articulation or rocker slab, which as the name suggests, allows for normal movements irrespective of
on-going settlements. While rocker slabs may be a solution for particular applications, they can never
provide an operationally friendly solution for large storage areas or service yards.


4-6
JN: 5552-06
Problems associated with on-going settlement are often not addressed. For example in an area of
container stacking, where the surface is finished with crushed stone or sand, make-up for settlement
deflection can be relatively cheap and expedient. However the overall disruption to container handling
equipment can be dramatic and expensive. As more material is added to make up for on-going
settlement, the time between maintenance intervals can often get shorter, rather than longer, as the
surcharge effect of the additional material creates its own settlement.

4.4 Localized Improvement

4.4.1 Vibro-Compacted Concrete Columns

Another process, which can be loosely described as ground improvement, is the use of vibro-compacted
concrete columns (VCC). These can be formed with a specially adapted vibro-lance or vibrated hollow
mandrel. Either way, the construction sequence is similar in that penetration is achieved from ground
level to a suitable stratum whereupon high slump concrete or grout is pumped through the lance as it is
slowly retracted. The main difference between a VCC and a conventional pile is the function of the head.
It is possible to produce an enlarged mushroom-shaped head of pre-determined size with its level
terminating at the site platform.

Concrete columns can be spaced accurately to pre-determined dimensions, before a transfer mattress of
compacted granular material, usually complete with multiple layers of geogrid reinforcement, is placed
over the column heads. The pavement or floor is placed on top of the mattress with no physical
connection to the VCCs below. This allows the finish to be designed as ground bearing rather than the
much more expensive alternative of being fully suspended.

While attractive in principle, VCCs can have serious drawbacks. The installation mandrel usually has
very limited ability to overcome buried obstructions but unlike stone columns the re-positioning of VCCs
and the altering of the pre-designed grid spacing can have a serious effect on the workability of the
transfer mattress. Also the installation of VCCs and placement of a transfer mattress, rarely less than 2
feet thick, can pose problems for working levels. It would seem counterproductive and extremely
expensive to reduce the operational platform by the thickness of the transfer mattress before commencing
the installation of VCCs.

4.4.2 Jet Grouting

Jet grouting is a construction process that can be used to stabilize the ground to depths of around 100 feet.
It forms stiff columns or panels of soil-cement. It can be used to stabilize most soils, from soft clays and
silts to sands and gravel, and is suitable for mass treatment, linear treatment and inclusions.

Initially, a vertical borehole is drilled to the required depth. Very high-pressure (4,000 -7,000 psi)
water/cement slurry mixtures are pumped into the soil through one or more small nozzles at the foot of
the drill string. The jets completely break up the soil structure and mix the soil particles with the
water/cement slurry to create a homogeneous mass that solidifies in time. The work typically progresses
from the bottom of the borehole to the top. Excess material rises back up the borehole and is removed
from site as it emerges. Controlling the rotation of the drill rods enables either columns or panels to be


4-7
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formed. Columns are formed when the drill rods are rotated during lifting. Panels are formed by lifting
the drill rods without rotation.

There are three traditional jet grouting systems: single, double or triple. The high velocity and pressure of
the single jet system cuts and mixes the soil in-place. In double jet system, a shroud of compressed air is
pumped to surround the slurry jet, which enhances the penetration of the jet into the soil, increasing the
width of treatment. In the triple jet system, the cement slurry is pumped at a lower pressure at the bottom
of the drill string while high pressure water, surrounded by a shroud of compressed air, cuts and removes
the soil during the withdrawal of the drill rods. Selection of the most appropriate system is generally a
function of the in situ soil, the application, and the physical characteristics required for that application.

4.4.3 Deep Soil Mixing
The Deep Soil Mixing (DSM) process results in improved bearing capacity, reduced permeability, and
increased structural support. It uses a crane-mounted turntable or a self-contained drilling rig to rotate
and advance single or multiple shafts of augers and mixing paddles into the soil. The mixing paddles are
selected based on site requirements and will usually vary from three to six feet in diameter. Due to the
spacing of the shafts and placement of the mixing paddles, there is continuous overlap with adjacent soil-
cement columns. This technique is generally used for depths of up to 100 feet.

The shafts are slowly rotated into the ground by the drilling rig. The auger flights loosen the soil and the
paddles continue the mixing process. As the ground is penetrated, cement slurry is pumped through the
center of each shaft and out of holes in the paddles so that it mixes with the loosened soil. As the shafts
advance to a greater depth, the soil-cement mixture is remixed by additional mixing paddles spaced along
each shaft. The slurry helps to fluidize the soil around the paddles and assists in the breaking up of the
soil into smaller pieces.

After final depth is reached, the shafts remain lowered to the bottom of the hole for several rotations
while the settings are changed. At this point, the shafts are withdrawn to the surface. The mixing process
is repeated while continuing to pump slurry to the paddles at a reduced rate to achieve complete mixing.

The series of mixing paddles intermittently mix the soil in place. They are of limited length along the
shaft so that they do not carry soil up to the ground surface. However, as the soil is being loosened and
cement slurry is being introduced into the ground, excess material comes to the surface and needs to be
disposed of. This is a similar combination of the cement slurry and soil particles to that remaining in the
ground in the soil cement columns.

4.4.4 Geopier System

Geopier comprises in essence large size stone or aggregate columns. It is partly a displacement and partly
a replacement process, making it unique amongst foundation systems. Geopier is not an untried
technique, but has been in use for ground improvement under building foundations for many years in the
United States. It is used as an intermediate solution between shallow and deep foundations where
foundation loads are too great for some poorer soils. It has also been used to improve the load carrying
capacity in some good quality soils. Buildings of up to sixteen stories and with foundation loads of 200
kips have used the process. In-situ driven gravel columns were also used many years ago in Europe by
contractors who could not afford or find vibro-lances for sale or lease but wanted to take advantage of the
benefits available from the burgeoning ground treatment market.


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For each Geopier column a vertical access hole is bored with a conventional power auger. The depth
typically ranges from 5 feet up to 20 feet depending upon the load and soil conditions. The weak material
is removed form the hole during the excavation / auguring process. The hole is then backfilled with
competent, well graded aggregate material in a series of 1 foot layers. Each layer is tamped with a
specially designed tamper that imposes impact ramming energy to the surface of the layer until a
predetermined density or level of distortion is achieved. This sequence of infilling and in-situ compaction
is repeated until the operating platform level is reached. Further Geopiers are formed in a grid over the
area / foundation to be loaded. The interaction with the surrounding ground is clearly many times better
than could be produced by any vibro lance during the construction of other stone columns. This can be
proved by the volume of stone used and the cross-sectional area of the resulting column.

The ramming process not only causes compaction of the aggregate, but also causes it to displace laterally
into the softer sides of the hole. This causes the soil to be stressed and confined. This process increases
the bearing capacity of the soil and reduces its settlement potential. The overall increase in ground
stiffness and the high column density which can be achieved with this process is such that failure of the
resulting Geopier column will not take place due to bulging into the surrounding ground but as a
consequence of shearing of the column/soil interface. Down-the-hole tampers produce a stone column of
very high compressive strength. Another significant advantage offered exclusively by Geopier is the
ability to accommodate tension loads. Bearing plates and stressing bars can be installed prior to the in-
situ filling and staged compaction and relatively high levels of uplift can be resisted.


JN: 5552-06
5. The Subgrade........................................................................................................................ 5-1
5.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 5-1
5.2 Definitions..................................................................................................................... 5-1
5.3 Soil Types ..................................................................................................................... 5-2
5.4 Soil Properties .............................................................................................................. 5-4
5.4.1 Mass-Volume Relationships ..........................................................................................................................5-4
5.4.2 Classification .....................................................................................................................................................5-6
5.4.3 Moisture-Density Relationships ................................................................................................................ 5-10


5-1
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5. The Subgrade
5.1 Introduction
The subgrade generally has the largest influence on the pavement type, section and performance for a
particular type of operation. Materials in the upper part of the subgrade will be affected by the full range
of loads applied to the pavement, be they static or moving. Materials at a greater depth below the
pavement surface may not be affected by all of the traffic, but the increased load from stored cargo and
additional fill material will cause a change in their load environment. This is particularly the case in
many marine terminals where the terminal area has been developed beyond the natural shoreline. In these
situations the materials used for fill will be placed over the sea bed, which may be poor quality material,
but uneconomical to remove to competent strata. Fill placement may also be undertaken with little
opportunity for a high standard of compaction. Improvements undertaken after fill placement can be time
consuming or costly.

Failure to accurately characterize the subgrade properties as they will occur under the pavement can result
in high maintenance requirements or in premature pavement failure. This is a complex issue as the
eventual characteristics that occur under the pavement are likely to be different from the properties that
presently exist at the site, and greatly benefits from the designers experience. Changes in the moisture
content and in the state of compaction are likely to occur during construction and through the life of the
pavement. In some cases the existing ground surface may be well below the surface required to achieve
the design elevations. In addition, the subgrade materials will be variable both in location and depth, as a
consequence of differing constituent soils and properties. An overly cautious interpretation of the soil
properties could have significant economical impact on the project.

This section of the pavement design guideline sets out the material characteristic that affect pavement
performance, and the test methods that can be used to determine design values. In-place testing for site
investigation as well as laboratory testing is covered. The significance of the various procedures and tests
are described along with a method to account for the material variability when selecting design values.
Where possible, the text focuses on the soils that are more commonly encountered in the Port, although a
broader oversight is given. Details are also included on construction requirements and monitoring.

At the end of this section there is a brief description of some of the available techniques of ground
improvement that can be considered for use under the pavements and terminal structures. These
descriptions are not intended to be comprehensive, but the pavement designer should be aware of the way
these techniques can affect pavement performance, particularly at locations where they start or terminate.

5.2 Definitions
The following paragraphs set out the basic meanings of terms used for subgrade materials under
pavements. Many of the terms are in common use in the Los Angeles area, but some additional terms
have been borrowed from national and international sources to provide a fuller set of descriptions.

Natural Ground or soils consists of rock and mineral particles of various sizes, water and air, and are
described as:

Topsoil: This is generally encountered at the surface of undeveloped land and is highly organic.
It is not suitable for use under a pavement, but may be appropriate for landscaping purposes.


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Sub-Soil: This is generally composed of uncemented or weakly cemented, inert mineral particles
that are formed by the weathering of rock. The void space between the particles may contain
water and air. It may contain some traces of organic matter. The sub-soil may have good or poor
properties as a pavement subgrade, and as such may be suitable for fill material or may need to be
removed prior to constructing the pavement.

Bedrock: This is the solid material of the Earths crust. It can form a very strong subgrade but is
rarely exposed at pavement levels. The bed rock can support high loads and does not experience
significant deflections. The bedrock is often the source of aggregates for construction purposes.

Fill Material may be natural or man-made materials imported from an external source. Much of the fill
material used at the Port has been won from the channel dredging work and from other offshore sources.
In most applications it has been hydraulically placed. This entails pumping a suspension of soil particles
in water, from the dredging operation onto the land. The solid particles settle out and the water drains off
the site through settling basins. Coarse particles settle before the fine particles resulting in a variable fill
product.

The Subgrade comprises the natural and man-made materials that the pavement is constructed over. In
the majority of the Ports terminals the subgrade consists of fill material from natural sources that have
been placed over many years.

The Formation is the interface between the pavement and the subgrade. This is a borrowed term, but is
very useful in establishing the top of the subgrade. It is the level at which the design values for the
subgrade are determined. Materials below this interface are not considered part of the pavement
structure.

A Capping Layer is imported material used to create a working platform over poorer subgrade materials.
The capping layer material may not have a high level of quality control, but will be distinctly better than
the underlying material. It will be constructed in accordance with defined procedures. The formation is
typically at the top of the capping layer when this material is present.

Improved subgrade is a working platform created by modifying the existing subgrade materials. The
improvement can be the result of mechanical treatment, or by the addition of other materials such as
aggregates or chemicals in low quantities. In essence, this layer may be considered as a capping layer
formed from the local materials and additives, and as such, the formation is typically at its top surface.

Embankment is material imported from a borrow area and compacted above the ground or tidal water
level in a controlled manner. The degree of compaction will frequently increase as the height of the
embankment increases, as it is not practical to achieve high degrees of compaction immediately over
softer substrates.

5.3 Soil Types
Different soil types result from weathering of bedrock. Physical weathering of bedrock by wind, water,
frost, gravity, plants, etc. produces granular soils. Gravel and coarse sand particles are typically spherical
or cubical rock fragments containing several minerals. Fine sand and silt particles are predominantly
spherical or cubical mineral grains.


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Soils can be coarse grained or fine grained, dependent on whether they pass the No. 200 sieve.

The engineering properties of coarse grained soils are highly influenced by the gradation and particle
shape and texture. Moisture does not have a significant influence on the performance of coarse grained
granular soils. The properties of fine grained soils are influenced by electrical charges. Moisture can
have a significant influence.

The structure of granular soils is arranged with each particle in direct contact with most of their
neighbors. There are voids between the particles where they are not in contact, and the structure may
range from very loose with a lot of void space to very dense with little void space. Poorly graded
granular soils have many particles of similar size and comparatively large voids between them. Well
graded materials have smaller particles between the larger particles, partially filling the voids and making
them smaller. There is no bonding of the particles.

A. Granular Soils

1. Coarse Grained
Boulders are pieces of bedrock retained on a 12" square sieve
Cobbles are pieces of bedrock retained on a 3" square sieve
Gravel is particles of bedrock retained on a No.4 sieve (4.75mm)
Sand is particles of bedrock retained on a No. 200 sieve (75m)

2. Fine Grained
Silt is particles of bedrock passing a No. 200 sieve, and has a Plasticity Index less than 4

Chemical weathering occurs when water and chemical agents leach minerals from bedrock and granular
soils to produce groups of crystalline particles that are finer than 0.002 mm. Clays are almost exclusively
platy shaped mineral grains that have a high surface to mass ratio. As such their properties are affected
by surface forces. Clay minerals have significant negative charges on their surfaces.

The structure of cohesive soils is highly influenced by the inter-particle forces. When the negative
charges are on the faces and edges of the particles they are kept apart , but some clay minerals develop
positive charges on their edges that result in the edges being attracted to the faces of other particles.

Both physically weathered soils particles and chemically weathered soil particles are present in many
soils.

B. Cohesive soils
1. Fine Grained
Clay consists of mineral grains passing a No. 200 sieve, and has a Plasticity Index of 4 or
greater. Individual grains are finer than 5m

Some soils remain relatively close to the location of their parent rock. These soils are known as residual
soils. Other soils are transported long distances by ice, wind, water or other processes. The soils
transported by rivers are known as alluvial soils, and are predominantly composed of sand, silt and clay


5-4
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particles. Many of the soils in the harbor area are alluvial soils. These are frequently used as the fill
materials in the terminals.

SOIL PROPERTIES
GW-GM Well graded gravel with silt
GW-GC Well graded gravel with clay
GP-GM Poorly graded gravel with silt
GP-GC Poorly graded gravel with clay
SW-SM Well graded sand with silt
SW-SC Well graded sand with clay
SP-SM Poorly graded sand with silt
SP-SC Poorly graded sand with clay
CL-ML Silty clay
SC-SM Silty, clayey sand

5.4 Soil Properties
5.4.1 Mass-Volume Relationships
A sample of soil consists of dry solids, water and air. The relationships between the mass and volume of
these components are used in the calculation of several important soils properties. Density, dry density,
relative density, water content, void ratio, degree of saturation and porosity can be determined, leading to
the development of further parameters. These include the state of compaction, the permeability and the
potential for settlement.

Under most conditions a soil is partially saturated and contains dry solid, water and air. These are
represented in the three-phase diagram below. When a soil is completely dry or completely saturated it
will only have two phases, with the water content and air content being zero respectively.


5-5
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Figure 5-1 Three phase diagram of soil

Symbols
Total Mass of the soil: M
Total Volume of the soil: V
Mass and volume of dry solids: Ms and Vs
Mass and volume of water: Mw and Vw
Mass and volume of air: Ma and Va

The Volume of Voids (Vv) is the volume of the air and the volume of the water.

Vv = Va + Vw

The Bulk Density () of the soil is the ratio of its mass to its volume.

= M / V

The Dry Density (d) is the ratio of the mass of dry solids to the total volume.

d = Ms / V

The Relative Density (r) or Specific Gravity (Gs) is the ratio of the mass of dry solids to the mass of an
equal volume of water.

r = Gs = Ms / (Vs x w)

The Water Content (w) or moisture content (m) is the ratio of the mass of dry solids to the mass of water.
AIR
WATER
SOLIDS
Va
Vw
Vs
Vv
V
Ma
Mw
Ms
M


5-6
JN: 5552-06

w = m = Mw / Ms

The Air Content (A) is expressed as

A = n (1-Sr) or A = (e w x Gs) / (1 + e)

The Degree of Saturation (S) is the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of voids.

S = Vw / Vv

The Void ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume dry solids.

e = Vv / Vs

The Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of the soil.

n = Vv / V

The void ratio and porosity are related as follows:

e = n / (1 n) or n = e / (1 + e)

The volume and mass of a soil can be determined on undisturbed specimens of the soil. The moisture
content of the soil can be determined by drying a test specimen in an oven until it reaches a constant
mass. ASTM D 2216 sets out a typical procedure. The water content is calculated as the difference
between the mass of the specimen in its natural condition and in its dry condition. Specific gravity of fine
grained soils where all particles pass the No. 4 sieve can be determined in accordance with ASTM D 854.
If coarser particles are retained on the No. 4 sieve they should be tested in accordance with ASTM C127.

5.4.2 Classification

Soil materials can be classified dependent on several different properties. These include their particle size
distribution, their Atterberg limits,

The particle size analysis of soils is undertaken using the test methods set out in ASTM D 422. This test
method consists of two procedures. The first test procedure involves passing a sample of soil through a
nest of sieves to determine the distribution of particle sizes larger than a No. 200 sieve. The top sieve has
the largest apertures and the size of the apertures decreases by approximately half with each successive
sieve. The smallest sieve is the No. 200 sieve. Typical sieve sizes may include 3", 2",1-1/2", 1", 3/4",
3/8", No. 4, No. 8, No. 10, No. 16, No. 20, No. 30, No. 40, No. 50, No. 60, No. 100, No. 140 and No.
200. However, the procedure may be undertaken with sieves above a No. 10 sieve, and then with sieves
No. 10 and below. The nest of sieves is agitated to cause the particles to drop through each sieve until
they reach a sieve that has apertures that are too small for them to pass. The original mass and the mass
retained on each sieve, including the bottom collection pan are measured. The results are presented as the
amount retained on each sieve, or more commonly as the amount passing each sieve.


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Figure 5-2 Equipment to do particle size analysis using sieves.

The second procedure is used to determine the distribution of particle sizes smaller than a No. 200 sieve.
It involves a sedimentation process using a hydrometer, as shown in Figure 5-3. The sample is
thoroughly soaked and dispersed in distilled water and allowed to settle. Hydrometer readings are taken
are set intervals during the sedimentation period to determine the specific gravity of the suspension. The
larger particles settle out more quickly than the smaller particles, changing the hydrometer readings.
Stokes Law is used to calculate the size of particles that have settled a known distance in the suspension
at each interval. Using the data a particle size distribution can be prepared. Typical sizes that are
reported are 0.074 mm, 0.005 mm and 0.001 mm.

Figure 5-3 Sedimentation process using a hydrometer


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The results are plotted on grain size distribution charts as shown below and a curve is drawn through the
points. Steep curves represent uniformly graded materials with a narrow range of article sizes. Flat curves
represent well graded materials with a wide range of particle sizes. The shape of the curve can be used
for comparing different soil samples. Two coefficients are used for this purpose. The uniformity
coefficient (C
u
) is determined by dividing the particle size at 60% passing (D
60
) by the particle size at
10% passing(D
10
). The coefficient of curvature (C
c
) is determined by dividing the particle size at 30%
passing (D
30
) squared, by the product of the particle size at 60% passing and the particle size at 10%
passing.

C
u
= D
60
/ D
10

C
c
= D
30
2
/ (D
60
X D
10
)

The particle sizes are used to describe the textural classification of the soils. The following definitions are
used, and are described more fully in ASTM D 2487.

Gravel: passing the 3" (75 mm) sieve and retained on the No.4 (4.75 mm) sieve
Coarse gravel: passing 3" (75 mm) sieve and retained on the 3/4" (19 mm) sieve
Fine gravel: passing 3/4" (19 mm) sieve and retained on the N0. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve
Sand: passing the No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve and retained on the No. 200 (0.0075 mm) sieve.
Coarse sand: passing the No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve and retained on the No. 10 (2.0 mm) sieve.
Medium sand: passing the No. 10 (2.0 mm) sieve and retained on the No. 40 (0.425 mm) sieve.
Fine sand: passing the No. 40 (0.425 mm) sieve and retained on the No. 200 (0.075 mm) sieve.
Silt: 0.075 mm to 0.005 mm
Clay: 0.005 mm to 0.001 mm

The particles size distribution can also provide an indication of performance of the material as a subgrade,
but experience and great care is required. Additional testing should always be used to determine the
actual properties required. Generalizations include that the coarser a soil the better the engineering
properties. The coarser the soil the more permeable it will be. The finer a soil is the greater the capillary
forces. The gradation curves can also be used for approximating properties and requirements during
stabilization work.

The Atterberg Limits are named after Albert Atterberg, who originally defined six limits of consistency of
fine grained soils. They included the upper limit of viscous flow, the liquid limit, the sticky limit, the
cohesion limit, the plastic limit and the shrinkage limit. Today the Liquid Limit (LL) and the Plastic
Limit (PL) are the only ones regularly used. Occasionally the Shrinkage Limit (SL) may be determined.
Two indices are also used regularly with the Atterberg limits. These are the Plasticity Index (PI) and the
Liquidity Index (LI). Figure 5-4 and Figure 5-5 show the preparation and equipment for Atterberg Limits
test.


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Figure 5-4 Atterberg Limits test preparation

Figure 5-5: Equipment used for Atterberg Limits test

The Liquid Limit is the water content at the boundary between the semi-liquid state and the plastic state
of the soil. Test apparatus described in ASTM D 4318 includes a flat brass cup mounted on an edge
pivot. It is lifted and dropped a set distance onto a rubber using a cam mechanism. A soil sample is
mixed with a set amount of water to form a paste. The paste is placed in the cup. Leveled off and grooved
with a standard tool. The cup is dropped repeatedly until the groove closes over half an inch. The Liquid
Limit is defined as the water content that will cause it to close after twenty five drops.


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The Plastic Limit is the water content at the boundary between the plastic state and semi-solid state of a
soil. It is determined by molding a plastic sample of the soil mixed with water into a ball and then into a
1/4" diameter roll as described in ASTM D 4318. It is them rolled on a glass surface utill the thread is
1/8" diameter. The plastic limit is the water content at which the thread starts to break up both
longitudinally and transversely at the 1/8" diameter.

The Shrinkage Limit is the point where no further volume reduction occurs on drying, but the degree of
moisture saturation is still 100 percent. It is typically assumed to represent the amount of water required
to fill the voids of a cohesive soil. It can be used to evaluate the shrinkage potential and the likelihood of
crack development in cohesive soils.

The Plasticity Index is the difference between the Liquid Limit and the Plastic Limit. It is the rage of
water content through which the soil exhibits plastic behavior. The Liquidity Limit is the ratio of
difference between the natural water content and the Plastic Limit of the soil to its Plasticity Index. It is
beneficial for clarifying the consequence of the natural water content of the soil. The soil will behave as a
solid when its Liquidity Limit is less than zero, and as plastic if it is between zero and one. The soil will
behave as a viscous liquid when the Liquidity Limit is greater than one.

The Liquid Limit and the Plasticity Index are used to classify fine grained soils in accordance with ASTM
D 2487. When the Liquid Limit is plotted against the Plasticity Index on the Plasticity Chart, clays are
above the A-Line and silts are below. High plasticity soils are above 50% LL and low plasticity soils are
below.

These properties can also provide an indication of performance of the material as a subgrade, but
experience and great care is required. Additional testing should always be used to determine the actual
properties required. Generalizations include that the higher the Liquid Limit the poorer the properties of
the soil. Also a low plasticity Index is indicative of granular materials. The properties can also be useful
in determining the type of stabilizing agent that might be suitable.

5.4.3 Moisture -Density Relationships

The engineering properties of soils increase as the density of the soils increase. It is therefore important
to have a thorough understanding of the compaction characteristics of the soils in the subgrade.
Considering the Phase Diagram above, the compaction process involves reducing the air space (Va) from
the soil by reorienting and packing the partic les more closely together. The water content (Vw) does not
change until the voids become completely full of water (Vv = Vw). To achieve further compaction, the
water content needs to be reduced and further compaction can occur up to the point where the particles
have reached their maximum packing density. Some moisture is necessary to act as a lubricant so that the
particles can be more readily reoriented. At low water contents most soils become more difficult to
compact.

The relationship between moisture content and density should be thoroughly understood to ensure that the
optimum density of each soil type is achieved during construction. There are two test methods that are
used to this end, referred to generally as Proctor test and the modified Proctor test. The former was
proposed by R. R. Proctor in 1933. The procedure involves compacting a sample of the subgrade soil in a
standardized 4" or 6" diameter mold using a 5.5 lb. hammer dropped 25 or 56 times from a height of 12".
The modified test was developed to more closely simulate the compactive effort that can be achieved with
modern vibratory compaction equipment, as shown in the Figure 5-6. This procedure uses a higher


5-11
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specific energy input (approximately 56 ft-lbf/ft
3
as opposed to 12,400 ft-lbf/ft
3
in the standard test). The
procedure involves compacting soil in the standardized molds using a 10-lb. hammer dropped 25 or 56
times from a height of 18 in. The tests are repeated at several different moisture contents.

Figure 5-6: Vibratory compaction equipment

When the moisture content is plotted against dry density a curve is produced, and typical curves from
both tests are depicted. The peak on each curve represent the maximum test density and the optimum
moisture content that relates to that density and compactive effort. The dry density can be calculated
from the following equation when the air content and the water content are known.

d = Gs x w (1 - A) / (1 + w x Gs)


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The maximum dry density at any moisture content occurs when the air content (A) is zero. As noted
above, as the compactive effort is increased the maximum density increases and the optimum moisture
content reduces. However, the air content is similar. In general, the coarser the soil the greater the
maximum dry density, and the lower the plasticity the greater the maximum dry density.


JN: 5552-06
6. Hot Mix Asphalt Design, Construction, and Quality Assurance............................................ 6-1
6.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 6-1
6.2 Distresses in Flexible Pavements ................................................................................... 6-2
6.2.1 Rutting ............................................................................................................................................................... 6-2
6.2.2 Fatigue Cracking............................................................................................................................................. 6-5
6.2.3 Low-Temperature Cracking ........................................................................................................................ 6-6
6.2.4 Age-Related Cracking.................................................................................................................................... 6-6
6.2.5 Moisture Damage ............................................................................................................................................ 6-6
6.2.6 Raveling ............................................................................................................................................................. 6-7
6.2.7 Rate of Deterioration...................................................................................................................................... 6-8
6.3 HMA Mix Design........................................................................................................ 6-10
6.3.1 Step 1: Materials Selection.........................................................................................................................6-10
6.3.2 Step 2: Selection of the Design Aggregate Structure...........................................................................6-18
6.3.3 Step 3: Determination of Optimum Asphalt Content .........................................................................6-22
6.3.4 Step 4: Evaluation of the Moisture Sensitivity......................................................................................6-45


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6. Hot Mix Asphalt Design, Construction, and Quality Assurance
6.1 Introduction

Prior to beginning to design a pavement, it is important for the designer or design team to develop a
vision as to how that pavement will perform. This is important because there can be trade offs in the
design process between certain performance expectations. For example, most designers will want a
flexible pavement to be both rut resistant and durable (resistant to cracking and raveling). One of the
most common methods of achieving rut resistance in hot mix asphalt (HMA) pavement is to increase the
laboratory compaction effort, which in turn reduces the design asphalt content. While this does improve
resistance to rutting, durability tends to be decreased as a consequence. However, there are choices that
can be made during materials selection to help achieve both goals. Another example might be that
although the designer desires the pavement to last for 30 years without structural strengthening or
rehabilitation, there is only sufficient budget to provide a pavement that will be expected to last for 10
years. Then a designer may need to consider which performance elements can be sacrificed while still
providing a good foundation for future strengthening or upgrade.

A typical list of performance expectations for a flexible or HMA pavement is as follows:

Rut Resistant
Durable
Resists Cracking
Resists Raveling
Resists Surface Indentation
Good Surface Drainage
Smooth
Flexible
Skid Resistant
Readily Repairable
Economical

With the exception of being readily repairable, all of these performance parameters are affected by the
design, construction, and quality assurance process. If only one of these elements: design, construction,
or quality assurance is neglected, the pavement may not perform as desired. Skid resistance is generally
not a concern for a port terminal due to the low traffic speeds.

Once the designer has a vision of how the pavement will be expected to perform, the designer needs to
consider the following factors which will determine that performance:

Environment
Traffic loads and speed
Pavement Structure
Design life/Cost
Environmental conditions are influenced by the location of the site. Materials selection for a pavement
designed for Los Angeles, CA would be different than materials selection for Boston, MA, particularly in
terms of binder grade. More information on binder grade will be provided in a later section.


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Traffic loads will vary depending on the purpose of the pavement. A parking lot for port employees or
empty containers will have significantly different loadings as compared to a container terminal. Further
within a container terminal, differing loads can be expected between a rubber-tire gantry crane, port
picker and straddle carrier. The rubber-tire gantry crane will produce extremely channelized traffic This
channelization will tend to increase the propensity for permanent deformation or rutting. For an HMA
pavement, slower moving traffic is also more likely to cause rutting. For port pavements, all traffic in
container terminals, intermodal facilities and gate areas can be considered as slow moving.

Even if the correct materials are specified, the pavement may not perform if the pavement thickness or
structural design is not adequate. Too thin a pavement can lead to rutting and/or fatigue cracking
regardless of the materials selected. Poor or improper pavement drainage can also lead to premature
pavement failure. Certain material selections can be made, such as the inclusion of anti-stripping
additive, good in-place density and rich bottom layers to help guard against damage from moisture
resulting from shallow pavement cross-slopes or high water tables. These measures are not a substitute
for pavement drainage, where necessary.

Finally, the designer and materials engineer will need to consider cost. Limited budgets may force the use
of thinner pavements and/or lower quality materials. These choices, although required by economic
necessity, will reduce tend to reduce the performance of the pavement. Under no circumstances should
quality assurance be sacrificed by the owner in order to buy more expensive materials.

6.2 Distresses in Flexible Pavements

When discussing materials choices for flexible pavements, it is first advantageous to understand what
distress mechanisms typically effect flexible pavements. It is also helpful to understand which distresses
are more affected by pavement structural or thickness design and which are more affected by materials
selection. Types of distresses in HMA pavements may include:

Rutting
Cracking (fatigue, shrinkage, and thermal)
Bleeding
Roughness (typically due to construction or one or more of the above)
Weathering
Raveling

6.2.1 Rutting
There are three mechanisms that lead to rutting of HMA pavements: mechanical deformation,
consolidation, and shear flow. Mechanical deformation or structural rutting, illustrated in Figure 6-1,
results from inadequate base or subgrade support or inadequate pavement thickness. Localized
mechanical deformation might be attributed to soft spots in the subgrade or poor drainage. Soft spots can
often be identified at the time of construction by proof rolling.


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Figure 6-1 Schematic of Structural Rutting.

HMA pavements are typically constructed at approximately 7 to 8 percent in-place air voids. The
pavement is expected to densify or consolidate under traffic to approximately 4 percent air voids. This
consolidation can result in a limited amount of rutting on the pavement surface. The actual amount of
deformation which occurs tends to be less than that predicted based on vertical consolidation (Figure
6-2). If however the pavement densifies to less than 2 percent air voids, bleeding and or shear flow
rutting may occur.

Most HMA mix design systems are primarily concerned with the prevention of shear flow rutting. Shear
flow rutting results from instability of the HMA. Figure 6-2 shows a schematic of a pavement
exhibiting shear flow rutting. Note the characteristic humps of material on either side of the wheel
path which helps to differentiate this from other kinds of rutting. Shear flow rutting is exacerbated by
heavy slow moving loads or starting and stopping traffic. Shoving, due to starting and stopping, is a
similar phenomenon.


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2000 NCAT Test Track
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
Predicted Rutting based on Densification, mm
M
e
a
s
u
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e
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W
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e

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0

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i
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o
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E
S
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,

m
m
PG 67 Upper and Lower PG 70 Upper and Lower
PG 76 Upper PG 67 Lower PG 76 Upper and Lower

Figure 6-2 Predicted Rutting due to Consolidation Compared to Measured Rutting

Figure 6-3 Schematic of Shear Flow Rutting.


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There can be a number of causes for shear flow rutting. The following is a partial list of causes, which
will be discussed in more detail under materials selection:
Rounded aggregate (coarse or fine),
Excessive fines,
Improper gradation,
Moisture damage,
Low voids,
Low viscosity asphalt,
High asphalt content.

6.2.2 Fatigue Cracking
Fatigue cracking is a progressive form of deterioration which occurs in the wheelpath. Typically, it will
start as a longitudinal crack but has also been observed initially as a series of transverse cracks. As the
cracking continues, the cracks will interconnect forming alligator cracking as shown in Figure 6-4.
Finally, the cracked area may begin to pump fines from the base and subgrade, rut and/or pothole.
Cracking may initiate at the bottom of the pavement structure due to bending or at the top of the
pavement structure. Prevention of bottom up fatigue cracking is one of the two distresses typically
designed for when determining the pavement structure or thickness. Bottom-up fatigue cracking can be
delayed or prevented by minimizing the tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer. Bottom-up
fatigue cracking is not typically observed in highway pavements over 10 to 12 inches thick. Although
bottom-up fatigue cracking is primarily related to pavement thickness, materials choices, such as binder
grade, in-place density and asphalt content can influence the occurrence of fatigue cracking.

Figure 6-4 Typical Fatigue Cracking.


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Top down cracking is not believed to be related to pavement thickness. Various theories have been
developed to explain the occurrence of top down fatigue cracking. In many instances it is believed to be
related to construction, particularly paver segregation. Other theories suggest that radial tires may place
the pavement surface under the center of the tire in tension.

6.2.3 Low-Temperature Cracking
Low temperature cracking is an environmental distress. Stresses and strains are induced in the pavement
as the surface of the pavement cools. Cracking can initiate at the surface of the pavement based on a
single occurrence of a low temperature below the critical cracking temperature of the pavement. Once a
crack is initiated, it will typically progress to the full depth of the asphalt layer. In a highway pavement,
low-temperature cracks are characterized by a transverse crack for the full width of the pavement with
typical longitudinal spacing of 20 to 100 feet (6 to 30 meters). Low temperature cracking would not be
expected to be a concern in Los Angeles, CA. Low-temperature cracking is also believed to occur from
thermal fatigue, where the pavement eventually cracks from repeated heating and cooling cycles.
Thermal fatigue may be of concern in areas with daily temperature extremes, such as desert areas. Low-
temperature cracking is primarily affected by the properties of the asphalt binder.

6.2.4 Age-Related Cracking
There are a number of forms of age related cracking. One of the most common forms is block cracking.
Block cracking is typically only observed in large paved expanses such as airfields or container terminals
where there is little traffic. The mechanisms for block cracking are similar to low temperature cracking.
Their occurrence in areas with low traffic is related to thixotropic hardening or embrittlement of the
asphalt binder. This can be exacerbated by low pavement density (Roberts et al, 1996).

6.2.5 Moisture Damage
Moisture damage is often referred to as stripping. Stripping defines the condition where the asphalt
separates from the aggregate in the presence of moisture or an adhesive failure of the binder from the
aggregate. Figure 6-5 shows an example of coarse aggregate stripping in an underlying layer. Moisture
damage can also result in a loss of integrity of the asphalt binder or cohesive failure. Moisture damage in
the lower layers of a pavement can result in dramatic failures. Moisture damage may occur in the lower
layers of a pavement due to high water tables, or permeable surface layers. Surface seals, such as coal tar,
can also trap moisture vapor in the pavement structure, resulting in moisture damage.


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Figure 6-5 Stripping in Underlying Layer.

A number of factors can contribute to the likelihood of moisture damage. Cross-slopes, pavement
smoothness, spacing of drains and presences of pavement subsurface drainage can all affect the
possibility for moisture damage to occur. Materials selection and construction also play significant roles.
Larger nominal maximum aggregate size mixes tend to be more permeable at a given in-place density
than smaller nominal maximum size aggregates (NMAS). Similarly, for a given nominal maximum
aggregate size, coarse graded mixes tend to be more permeable than fine graded mixes are. Lower
asphalt content mixes will be more susceptible to moisture damage (for a given NMAS) than higher
asphalt content mixes. Some aggregate types, for instance granite, tend to be more susceptible to
moisture damage than other types, such as limestone. Hydrated lime or liquid anti-stripping agents can be
added to the mixture to improve the adhesion between the aggregate and binder.

Construction plays a large role in the potential for moisture damage. Segregation and low in-place
density increase the likelihood for pavement permeability. Once water enters the pavement structure, it
will be trapped unless proper pavement drainage is in-place.

6.2.6 Raveling
Raveling is a progressive loss of fines or coarse aggregate from the pavement surface. There are a
number of potential causes for raveling, including: moisture damage, low density, low asphalt content and
high fines content or a combination thereof. Figure 6-6 shows an example of raveling attributed to low
density and low asphalt content after six months. Poor quality aggregates can also lead to surface
deterioration in the form of popouts due to wetting and drying or freezing and thawing.


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Figure 6-6 Loss of Fines Raveling after Six Months.

6.2.7 Rate of Deterioration
As a pavement begins to experience deterioration, the pavements life can be extended, in an economical
manner through the prompt application of preventive maintenance and repairs. If the pavement condition
is allowed to continue to deteriorate unabated, the pavement will reach a point where the deterioration
rate will accelerate resulting in the need for more extensive rehabilitation or reconstruction, a much more
costly alternative (Figure 6-7). Similarly, a poorly constructed pavement, possibly due to poor or
inadequate construction inspection and quality assurance testing will begin its life at a lower point on the
deterioration curve and deteriorate more rapidly resulting in a shorter service life (Figure 6-8). A
pavement management system is necessary to ensure that repairs are preventive maintenance and repairs
are performed in a cost effective manner. Good quality assurance testing, preferably by an independent
lab, and good construction inspection are necessary to ensure that the pavement is constructed as
designed.


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Figure 6-7 Pavement Performance Curve.

Figure 6-8 Comparison of Pavement Performance Curves for Expected and Problem Construction
Quality.


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6.3 HMA Mix Design
There are four steps to the mix design process, shown in Figure 6-9.

1. materials selection;
2. selection of the design aggregate structure;
3. determination of optimum asphalt content;
4. evaluation of moisture sensitivity;

Three major mix design procedures will be discussed: Marshall, Hveem and Superpave. All three mix
design systems generally share the same four steps. The primary difference between the design systems
is the laboratory compaction method and effort used in the determination of the optimum asphalt content.
For the Marshall and Hveem systems, guidelines for materials selection were typically developed by the
specifying agency.

Materials selection consists of selecting the appropriate asphalt binder and coarse and fine aggregates.
Once the component coarse and fine aggregates are selected, the blend gradation of aggregates must be
designed. Then the optimum asphalt content for a given blend of aggregates must be determined.
Finally, moisture damage can be a concern regardless of the design system, so the moisture susceptibility
of the mixture should be tested.

The following sections describe the four steps of the mix design process in detail. The primary difference
of the three major mix design are discussed in the step 3, determination of optimum asphalt content.

6.3.1 Step 1: Materials Selection
6.3.1.1 Asphalt Binders
Asphalt binder is referred to by a number of names: asphalt, asphalt cement, oil and tar. In this text, it
will typically be referred to as binder or asphalt. Asphalt and tar are very different materials. Asphalt is
generally a by-product of the distillation (refining) of crude oil, although it can be naturally occurring,
such as Trinidad Lake Asphalt. The amount of asphalt produced from a given quantity of oil is dependent
on the crude source and refining techniques. Asphalt is soluble in petroleum products, such as gas and
oil. Tar is resistant to petroleum products. It is a byproduct of the distillation of coal to produce coke.
Coke is used as a fuel to smelt iron ore since it is smokeless. The International Agency for Research on
Cancer characterizes preparations that include more than 5 percent crude coal tar as class 1 carcinogens.
For a variety of environmental and health exposure reasons, tar is generally only used as a surface coating
in areas where fuel resistance is important.

Asphalt binders are viscoelastic materials. As such, the engineering properties of asphalt depending on
the loading time and temperature. At cold temperatures, asphalt acts as an elastic solid. At intermediate
(in-service) temperatures, asphalt can have both viscous (flow) and elastic behavior. If a can of asphalt
were turned on its side at room temperature, over a period of several hours the contents would begin to
flow out of the can. At higher temperature, the asphalt flows faster. At very high (mixing) temperatures,
asphalt will behave as a viscous liquid. Thus rate of loading and the temperature of the asphalt when it is
loaded are important considerations when selecting and asphalt binder.


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A number of systems have been developed to grade or specify asphalt binders based on their
engineering properties. The penetration test was adopted for grading asphalt cements by ASTM in 1903.
The penetration test measures the distance that a truncated sewing needle penetrates an asphalt samples
under a 100 g load in 5 seconds at a temperature of 77 F. The penetration is the depth of penetration in
0.1 mm, e.g. a penetration value of 60 indicates the needle penetrated the sample 6 mm. The penetration
grading system was adopted as ASTM D946. One of the main disadvantages of the penetrations system
was it only measured the stiffness of the asphalt at one temperature. The performance of a binder at 77 F
may be deceptive to its performance at higher (summer) or lower (winter) temperatures due to the concept
of temperature susceptibility, which will be discussed later. Also, there were no tests to indicate the
properties of the binder at mixing and compaction temperatures. Penetration grading is still used in
Europe in conjunction with other tests such as softening point.

In 1963, the viscosity grading system was developed by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)
and the Asphalt Institute to address problems during construction and at high temperatures (warm
summer). Viscosity is a fundamental engineering property and is defined as resistance to flow. The
viscosity of the binder was measured at two temperatures, 140 and 275 F. The first was selected to
represent typical pavement temperatures on a warm summer day. Note that pavement temperatures are
almost always higher than air temperatures. The second temperature was selected to determine the binder
properties near typical mixing and compaction temperatures. Absolute viscosity tests are performed at
140 F according to ASTM D 2171. A Cannon-Manning viscometer is placed in a temperature controlled
water bath. The viscometer is charged with asphalt. The asphalt is then conditioned to the test
temperature. Asphalt does not readily flow on its own at 140 F, so a slight vacuum is applied to one end
of the viscometer during the test. The viscosity is determined from the time it takes the asphalt to flow
past two timing marks. The viscosity is reported in units of Poise or PascalSeconds (1 PaSecond = 10
poises).

At 275 F, a Zietfuchs Cross-Arm Viscometer is used to measure viscosity according to ASTM D2170.
The viscometer is placed in a temperature controlled oil bath. At this temperature the asphalt will readily
flow. A slight vacuum is used to initiate flow over the siphon point after which flow will continue under
the influence of gravity and is termed the kinematic viscosity. The viscosity is again determined by
measuring the time it takes the binder to flow past two timing marks. Kinematic viscosity is reported in
units of centistokes (cSt) or mm
2
/s. Kinematic viscosity can be converted to absolute viscosity by
multiplying by the specific gravity of the binder.

The viscosity grades are specified in ASTM D 3381. In addition to the absolute and kinematic viscosity,
ASTM D 3381 includes the penetration test at 77 F and an absolute viscosity test on the thin-film oven
(TFO) residue. The thin-film oven simulates the expected aging of the binder which occurs during
mixing and construction. Because the asphalt is exposed to high temperatures in a thin film during
mixing and construction, the binder will age or stiffen due to the loss of lighter fractions (oils) from the
binder. A sample of the binder is placed in a pan in a thin (1/8 in.) layer and heated in a forced draft oven
to 325 F for 5 hours.

Commonly used viscosity or AC grades were AC-10 and AC-20. States in the southeastern U.S. later
developed AC-30, a grade readily suited to that climate. An AC-20 has a viscosity of 2000 400 poise at
140 F. Two criticisms of the viscosity grading system were that it did not provide safeguards against
low temperature cracking and it was not suitable for modified binders. The viscosity grading system was


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the most widely used grading system in the U.S. up to the adoption of the Superpave Performance Graded
Binder System.

Later in the 1960s the Aged Residue (AR) grading system was developed in an effort lead by the
California Department of Highways. This system was developed to address concerns over tender mix
problems during construction. This system is similar to the AC grading system except that the tests are
performed on the aged residue resulting from the rolling thin-film oven test (RTFO). The RTFO test is
similar in purpose to the TFO test. In the RTFO test a sample of binder is placed in a glass jar. The jar is
placed on a rotating rack in a 325 F oven for 75 minutes. The rotation of the rack coats the inside of the
bottle with a thin film of binder. It also prevents a scum from forming on the surface of the binder which
might prevent additional aging of the binder (this can occur in the TFO test). A nozzle blows dry
compressed air into the bottle with each revolution. Only the penetration test is performed on the original
binder. Absolute viscosity, kinematic viscosity and penetration are performed on the RTFO aged residue.
The penetration on the original binder is only used to calculate a percentage of retained penetration after
aging. The specifications for AR grades are provided in ASTM D3381 Table 3.

The AR grading system is highly regional and was only used by agencies on the west coast. The system
has no tests on the original (unaged) binder produced by the supplier. Testing times are slightly longer
due to the aging period. In addition, the AR grading system has the same two criticisms as the AC
grading system.

In 1994, the Performance Graded (PG) Binder system was released. The PG Binder system was a product
of the Strategic Highway Research Program, a five-year, 50 million dollar (on asphalt) effort. The PG
binder system is unique in that it provides specifications for the binder over the complete range of
temperatures expected during construction and in-service. The system also examines three states of
expected aging, the original or unaged binder (that which is delivered by the supplier), the RTFO aged
binder (the stiffness expected on the roadway immediately after construction), and the pressure aging
vessel (PAV) residue. The PAV residue represents the stiffness of the binder after 5 to 8 years of in-place
aging.

The PG system is based on climatic pavement temperatures, traffic speed (or loading rate), and traffic
volume. As noted previously, PG stands for performance grade. The first number represents the
average 7-day maximum pavement temperature for which the binder would be resistant to rutting, e.g. a
PG 64-XX would be expected to be resistant to rutting to a pavement temperature of 64 C (147 F) at
normal traffic speeds. The second number is the minimum pavement temperature for which the binder
would be expected to be resistant to low temperature cracking, e.g. a PG XX-22 would be expected to be
resistant to low temperature cracking to a temperature of -22 C (-8 F).
The properties of the binder at mixing and compaction temperatures are measured using the rotational or
Brookfield viscometer on the original binder according to AASHTO T316. The rotational viscometer
essentially measures the kinematic viscosity of the binder. A rotational viscometer measures the torque
required to turn a spindle of specified dimensions within a cup of asphalt binder at a specified
temperature. The torque is converted to a viscosity by the unit. The PG Binder specification includes a
maximum viscosity of 3.0 PaS at 135 C (275 F) to ensure that the binder can be pumped into the
asphalt plant. Typically tests are carried out at both 275 and 325 F in order to determine the mixing and
compaction temperature of the binder. This procedure tends to overestimate the mixing and compaction
temperature of a modified binder. The suppliers recommendation should be used for the mixing and


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compaction temperatures for a modified binder. Overheating a modified binder may destroy the modifier
resulting in a softer (less stiff) binder.

The performance of the binder with respect to rutting or permanent deformation is measured on both the
original and RTFO aged binder using the dynamic shear rheometer according to AASHTO T315. Testing
is conducted at the high temperature binder grade, e.g. a PG64-XX is tested at 64 C. The dynamic shear
rheometer basically applies an oscillatory load to a wafer of the binder sandwiched between two parallel
plates and measures the resulting strain (controlled stress rheometer) or applies a known strain and
measures the resulting stress. The test is conducted at an oscillatory frequency of 10 Hz, which
approximates 60 mph. The minimum specification value for the original (1.0 kPa) or the RTFO aged (2.2
kPa) binder stays the same regardless of the test temperature.

The performance of the binder with respect to fatigue cracking is also measured using the dynamic shear
rheometer. However the testing is conducted on the PAV residue. Binder which has previously been
subjected to RTFO aging is subject to heat and pressure for a period of 20 hours in the PAV to simulate 5
to 8 years of in-place aging. Both fatigue and low temperature cracking are more likely to occur as the
binder ages. Because the PAV aged binder is so stiff, testing is conducted using an 8 mm diameter
parallel plate instead of a 25 mm diameter parallel plate. He testing is conducted at an intermediate
temperature which is based on the high and low temperature grade. For example, the intermediate tests
for a PG 64-22 are conducted at 25 C (77 F). A maximum stiffness of 5,000 kPa is specified at the
appropriate intermediate test temperature.

The performance of the binder with respect to low temperature cracking is measured with the bending
beam rheometer (BBR) and if specified, the direct tension test. A pair of beams is cast from the PAV
residue to perform the BBR test (AASHTO T313). The BBR test simulates the response of the binder
due to a rapidly moving cold front. As the temperature of the pavement drops, tensile stresses are induced
in the pavement. The pavement will stretch of relax some of this stress. However, if the stress exceeds a
critical level, the pavement will crack. Even the most rapidly moving cold front may take several hours to
pass. In order to avoid such a long test time, the principle of time-temperature superposition is used.
Basically, if asphalt is tested at a faster loading rate or low temperature it will be stiffer. Therefore, the
BBR test is performed in 4 minutes at a temperature that is 10 C warmer than the expected low pavement
temperature. The effect of the faster loading rate and warmer temperature counteract one another making
the test more convenient to run. Two parameters are measured in the BBR test, the creep stiffness and
relaxation rate (m-value) at 60 seconds. A maximum creep stiffness of 300 MPa and a minimum m-value
of 0.300 are specified regardless of the grade low temperature. The direct tension test (AASHTO T314)
is used to better characterize the fracture properties of some modified binder systems.

Selection of the PG binder grade for a project is done through an evaluation of climatic data, expected
loading rate, and the expected number of repetitions. Climatic data is readily accessible using LTPPbind,
a software package developed for FHWA. LTPPbind can be downloaded for free at: www.ltppbind.com/.
The program allows you to select weather stations by GPS coordinates (latitude and longitude) or by
name and location. For Los Angeles WBO, the climatic grade which provides 98 percent reliability is a
PG 64-10. Specifying a climatic grade of binder with 98 percent reliability suggests that there is only one
chance in 20 that the specified pavement temperatures would be exceeded.

The base climatic grade is then modified for traffic speed and volume of truck traffic or other heavy
loading. The Superpave system recommends a one grade high temperature bump for slow moving traffic


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and a two grade high temperature bump for standing traffic. Thus, a designer would select a PG 70-10 for
a site with a base climatic grade of PG 64-10 expected to receive slow moving traffic. An argument can
easily be made that all port traffic is slow moving. Transfer areas and security booths would be classified
as having standing traffic. Further, areas with heavily channelized flow, such as where a rubber tired
gantry crane runs would most likely meet the requirements for a grade bump based on loading repetitions.
So a site with a PG 64-10 might be bumped to a PG 76-10 for transfer areas, security booths and RTGC
runways.

LTPPBind can be used to examine changes in binder grade as a function of depth. Shear flow rutting
typically occurs in highways in the upper 4 inches of the pavement structure. Therefore, high temperature
bumps should be considered to a depth of 4 inches. Mechanistic-empirical pavement analysis techniques
could be used to examine vertical strain and shear with depth for heavier loading such as a port picker,
straddle carrier or RTGC.

There is a general rule of thumb for PG binders that if the high and low temperature numbers are added
together (ignoring the minus sign) and they exceed 90, then the binder will need to be modified. For
example, A PG 76-10 would be 86, which means that it is borderline. Many west coast crude sources are
considered to be of lower quality and therefore may require modification.

There are numerous methods of modification available for asphalt binder. Some of the most common are,
Polymers
o Elastomers
o Plastomers
Air Blowing
Acid modification

Elastomeric polymers are preferred by many agencies. Elastic polymers form networks within the binder
which result in a greater elastic response as compared to a viscous response by the binder. That is when a
load is applied to the pavement, the asphalt is more likely to deform under the load but then return to its
original position. Elastomeric polymers are also believed to improve the fatigue and reflective cracking
resistance of the binder and in some cases improve resistance to moisture damage. Examples of
elastomeric polymers include:
Homopolymers
o Natural Rubber
Random copolymers
o Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR) also known as latex
Block copolymers
o Styrene Butadiene Diblock (SB)
o Styrene Butadiene Styrene (SBS)

Plastomers generally only stiffen the binder and do not improve the elastic properties of the binder. For
this reason cracking has been a concern with some plastomers. Some common examples of plastomers
might include: Novaphalt, Vestoplast and Polybilt. Novaphalt is produced using low density
polyethylene (LDPE), the same polymer plastic milk jugs are made from.

Separation can be a concern with some types of polymers. If the polymer is not properly cross-linked and
or agitated in the tank it can separate from the asphalt binder. Such binders are said to lack storage


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stability. Some polymer such as natural rubber, recycled tire rubber and Novaphalt are generally blended
on site at the contractors plant.

Air blowing has been used as a refining technique for many years to stiffen (increase the high temperature
grade of binders. Basically, the binder is aged under controlled conditions at the refinery. This technique
only improves the rutting susceptibility of the binder.

Acid modification has received more attention in recent years. There are multiple types of acid that can
be used to modify acids. Some types are better than others. Poly-phosphoric acid (PPA) would be a
preferred type for acid modification. Table 6-1 shows a comparison between the properties of two
different types of acid used to modify asphalt. It should be noted that the effectiveness of acid
modification varies by crude type. Acid modification can be very beneficial with Venezuelan base crude
sources. It has been reported to have little effect on west coast crude sources.

One potential concern with acid modification is an increased susceptibility to moisture damage. In some
cases, mixes with binders modified with PPA can have increased moisture susceptibility. Unreacted
acidity in the binder could react with basic materials such as standard amine based anti-stripping agents or
lime. This would both neutralize

Table 6-1 Acid Modification
Phosphoric
Acid
Poly- Phosphoric
Acid (PPA)
Chemical Formula H3PO4 Hn+2(PnO3n+1)
Viscosity (room temp., cps) 10 max. 800 min.
Free Water Content 15% min. 0%
Molecular Weight (g/mol) 98 258 min.

the anti-stripping agent and could result in a softer binder grade. Appropriate liquid anti-stripping agents
are available for use with PPA.

The PG binder grading system is supposed to be blind to the type of modification. Agencies that desire a
specific kind of modification, such as an elastic polymer, have resorted to PG+ specifications. Examples
of PG+ specifications might be the addition on a maximum phase angle for the DSR test performed on the
original binder or a minimum elastic recovery values. The phase angle is a measure of the elastic
response of the binder. Most neat (unmodified) binders have a phase angle close to 90 degrees.
Maximum phase angle specifications of 60 to 70 are used to ensure the inclus ion of elastic polymers.

6.3.1.2 Aggregate Properties

Aggregate properties can be categorized to reflect a few performance concerns: tests related to specific
gravity and absorption (used to calculate volumetric properties which will be discussed later), tests for
aggregate durability, tests for aggregate angularity and texture and tests for aggregate shape.


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The Superpave mix design system codified the aggregate properties often specified by agencies with other
mix design systems. Superpave specifies by consensus and source properties. Consensus properties vary
by traffic ESALs but are to be consistent throughout the U.S. Source properties are set by the agency to
reflect local geology. The consensus aggregate properties include:
Fine Aggregate Angularity (AASHTO T304) used to prevent too much rounded natural sand
which may lead to tenderness of the mix during construction and rutting.
Sand Equivalent (AASHTO T176) used to reduce clay-like particles in the mix. The asphalt
may stick to the clay like particles coating the aggregate particles and then strip in the presence
of moisture.
Flat and Elongated Particles (ASTM D4791) Flat or elongated particles may break under the
roller exposing uncoated faces or reorient under traffic leading to flushing.
Coarse Aggregate Angularity (ASTM D5821) used to prevent uncrushed gravel particles which
may lead to rutting or shear instability.
The fine aggregate angularity or uncompacted voids in fine aggregate test is based on the premise that
materials that are more angular, e.g. crushed particles, or particles that have more surface texture will not
pack together as tightly as rounded or smooth particles would. It also recognizes the fact that not all
natural sands are rounded or bad. Some natural sand can be beneficial in a mix design. The equipment
needed to conduct the uncompacted voids test is shown in Figure 6-9. Superpave specifies AASHTO
T304 mehtod A, which uses a standardized gradation. A standardized gradation is used to compare
angularity, since varying percentages of material passing the 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve could alter the
results even for materials with the same angularity. The bulk specific gravity of the fine aggregate is
required to calculate the volume of the aggregate in the cylinder of known volume. The Superpave
criteria for uncompacted voids are specified on the blend of fine aggregate, not an individual stockpile.

% 100
)) ( (

=
V
G M V
voids d uncompacte
sb

where,
V = the calibrated volume of the cylinder in cubic centimeters (approximately 100),
M = the mass of the uncompacted aggregate, struck off in the cylinder, and


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G
sb
= the fine aggregate specific gravity.

Figure 6-9 Uncompacted Voids in Fine Aggregate Apparatus.

Two source properties are specified in the Superpave mix design system, LA Abrasion and sulfate
soundness. LA Abrasion (AASHTO T95/ ASTM C131) is a measure of expected breakdown during
handling, mixing and placement. Such breakdown can alter the HMA gradation resulting in a mixture
that does not meet volumetric properties. This breakdown can generally be accounted for in the design
process.

The sulfate soundness test is used to evaluate the durability of aggregate sources to freezing and thawing
as well as wetting and drying. Sulfate soundness is performed according to AASHTO T104. Either
magnesium or sodium sulfate can be used too conduct the test. Researchers believe the results from the
magnesium sulfate soundness test are better correlated with performance. The test was developed in the
19
th
century to simulate freezing and thawing. A sample of the aggregate is soaked in a saturated sulfate
solution. The saturated aggregates are then placed in a drying oven. When the sulfate crystallizes in the
pores of the aggregate, it creates pore pressure similar to freezing water. Results from the micro-deval
test have been correlated to the sulfate soundness test. The micro-deval test also provides a measure of an
aggregates abrasion resistance.


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Table 6-2 Comparison of Aggregate Criteria for Equivalent Traffic
Property Port of LA Item P401 Superpave
Coarse Aggregate Angularity, % 1 and 2 crushed
faces
NA/90 85/70 95/90
1
Flat and Elongated Particles, maximum to
minimum dimension exceeding 5:1 ratio
NA 8 Max. 10 Max.
Uncompacted voids in fine aggregate NA NA 45 Min.
1
Natural Sand, % 10 Max. 15 Max. NA
Sand Equivalent value 50 Min. 45 Min. 45 Min.
1
1
Varies by traffic level.

6.3.2 Step 2: Selection of the Design Aggregate Structure

Gradation bands are generally specified by a nominal or a maximum aggregate size. The Superpave mix
design system attempted to standardize the definitions of nominal and maximum aggregate size.

Nominal maximum aggregate size (NMAS) is defined as one sieve size larger than the first
sieve to cumulatively retain more than 10 percent of the blend (or have less than 90 percent
passing).
Maximum aggregate size is one sieve size larger than the nominal maximum aggregate size.

Superpave includes gradation control points for 4.75, 9.5, 12.5, 19.0, 25.0 and 37.5 mm NMAS mixes. It
is generally believed that mixes with larger NMAS are stronger or more rut resistant than mixes made
from smaller aggregate. Larger NMAS mixtures are probably more resistant to indentation than smaller
NMAS mixes are. However, it would be unlikely that even a 25 mm NMAS mix could resist indentation
from hatch covers or even the corners of containers. The asphalt content of a mixture is driven by the
total surface area of the aggregate that must be coated with asphalt. Smaller particles have more surface
area for an equivalent volume of aggregate than larger particles have. Therefore, larger NMAS mixtures
tend to have lower optimum asphalt contents than smaller NMAS size mixtures. Mixtures with lower
asphalt contents are also less likely to rut. The tradeoff comes in terms of durability. Larger NMAS
mixtures tend to be more permeable to water at a given in-place density. They also tend to be more prone
to durability problems, such as raveling, and more susceptible to construction problems, such as
segregation. Therefore, a surface course produced with a smaller NMAS aggregate, such as 12.5 or 19.0
mm is advisable.

Superpave gradations are represented by a 0.45 power curve. The x-axis is a logarithmic plot of the sieve
size opening, in mm, raised to the 0.45 power. The y-axis is the percent passing the corresponding sieve
size. The maximum density line is drawn from the origin to 100 percent passing the maximum sieve size.
The maximum density line is supposed to represent the gradation for which the particles would pack
together resulting in the minimum void space between the particles or the gradation that would result in
the densest packing of the aggregate.

The Superpave mix design system originally included a football shaped area along the maximum density
line between the 0.300 (No. 50) sieve and the 2.36 mm (No. 8) sieve referred to as the restricted zone.
Many natural sands have a hump in their gradation or a larger percentage of material retained near the
0.600 mm (No. 30) sieve. The restricted zone was another tool to work in conjunction with the fine


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aggregate angularity test to preclude excess amounts of natural sand. Research has shown that many
mixes with good performance, both historically and based on laboratory performance tests pass through
the restricted zone. Consequently, the restricted zone has been eliminated from current Superpave
specifications.

Superpave only includes a minimum number of control points and not a gradation band such as that
historically used by other mix design systems/specifications. Control points include the 0.075 mm (No.
200), 2.36 mm (No. 8), and NMAS sieve size. Figure 6-10 illustrates the various components of the
Superpave gradation bands including the now defunct restricted zone.

Figure 6-10 Superpave Gradation Band for 12.5 mm NMAS Mixture

The Superpave system gives the designer great freedom when developing a mix design and is adaptable to
a wide range of materials. However from the owners standpoint, it can result in mixes with very
different appearance and potentially performance. Figure 6-11 illustrates three different gradations
produced from the same aggregate stockpiles. All three gradations would be considered dense-graded.
Gradations below the maximum density line are called coarse graded mixes. Gradations that are above
the maximum density line are called fine graded mixes. Gradations close to the maximum density line are
the most densely graded mixes. The appearance of the three gradations in terms of surface texture can
vary dramatically.

Airfields tend to specify fine to densely graded mixtures to reduce the chance for foreign object damage.
Figure 6-12 shows a comparison of the 25.0 mm NMAS gradation bands for the X-mix used by Port of
LA, the FAA P401, and the Superpave control points. Figure 6-13 shows a comparison of the 19.0 mm


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NMAS gradation bands for the Y-mix used by Port of LA, the FAA P401, and the Superpave control
points. As can be seen from Figure 6-12 and Figure 6-13, The Port gradations are consistently coarser
than the P401 mixes. The extremes of the Port and P401 gradations correspond to the Superpave control
points.

When performing a mix design, it is important to account for the expected breakdown of the aggregate.
Ideally, the expected breakdown would be known for a given aggregate source based on experience. If
not, the addition of 1 percent passing the 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve is a reasonable starting point. The
additional dust can be collected from the baghouse or by sieving the fine aggregate.

There are a number of methods to batch aggregate samples for mix design. For large samples, e.g. more
than 5,000 g, the aggregates can be dumped into a pan and bulk batched using a flat bottom scoop. It is
important that the scoop is used run along the bottom of the pan. Smaller samples, such as those used in
Marshall design, require fractionation. The aggregates can be combined as for bulk batching and then
fractionated into all of the sieve sizes for precise control of the gradation. The two draw back of this
method are that it is then impossible to change the aggregate percentages (particularly if natural sand or
crushed aggregates from different sources are used), and adherent fines can stick to the coarse aggregate.
The second method is to fractionate each aggregate source or stockpile individually. Some designers will
only fractionate the material down to the 2.36 mm (No. 8) sieve. This authors experience suggests that
such a combined fine fraction is easy to segregate resulting in variable test results during mix design.
Regardless of the method used to batch or combine the aggregates it is absolutely necessary to run a
washed gradation on a sample batched in the same manner as the samples prepared for mix design to
determine the gradation of the batched samples matches the design gradation. Ignoring this step invites a
great deal of frustration.
9.5 mm Nominal Sieve Size
0
.
6
0
1
.
1
8
2
.
3
6
4
.
7
5
9
.
5
0
1
2
.
5
0
0
.
0
7
5
0
.
1
5
0
.
3
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Sieve Size (mm)
P
e
r
c
e
n
t

P
a
s
s
i
n
g
Blend 1
Blend 2
Blend 3

Figure 6-11 Examples Coarse, Dense and Fine Gradations
Fine
Coarse


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2
.
3
6
1
.
1
8
0
.
6
0
0
.
3
0
0
.
1
5
0
.
0
7
5
3
7
.
5
0
2
5
.
0
0
1
9
.
0
0
1
2
.
5
0
9
.
5
0
4
.
7
5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Sieve Size (mm)
P
e
r
c
e
n
t

P
a
s
s
i
n
g
X-Mix
P401

Figure 6-12 Comparison of X-Mix, P401 and Superpave


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1
.
1
8
0
.
6
0
0
.
3
0
0
.
1
5
0
.
0
7
5
2
5
.
0
0
1
9
.
0
0
1
2
.
5
0
9
.
5
0
4
.
7
5
2
.
3
6
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Sieve Size (mm)
P
e
r
c
e
n
t

P
a
s
s
i
n
g
X-Mix
P401

Figure 6-13 Comparison of Y-Mix, P401 and Superpave

6.3.3 Step 3: Determination of Optimum Asphalt Content

Three systems of mix design will be discussed: Marshall, Hveem and Superpave. All three use, to one
extent or another, the concept of volumetric properties to determine the optimum asphalt content of the
mix. Therefore, a brief introduction to volumetric properties will be provided first.

6.3.3.1 Volumetric Properties

Volumetric properties are based on the fact that all matter has mass and occupies space. Volumetric
properties are the relationship between mass and volume. Two concepts are commonly used to describe
these relationships, density and specific gravity. Density is the unit weight of the material, typically
expressed in lbs/ft
3
or kg/m
3
. Unit weight is equal to:

W
G Weight Unit =
where,
G = specific gravity of the material, and
W
= the density of water, either 62.4 lbs/ft
3
or 1.000 g/cm
3
.

Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass to the volumes of an object to that of water at the same
temperature.


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Water Volume
Water Mass
Solid Volume
Solid Mass
G =
In the metric system, since the density of water is 1.000, this simplifies to the mass of an object over the
volume of the object. Five different gravities, defined below, are used in the calculation of volumetric
properties for HMA:
G
b
= Specific gravity of the binder, typically close to 1.03
G
sb
= Bulk specific gravity of the aggregate
G
se
= Effective specific gravity of the aggregate
G
mb
= Bulk specific gravity of the mixture
G
mm
= Maximum specific gravity of the mixture

The bulk specific gravity of the fine aggregate is determined according to AASHTO T84 or ASTM C127.
The bulk specific gravity of the coarse aggregate is determined according to AASHTO T85 or ASTM
C128.

voids surface permeable water of Volume aggregate of Volume
dry oven Mass
G
sb
+
=
,

The volume of the water permeable surface voids (Figure 6-14) is calculated by determined the mass of
the aggregate in the saturated surface dry (SSD) condition. Basically the aggregate is saturated and then
partially dried until there is no free water on the surface. Coarse aggregate particles are dried with a towel
and the SSD conditioned determined visually by a color change as the surface goes from wet to dry. Fine
aggregate particles are dried with moving air. A sample of the fine aggregate is compacted in a cone and
the cone lifted. A slight slump indicates that the SSD condition has been met. This is subjective by
nature and can be complicated by angular crushed fine aggregates or those with high dust contents.
Examples of both SSD conditions are shown in Figure 6-15.

It is easier to determine the apparent gravity of the aggregate, G
sa
, which ignores the surface voids. The
effective aggregate gravity (G
se
) can easily be determined from the theoretical maximum specific gravity
(G
mm
) or Rice test. G
se
ignores the portion of the surface voids that are filled with asphalt cement when
measuring the volume to determine the aggregate specific gravity. Thus, G
sa
measures the smallest
aggregate volume, then G
se
, and G
sb
uses the largest aggregate volume. Which results in G
sa
being the
largest specific gravity, then G
se
, and finally G
sb
will always be the smallest specific gravity. This
relationship can be used when evaluating test results to look for potential errors. G
sb
and G
se
can be very
close together if the water absorption is small.


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Figure 6-14 Aggregate Surface Voids Included in Determination of Gsb

Figure 6-15 Fine and Coarse Aggregate SSD State.

The measurement of the surface voids is important since they will be partially filled with asphalt (to a
lesser degree than with water). This asphalt, which is absorbed into the aggregate pores, does not act to
glue the aggregate particles together in the pavement. Therefore, G
sb
should always be used when
determining the voids in mineral aggregate (VMA) in the Marshall and Superpave design systems.

The bulk specific gravity of the compacted HMA sample (G
mb
) is another important volumetric property.
The sample could be compacted in the laboratory using a Marshall Hammer, Hveem Kneading
Compactor, or Superpave Gyratory Compactor, or it could be a core cut from the pavement. The G
mb
of a
compacted HMA samples is typically determined according to AASHTO T166 or ASTM D2726. Both
methods use Archimedess Principle (and really the fine and coarse aggregate methods) to determine G
mb
.
First, the dry mass of the sample is determined. For a field core, this step can be determined last, after the
core has been dried to a constant mass in an oven. The drying temperature varies depending on the
whether the AASHTO or ASTM procedure is being used. Next, the mass of the samples suspended in a
water bath at 77 F (25 C) is determined. Archimedess Principle states that the volume of a samples is
equal to the mass of water (at a specified temperature and hence density) displaced by the object. If you
were measuring the apparent specific gravity of the sample, the dry mass and weight in water would be


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sufficient, but since we want to know the bulk specif ic gravity we must also determine the SSD mass to
account for the volume of surface voids. The SSD mass of a compacted HMA sample is determined by
quickly blotting the surface of the samples to remove the surface moisture and then determining its mass.
water under sample of Mass samples SSD of Mass
sample dry of Mass
G
mb
=
If the air voids of the compacted HMA sample are too high, water can drain out of the sample before the
SSD condition can be determined, introducing an error. An example might be that the technician blots
the surface, water droplets reappear and the technician continues to blot the sample. This action leads to
an erroneously high G
mb
. The samples should be quickly blotted and then placed on the scale. If water
drains onto the scale, that mass should be considered as part of the SSD mass of the samples. Both
AASHTO T166 and ASTM D2726 are only valid for samples with water absorptions less than 2 percent.
Other methods such as paraffin coated samples (ASTM D1188) or the Corelok method (ASTM D6XXX)
are specified for samples with high water absorptions.

The air voids of a compacted HMA sample are used in determining the optimum asphalt content during
design, monitoring production of the mix in the field and ensuring the quality of the in-place pavement.
In order to determine the air voids of the compacted HMA sample, both the G
mb
and the theoretical
maximum specific gravity (G
mm
) must be measured. G
mm
is basically the mass of the asphalt and
aggregate divided by the voidless volume of the asphalt and aggregate (100 percent density). G
mm
is
determined according to AASHTO T209 or ASTM D2041. First, the dry mass of a loose (uncompacted)
sample of HMA is determined. Then the sample subject to a vacuum and agitation while under water to
remove all of the air (Figure 6-16) Then the volume of the sample is determined by weight under water or
determining its mass in a calibrated pycnometer filled to it calibration line. As described previously,
specific gravity is the dry mass divided by the volume.

Figure 6-16 Maximum Specific Gravity Setup


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The voids in mineral aggregate (VMA) are used in the design of HMA to help ensure the durability of the
mixture. VMA is the total void space between the aggregate particles in a compacted HMA sample, some
of which is filled with asphalt and some of which is filled with air. If the VMA of a mixture is too low,
there will be insufficient room for enough asphalt binder to adequately coat the aggregates and provide
cohesion between the aggregate particles. The calculation of VMA is shown below:

=
sb
b mb
G
P G
VMA
) 100 (
100

P
b
or AC% is the asphalt content of the mixture expressed as a percentage of the total mixture weight (not
by the mass of the aggregate). 100-AC% is also referred to as percent stone. AC% may be known or it
may be determined using the ignition test or a solvent extraction.

The portion of the VMA that is filled with asphalt is called the voids filled with asphalt (VFA). If the
VFA of a mixture is too low, durability may suffer; if the VFA is too high the mixture may be susceptible
to rutting. The calculation for VFA is shown below:

VMA
voids air VMA
VFA
) (
100

=

Superpave and some agency specifications will specify air voids, VMA and VFA. However, only two are
necessary to control the mixture as can be seen from the calculation for VFA. If all three are specified,
then the acceptable range for a single property is likely compromised.

G
se
can be calculated knowing the asphalt content, G
mm
, and G
b
as shown below.

=
b
b
mm
b
se
G
P
G
P
G
1
) 1 (

G
se
can be useful for a number of reasons. First, it is used in the calculation of the percentage of binder
which is absorbed into the aggregate, which in turn is used to calculate the effective binder content in the
Superpave mix design system. Second, the G
se
of the aggregate should remain relatively constant,
assuming that the water absorption and G
sb
of the aggregate are not changing. The equation for G
se
can be
rearranged to calculated G
mm
. The equation for G
mm
suggests that there is a straight line relationship
between asphalt content and G
mm
, e.g. if you plot G
mm
versus AC%, the resulting data over a range of
AC% should result in a straight line. This relationship can be used during mix design to predict G
mm

values at other asphalt contents or it can be used during production as a check on the AC% and G
mm

testing.

=
b
b
se
b
mm
G
P
G
P
G
1
1


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6.3.3.2 Marshall Mix Design

6.3.3.2.1 Historical Background

Bruce G. Marshall began the development of what later became known as the Marshall mix design
procedure around 1939 while employed by the Mississippi State Highway Department. Marshall
developed the stability test; flow measurements were added by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers.
Marshall was retained by the Corps during their studies. Initially, samples of HMA for the stability and
flow tests were compacted with a modified American Association of Highway Officials (AASHO),
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) field hammer. The modified AASHO hammer consisted of a 10 pound
hammer (weight) dropped 18 inches; the load was transferred to the sample through a 1.95-inch diameter
foot. Samples were compacted in a 4-inch diameter mold with a target compacted height of 2.5 inches.
The diameter of the compaction foot was later modified to 3 7/8 inches.

The Corps of Engineers was charged with selecting a method of HMA mix design to deal with the
increasing tire pressures found on military aircraft. Aircraft weights began increasing during World War
II. As the weight of the aircraft increased, tire pressures were also increased to minimize the size of the
landing gear. At the beginning of World War II, tire pressures were approximately 100 psi. By the end
of World War II, tire pressures had increased to approximately 200 psi.

The Corps of Engineers constructed a number of HMA, sand asphalt and double surface treatment
sections with varied asphalt contents. Loading was applied with a modified scraper pulling a load cart.
The net tire contact pressures were 106, 146 and 139 psi for the 15,000, 37,000, and 60,000-lb wheel
loads, respectively. Net pressures were used to account for the block nature of the tire tread. The
performance of the pavement sections were monitored as a function of wheel passes, 3500 passes for the
15,000 lb load and 1500 passes each for the 37,000 and 60,000 lb loads (Figure 6-17).

The 50-blow on each face compaction effort was developed out of this study. The Corps of Engineers
concluded that tire pressure was more important than load in its effect on pavement performance. In
summary the Corps of Engineers note (10), The results of this study indicate that the quantity of asphalt
is the most important factor in a paving mixture. Where there is too much asphalt in the mix the resultant
pavement will flush and the pavement will rut and shove under traffic. Too little asphalt produces a
brittle pavement that will crack and ravel. From the standpoint of durability, it is desirable to include as
much asphalt as possible.


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Figure 6-17 Traffic Compaction Data for Mix 11, Crushed Limestone with Medium Filler Content.

Aircraft tire inflation pressures continued to increase in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Tire pressures
doubled from the approximately 100 psi net tire pressure used in the first field study to 200 psi. White
reports (11), additional tests were conducted on the original test sections using both 30,000 lb wheel load
with a 200 psi tire pressure and 15,000 lb wheel load with a 240 psi tire pressure. From these efforts it
was determined that 69 blows from a 10-lb hammer falling 18 inches on a 3 7/8-inch diameter foot were
appropriate for the increased tire pressures. This was later adjusted to the 75-blow Marshall.

McLeod (16) first suggested the concept of designing for minimum VMA to ensure durability in 1956.
VMA is the total void space filled with either air or asphalt between the compacted mineral aggregate,
which is believed to be related to durability. He argued that VMA and VFA should be calculated with the
effective binder content and aggregate bulk specific gravity to avoid errors with absorptive aggregates
(12). In 1957, McLeod reaffirmed his belief that the effective binder content and aggregate bulk specific
gravity should be used to calculate the VMA and air voids of the compacted HMA sample (13). McLeod
stated: Values for percent voids in mineral aggregate and for percent air voids can be defined precisely
for compacted bituminous paving mixtures that are made with non-absorptive aggregates. He added:
For compacted paving mixtures that contain absorptive aggregates, values for percent voids in the
mineral aggregate and for percent air voids, should be calculated by means of (a) the ASTM bulk specific
gravity of the aggregate, and (b) the effective bitumen content of the paving mixture. McLeods
objections to the use of apparent and effective aggregate specific gravities (which are substantially easier
to measure) result from their failure to differentiate between the portion of the binder that is coating the
aggregate particle and the portion of the binder that is absorbed in the aggregate. Without this
differentiation, it is difficult to relate observations from the laboratory design to field performance in
terms of both permanent deformation and durability. In 1962, the Asphalt Institute published a new
version of MS-2 that included the first modern version of the Marshall mix design procedure including
volumetric analysis based on effective binder content (14).

Eventually, mechanical Marshall Hammers were developed to reduce the effort required by the operator
to produce samples. These tended to produce less compactive effort than a hand-held hammer. This is
attributed to the operator moving the handle during compaction, producing a slight kneading action (15).
To compensate, alternatives to the flat-foot, static base mechanical hammer were developed including the
slant-foot, static base, and rotating base mechanical hammers. The Marshall mix design procedure was


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expanded to include 1 inch maximum aggregate by developing a 6-inch diameter mold with a 75-blow
compaction effort (16). By 1984, 38 out of 50 states were using the Marshall mix design procedure to
design HMA.

6.3.3.2.2 Marshall Mix Design Procedure

In the Marshall mix design procedure, once the materials are selected and a design gradation is selected, a
series of samples are mixed and compacted over a range of asphalt contents encompassing the expected
design asphalt content. Typically, samples are compacted at four asphalt contents which each vary by 0.5
percent. Three to four samples should be compacted at each asphalt content.

The Marshall method typically does not include any short-term oven aging to simulate the aging and
absorption of the binder that typically occurs when a mix goes through an asphalt plant. Therefore, the
aggregate temperature should be adjusted so that the resulting HMA temperature, after mixing, is equal to
the desired compaction temperature. The asphalt binder should be maintained at the mixing temperature
determined from the kinematic or rotational viscosity tests, or in the case of a modified binder the
suppliers recommendations. Typically, an aggregate temperature 50 to 75 F above the recommended
mixing temperature for the asphalt binder suffices. Similarly, the compaction temperature should be
determined from either the kinematic and absolute viscosity data or the suppliers recommendation.
Some designers will reheat the mixture to the compaction temperature after mixing. If this is done, it
should be done uniformly, for instance by placing the samples in the oven for 30 minutes at the
compaction temperature.

A paper disk is placed in the bottom of the mold. The samples are loaded into a mold, spaded 10 times
across the center and 15 times around the perimeter of the mold. A second paper disk is placed on top of
the sample and then the sample is compacted with 50 or 75 blows on each face. The samples are allowed
to cool in the mold until they can be handled without a glove. The samples are then jacked out of the
mold and the paper disks removed. In some cases a heat gun, hair dryer, or blow torch are required to
facilitate the removal of the paper disks. According to AASHTO T245, the specimens are then to cool
overnight before completing testing. During production, this practice is seldom followed. Instead the
samples are cooled in front of a fan for approximately one hour.

AASHTO T245 requires that automatic Marshall Hammers be calibrated to a manual hammer. Typically,
the required number of blows for an automatic hammer (Figure 6-18) is higher than the specified (50 or
75) number of blows with the manual hammer.


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Figure 6-18 Automatic Marshall Hammer.

The air voids of the cooled sample are determined as described previously. The heights of the samples
are measured. The target height is 2.5 inches. The samples height is also used to correct the stability
measurements. The samples are then placed in a 140 F (60 C) water bath for 30 minutes. The bath
temperature was selected to represent typical pavement temperatures on a warm summer day. The
samples is taken out of the water batch and immediately loaded into a Marshall stability and flow
breaking head and then tested for stability and flow (Figure 6-19). The sample is loaded at a rate of 20
inches per minute. The stability is defined as the peak load carried by the sample and the flow is the
vertical deformation at the peak load.


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Figure 6-19 Marshall Stability and Flow Press.

The asphalt institute procedure uses three criteria to determined optimum asphalt content using the
Marshall Method. The optimum asphalt content is the average of the asphalt content that produces 4
percent air voids, maximum stability and maximum unit weight. The flow and VMA values are then
compared to the acceptable ranges at the optimum asphalt content.

The Asphalt Institute procedure and most agency specification varied criteria based on expected traffic.
Table 6-3 presents typical Marshall criteria. The stability values are most affected by the viscosity of the
binder at 140 F (60 C) and the angularity of the aggregate. High flow values generally indicate a plastic
mix which may be subject to permanent deformation, whereas low flow values tend to indicate high voids
and the potential for durability problems. As mentioned previously, VMA is used to help ensure the
durability of the mixture. Smaller particles have a greater surface area for the same volume of material.
Therefore mixes made with smaller NMAS aggregate require more asphalt to provide the same film-
thickness of asphalt coating than larger NMAS mixes. Therefore minimum VMA requirements increase
with decreasing NMAS as shown in Figure 6-20.

Table 6-3 Marshall Design Criteria
Property/Traffic Light
< 10
4
ESAL
Medium
10
4
< ESAL<10
6

Heavy
> 10
6
ESAL
Compaction, blows 35 50 75
Stability, lb (N) 750 (3336) 1200 (5338) 1800 (8006)
Flow 0.1 in (0.25 mm) 8 to 18 8 to 16 8 to 14
Air Void, % 3 to 5 3 to 5 3 to 5
VMA, % Varies with aggregate size


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Figure 6-20 Minimum VMA as a Function of Aggregate Size.


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6.3.3.3 Hveem Mix Design


Francis N. Hveem was first exposed to asphalt as a young employee of the California Division of
Highway. By 1929, Hveem observed that coarser gradations tended to require less road oil than finer
gradations and made the connection that the surface area of the aggregate varied with gradation. Hveem
identified a method for calculating (estimating) the surface area of aggregate. Hveem realized that in
addition to surface area, the optimum asphalt content, or at least the point where the optimum asphalt
content was exceeded and stability decreased was affected by the surface texture of the aggregate. A
surface factor was used by Hveem in combination with the calculated surface area to determine the
optimum asphalt content. Although an experienced engineer could adjust for texture and absorption of
various aggregates, Hveem later developed the centrifuge kerosene equivalent (CKE) test to estimate the
surface constant (a combination of surface area, absorption and adjustment for surface texture) of the fine
aggregate.

Vallerga and Lovering (8) quote Hveems own summary of his mix design philosophy in 1937 as follows,
For the best stability, a harsh, crushed stone with some gradation, mixed with only sufficient
asphalt to permit high compaction with the means available.
For greatest resistance to abrasion, raveling, aging and deterioration, and imperviousness to
water, a high asphalt content, broadly speaking, the richer the better.
For impermeability, a uniformly graded mixture with a sufficient quantity of fine sand (fine sand
is more important than filler dust).
For non-skid surfaces, a large quantity of the maximum sized aggregate within the size limits
used.
For workability and freedom from segregation, a uniformly graded aggregate.
To reduce the above factors to as simple a consideration as possible, it seems to be the best rule to
use a dense, uniformly graded mixture without an excess of dust and to add as much oil or asphalt
as the mixture will tolerate without losing stability.

[Currently, we would describe uniformly graded as well or dense graded]. Graphically, this
philosophy is summarized in Figure 6-21.


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Figure 6-21 Stability and Durability as a Function of Asphalt Content (8)

6.3.3.3.2 Hveem Mix Design Procedure

Once the asphalt binder, aggregates, and design gradation are selected as discussed previously, the first
step in conducting a Hveem mix design is to calculate the estimated surface area of the aggregate. The
surface area is estimated using the surface area factors and the gradation percent passing as shown in
Table 6-4.

Table 6-4 Surface Area Factors
Sieve Size (mm) Percent Passing
1
Surface Area
Factor (SAF)
Surface Area, m
2
/kg
(ft
2
/lb) Percent Passing x
SAF/100
Maximum size 100 0.4 (2)
2
0.4
4.75 mm (No. 4) 0.4 (2)
2.36 mm (No. 8) 0.8 (4)
1.18 mm (No. 16) 1.6 (8)
0.600 mm (No. 30) 2.9 (14)
0.300 mm (No. 50) 6.2 (30)
0.0150 mm (No. 100) 12.4 (60)
0.075 mm (No. 200) 33.0 (160)
SA = m
2
/kg (ft
2
/lb)
1
Percent passing of design gradation (blend)
2
Surface area factor for ft
2
/lb shown in ()


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The next step is to determine the CKE to correct for the surface texture of the fine aggregate. A 100 g
sample of the fine aggregate (100 percent passing the No. 4 sieve) is saturated in kerosene. The sample is
then subjected to 200 times gravity in a centrifuge, after which the aggregate was weighed to determine
the percent of kerosene retained by mass of dry aggregate. If the fine aggregate type was similar to the
coarse aggregate, then the bitumen index or the quantity of asphalt required to coat one unit of the area of
aggregate could be determined directly from the CKE test; otherwise a separate test could be performed to
determine the surface factor of the coarse aggregate (9). The surface capacity of the coarse aggregate is
performed by soaking a sample of the coarse aggregate in S. A. E. 10 oil for five minutes, and then
allowing the sample to drain for 15 minutes at 140F before determining the percent of retained oil. The
coarse aggregate surface factor is used to correct the fine aggregate surface factor. These procedures,
either the surface area calculation or the surface factors can be used to estimate optimum binder content.
Correction factors are also included for aggregate specific gravity and the viscosity of the asphalt.
Nomographs are then used to estimate the optimum bitumen ratio. Is should be noted that the bitumen
ratio calculates the asphalt content as a percent by aggregate weight. The bit umen ratio can be converted
to an AC% by total weight of mix as follows:

100
100
%
=
Ratio Bitumen
Ratio Bitumen
AC

Samples are then batched and mixed as described previously. Typically, a minimum of four asphalt
contents and up to seven asphalt contents are used to produce specimens. If four asphalt contents are
used, samples would be prepared at the optimum asphalt content predicted from the surface area and
CKE, optimum 0.5 percent, optimum + 0.5 percent and optimum + 1.0 percent. After mixing, the
samples are oven aged in a flat pan for 15 hours at 140 F (60 C) prior to compaction.

Samples are compacted using the Hveem Kneading Compactor (Figure 6-22). The kneading compactor
primarily uses a triangular shaped compaction foot. The sides of the foot are slightly radiused and the
points of the triangle are rounded. The foot applies a kneading action to the surface of the sample without
impact, which allows reorientation of the aggregate particles similar to that which occurs under a roller or
traffic in the field.


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Figure 6-22 Kneading Compactor.

Approximately half of the batch is placed in a 4-inch diameter mold and rodded 20 times in the center of
the mold and 20 times around the perimeter then the remainder is added and rodded in the same manner.
The mold is placed in the compactor and 10 to 50 blows are applied with a 250 psi pressure. Typically,
20 blows typically being sufficient to precompact the mixture. The mold rotates 1/6 of a turn after each
tamp. After precompaction, 150 tamping blows are applied at a pressure of 500 psi. The sample is then
reheated to 140 F (60 C) for 1.5 hours and then a 1000 psi static load to level the specimen using the
double plunger method. This laboratory compaction method generally exceeds the compaction
provided by either a Marshall Hammer or a Superpave Gyratory compactor.

A pyramid scheme is used to select the optimum asphalt content using the Hveem mix design procedure
as shown in Figure 6-23. The first step is to examine the surface of the compacted sample for flushing
after the 150 tamping blows have been applied. The asphalt contents that exhibit moderate to heavy
flushing are to be discarded. Moderate flushing would be described if paper sticks to the surface, but no
distortion is observed. Heavy flushing would result in asphalt puddle on the surface or distortion of the
surface of the sample. At least one of the trial asphalt contents should result in medium or heavy flusing.


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Figure 6-23 Hveem Mix Design Pyramid

Hveem wanted to evaluate the stability of the HMA. He hypothesized that depending on the roughness
and angularity of the aggregate, the film thickness at which the particles would become overly lubricated
by the asphalt and therefore unstable would vary (9). The stabilometer (Figure 6-24) evolved into a
hydraulic device into which a compacted sample of asphalt was loaded. The sample was loaded vertically
on its flat surface and the radial force transmitted to the surrounding hydraulic cell is measured. The
stability value is calculated as follows:

222 . 0
) (
2 . 22
2
+
=
h v
h
P P
D P
S
where,
P
v
= vertical pressure (400 psi),
P
h
= horizontal pressure at a vertical pressure of 400 psi, and
D
2
= displacement of sample in number of turns of handle.


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Figure 6-24 Hveem Stabilometer.

The minimum recommended stability values are:
30 minimum Light Traffic
35 minimum Medium Traffic
37 minimum Heavy Traffic

Samples representing asphalt contents that do not meet the minimum stability value are eliminated next in
the pyramid scheme.

After completion of the stabilometer test, the G
mb
of the samples are determined as described previously.
The final asphalt content is selected as the highest asphalt content which meets the minimum stability and
has at least 4 percent air voids.


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6.3.3.4 Superpave Mix Design


The Superpave Mix Design System was a product of the Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP).
The SHRP project was a five-year (1988 to 1993) congressionally funded transportation research project
with a total funding of 200 million dollars, 50 million of which was spent on asphalt research. During
planning for the SHRP project, premature pavement rutting was a serious concern in the U. S. as were
concerns regarding low temperature cracking. The development of a new binder specification was an
early goal of the research. The development of a new mix design system evolved as the research
progressed. Numerous universities participated in the SHRP research. The University of Texas at Austin
under Dr. Tom Kennedy headed the synthesis of the design system.

6.3.3.4.2 Superpave Mix Design System

It is important to understand the Superpave Mix Design System, unlike the previous mix design
procedures was designed to function as a system including the following parts:
Materials Selection
o Asphalt binder
o Aggregates
Volumetric Mix Design
Moisture Sensitivity Testing
Performance Testing for Critical Pavements.
The Superpave Mix Design System is Summarized in AASHTO M323 and AASHTO R 35.

As described previously, the PG binder specification was developed to specify and grade asphalt binders.
Binders for a specific paving job were to be selected using climatic data with the high temperature grade
modified by the traffic speed and volume.

Previously, individual agencies had set their own aggregate requirements for the Marshall and Hveem
mix design procedures. As described previously, Superpave attempted to codify aggregate selection
through the consensus aggregate properties and source aggregate properties. The consensus aggregate
properties vary by traffic level, but are to be uniformly applied within the Superpave system. Allowances
for local materials are made the the source properties where agencies can set limits for aggregate
degradation (LA Abrasion) and freeze-thaw durability (Soundness) based on locally available materials.
The Superpave Consensus aggregate properties are summarized by traffic level in Table 6-5. All of the
Superpave consensus aggregate properties are tested on the blend of aggregates, not the individual
stockpiles. Tests can be performed on an individual stockpile and then mathematically combined to
produce the blend result. The Superpave mix design method recognizes that stresses decrease with depth
in the pavement structure. Therefore, criteria are separated depending on whether the majority of the
layer is less than or greater than a depth of 4 inches (100 mm).

Although Port loadings in wharf and container areas may not be directly transferable to ESALs, a traffic
loading of between 3 and 30 million ESALs is probably appropriate for heavily loaded areas. Designs for
higher traffic loadings would produce more rut resistant pavements. Employee parking areas would be
represented by lower traffic levels.


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Table 6-5 Superpave Consensus Aggregate Properties
Design
ESALs
(Million)
Coarse Aggregate
Fractured Faces, %
Minimum
Uncompacted Void
content of Fine
Aggregate
2
, % Minimum
Depth from Surface Depth from Surface
< 100 mm > 100mm < 100 mm > 100mm
Sand
Equivalent
Value, %
Minimum
Flat and
Elongated
Particles
3
,
%
Maximum
< 0.3 55/- -/- - - 40 -
0.3 to <3 75/- 50/- 40 40 40 10
3 to <10 85/80
1
60/- 45 40 45 10
10 to <30 95/90 80/75 45 40 45 10
>30 100/100 100/100 45 45 50 10
1
85/80 refers to 85 percent with at least one fractured face and 80 percent with at least two fractured
faces as measured by ASTM D5821 on the +4.75 mm material.
2
Uncompacted Void Content of Fine Aggregate Measured using AASHT T304, Method A
3
Percentage of flat and elongated particles exceeding the maximum to minimum dimensional ratio of 5:1
on the +4.75 mm material.

The Superpave mix design system recommended additional source properties, whose specification limits
were to be set by the agency based on locally available materials. Source properties include: LA
Abrasion, Sulfate Soundness and Deleterious materials. Deleterious materials are clay, coal or other soft
materials. These materials may cause popouts in the pavement surface.

The Superpave gradation requirements are based on NMAS. When using the Marshall or Hveem mix
design procedures, agencies typically adopted relatively narrow gradation bands with controls on most
sieve sizes. Superpave gradations use relatively few controls including: 0.075 mm, 2.36 mm and NMAS
sieve sizes. The Superpave control points are shown for the 25.0, 19.0 and 12.5 mm NMAS in Table 6-6.
As noted previously, the Superpave mix design system originally included the restricted zone to help
prevent excessive quantities of rounded natural sand. Research showed that many mixes with good
historical performance passed through the restricted zone and that the restricted zone was redundant if the
uncompacted voids test was used. Overall, the Superpave criteria allow the designer a great deal of
freedom. Some agencies have added or tightened the ranges, particularly by increasing the minimum
percent passing on the 2.36 mm sieve to prevent excessively coarse mixes. Coarse mixes tend to be more
permeable at the same in-place air void content.

Table 6-6 Superpave Aggregate Gradation Control Points for Selected NMAS
25.0 NMAS 19.0 NMAS 12.5 NMAS Sieve Size, mm
(in) Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max.
37.5 (1 ) 100
25.0 (1.0) 90 100 100
19.0 (3/4) 90 100 100
12.5 (1/2) 90 100
9.5 (3/8)
4.75 (No. 4)
2.36 (No. 8) 19 45 23 49 28 58
1.18 (No. 16)
0.075 (No. 200) 1 7 2 8 2 10


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The Superpave mix design system recommends that three design aggregate structures with varying
gradation be developed and that trial samples be prepared at each of the gradations. This practice is
advisable if the designer has little or no familiarity with the aggregate source. With limited experience a
designer can choose a blend that will meet the specification requirements, it may not, however, be the
optimum aggregate blend. If possible, a design produced under another mix design system, such as
Marshall or Hveem should be used as a starting point if the designer has no prior experience with
Superpave.

Once the design aggregate structure is selected, samples are batched for a volumetric mix design.
Superpave Gyratory Compactor (SGC) samples are 150 mm (6 inches) in diameter and have a target
height of 115 mm (4.5 inches). Therefore, SGC samples require a greater mass of material, typically
4500 to 5000 grams of mix depending on the specific gravity of the aggregate. The larger sample size
was selected for SGC samples in order to provide more representative samples for larger aggregate sizes.
Because of the larger sample size, bulk batching, discussed previously, can be used more readily with
SGC samples. It is still paramount that a washed gradation be performed on a batched sample in order to
ensure that the batched sample represents the target design gradation.

The rotational viscometer is used to determine the mixing and compaction temperature ranges for
unmodified asphalts. Typically, two tests are run at 135 and 165 C (275 and 325 F). The results are
plotted on a log-log graph of temperature versus viscosity as shown in Figure 6-25. The mixing and
temperature ranges are then picked off the graph from the recommended viscosity ranges of
approximately 0.17 0.02 Pas for mixing and 0.28 0.03 Pas for compaction. For modified asphalts,
the suppliers recommendations for mixing and compaction temperatures should be used. Research is
currently in progress to identify a better method for the determination of mixing and compaction
temperatures. Overheating certain polymer modification systems can damage the polymer resulting in a
softer binder.


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Temperature, C
V
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y
,

c
P
Control PG 64-22
0.1
1
10
52 58 88 100 150 165 180 200
Mixing Range
Compaction Range
64 76 82 70 120 135
100
500

Figure 6-25 Example Mixing and Compaction Temperature Chart from Rotational Viscometer.

Once the HMA sample has been mixed, the sample is spread out in a thin lift in a pan and aged for two
hours at the compaction temperature according to AASHTO R30. This aging simulates the expected
aging of the mixture that will occur during mixing, storage, hauling and compaction. Asphalt will also be
allowed to absorb into the aggregate during this time period.

The SGC molds should be preheated to the compaction temperature. The HMA is to be gathered from the
aging pan and loaded into the SGC mold all at once, not by repeated scooping from the aging pan. This
can be accomplished by scooping the mix into a metal taco or making a burrito out of brown craft
paper. The burrito method works best for mixtures prone to segregation (coarse base mixes). SGC
samples are not rodded before compaction. The mold is then loaded into the SGC.


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Figure 6-26 SGC Characteristics.

The SGC was based off the Texas gyratory compactor, but adopted the approximate gyration angle and
vertical pressure of the French Gyratory Press. The operating characteristics of the SGC are shown in
Figure 6-26. There are a number of brands and models of SGCs. Although SGCs are required to be
evaluated under AASHTO PP35, which compares them to either the original Pine AFGC125X or the
Troxler 4140, research has shown that different models of SGC can produce different compactive efforts.
Differences in the angle of gyration due to differences in machine compliance are believed to cause the
differences in compactive effort and the resulting differences in Gmb. Originally, the angle of gyration
was measured external to the gyratory mold. Devices have been developed to measure the internal angle
of gyration inside the mold and under load. Although these devices were originally used in conjunction
with HMA, two new devices, the Pine Rapid Angle Measurement Device and the Troxler Dynamic Angle
Validator II, are available which measure the dynamic internal angle (DIA) of gyration without mix. The
Superpave Mixture and Aggregate Expert Task Group has recently recommended that all SGCs be
calibrated to a DIA of 1.16 0.03 degrees with one of the two mixless internal angle devices.

The number of gyrations used to compact samples in the SGC is similar to the number of blows used to
compact a Marshall samples. Higher numbers of gyrations are recommended for higher traffic levels as
shown in Table 6-7. The SGC records the samples height with each gyration. Knowing the sample
height, diameter of the mold (150 mm) and sample mass the density of the sample can be estimated at any
gyration level. The estimated density is then corrected for the surface voids by determining the samples
Gmb after compaction. The correction factor is assumed to be constant at every gyration. Three
parameters are considered on the SGC compaction curve, Ninitial, Ndesign, and Nmaximum as shown in
Figure 6-27, a plot of log gyrations versus sample density. The Ninitial criteria are believed to indicate
the potential for tenderness in the mix during compaction. Tenderness is a condition where the mix
moves in front of the roller if the mix is too hot. It is different from the tender zone, which will be


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discussed later. If the mix compacts too rapidly in the SGC, it may be susceptible to tenderness. Ndesign
is the number of gyrations where the volumetric properties of the mix are evaluated and the optimum
asphalt content selected. Nmaximum is supposed to simulate the density of the

Table 6-7 Design Gyration Levels.
Compaction Parameter Design ESALs
(millions) Ninitial Ndesign Nmax
< 0.3 6 50 75
0.3 to <3 7 75 115
3 to < 30 8 100 160
30 9 125 205

Figure 6-27 SGC Compaction Curve.

pavement near the end of its service life after trafficking. If a pavement compacts to more than 98 percent
of Gmm (less than 2 percent air voids), then the pavement is susceptible to bleeding and rutting. If the
SGC sample compacts to greater than 98 percent of Gmm at Nmaximum gyrations the pavement was
believed to be susceptible to rutting. Revisions to the Superpave Mix Design System based on the
NCHRP 9-9 research changed the SGC procedure such that routine design and quality control samples
were compacted to Ndesign gyrations. Once optimum AC% was determined, the Nmaximum criteria
could be checked during design.

After short term oven aging, SGC samples are compacted to Ndesign gyrations. The samples are
immediately jacked out of the mold and the end papers removed. The samples are allowed to cool. Then
the Gmb of the compacted sample is determined as described previously. The Gmb, Gmm, and Gsb are
used to calculate air voids, VMA and VFA as described previously. Superpave specifies that one
additional property be calculated, the dust to effective binder content ratio. To do this, first the effective
asphalt content must be calculated. The effective asphalt content is the portion of the asphalt content


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which is not absorbed into the surface voids of the aggregate. The effective asphalt content (Pbe) is
calculated as follows:

) ( ) ( ) ((
sb se sb se b s b be
G G G G G P P P =
where,
P
s
= percent stone = 100 AC%,
P
b
= AC%
Other terms defined previously.

The dust to effective asphalt content is then the percent passing the 0.075 mm sieve based on a washed
gradation divided by P
be
.

The volumetric criteria for the Superpave Mix Design System vary by traffic level and NMAS as shown
in Table 6-8 and the minimum VMA requirements by NMAS are shown in Table 6-9.

Table 6-8 Superpave Design Requirements
Required Density, %G
mm
Design
ESAL
(Million)
N
initial
N
maximum
Air Voids,
%
VMA, % VFA, % Dust to
Effective
Binder
Ratio
<0.3 91.5 98.0 4.0 70-80 0.6-1.2
0.3 to <3 90.5 98.0 4.0 65-78 0.6
3 to <10 89.0 98.0 4.0 65-75 0.6
10 to <30 89.0 98.0 4.0 65-75 0.6
30 89.0 98.0 4.0
Varies by
NMAS,
See
Table 9
65-75 0.6

Table 6-9 Superpave Minimum VMA Requirements
NMAS, mm Minimum VMA, %
37.5 11.0
25.0 12.0
19.0 13.0
12.5 14.0
9.5 15.0
4.75 16.0

6.3.4 Step 4: Evaluation of the Moisture Sensitivity

The final step in any volumetric mix design procedure, be it Marshall, Hveem, or Superpave, is an
evaluation of the moisture susceptibility of the mixture at optimum asphalt content. Moisture
susceptibility, often referred to as stripping is the condition where the asphalt separates from the
aggregate or the asphalt binder itself weakens in the presence of binder. If the binder separates from the
aggregate, this is called an adhesive failure or stripping. If the binder fails within itself it is called a
cohesive failure. The most commonly used test for determining moisture susceptibility is the tensile
strength ratio (TSR) test (AASHTO T283). The test method specifies that samples be compacted to 7
0.5 percent air voids. This air void level was chosen to simulate typical in-place air void contents. The


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test method was originally developed for 4-inch diameter by 2.5 inch tall samples. SGC samples 150 mm
in diameter and 95 mm tall can also be tested. With the SGC, preparing samples 95 mm tall with an air
void content of 7% is relatively easy. A volumetric calculation is done to estimate the mass of material
required to give 7% air voids or 93% density. Typically, the target density must be reduced by 1.5% to
account for surface voids.

2
15 25 . 0 5 . 9 5 . 91 arg =
mm
G mass et T

The SGC is then set to compact to a specified height (95 mm) instead of a specified number of gyrations.
A similar calculation can be used to estimate the required mass for Marshall or Hveem samples, but the
number of blows or tamps needs to be adjusted to achieve the required height. This can be a trial and
error process. A minimum of six samples need to be prepared and generally eight are prepared to ensure
that six samples with the appropriate air void content are obtained.

Based on AASHTO T283, specified by the Superpave Mix Design System, the loose mix is to first be
aged for 16 1 hours at 140 F (60 C) and then heated to compaction temperature for 2 hours prior to
compaction. The cooled samples are bulked and then are supposed to age at room temperature 24 3
hours. Some agencies have waived the 16 hour oven cure and 24 hour counter cure.

The samples are divided into two subsets a dry and a conditioned subset. The samples in the conditioned
subset are then saturated with water using a vacuum. The required degree of saturation is 70 to 80
percent. The saturated samples are wrapped tightly in plastic wrap. After saturation there is an optional
(for the ASTM method) 16-hour freeze cycle. This option should be used by all agencies regardless of
whether or not it freezes in their climate. The freeze cycle produces pore pressure in the mixture, similar
to that produced in a saturated pavement under loading. After the freeze cycle, the conditioned samples
are placed in a 140 F (60 C) water bath for 24 hours. The plastic wrap is removed as soon as possible in
the hot water bath. Finally, both the dry (wrapped in plastic) and conditioned samples are placed in a 77
F (25 C) water bath for 2 hours. The indirect tensile strength is then determined at a loading rate of 2
inches per minute using a fixture similar to that shown in Figure 6-28. The TSR is reported as the ratio of
the average conditioned tensile strength to the average unconditioned tensile strength. Superpave requires
a minimum TSR of 0.80.

Certain aggregate types, such as granite or siliceous material are more susceptible to moisture damage
than other aggregate types. Mixtures that fail TSR can be addressed in a number of manners. Liquid
anti-striping agents, primarily amines, can be added to the binder either at the terminal or at the HMA
plant. These additives alter the surface chemistry between the asphalt and binder, improving adhesion.
Hydrated lime can also be added to the mix. Hydrated lime should be added to damp aggregate or in a
slurry form to allow a chemical reaction to occur between the lime and the surface of the aggregate. The
addition of hydrated lime does increase the material passing the No. 200 sieve in the mixture. It also
tends to reduce the optimum asphalt content, even at the same dust content. Many agencies consider
hydrated lime to be the best material for reducing the likelihood of moisture damage.


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Figure 6-28 TSR Fixture and Press.


7-1
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7. Layered Elastic Analysis ....................................................................................................... 7-2
7.1 Theory.......................................................................................................................... 7-2
7.2 Software........................................................................................................................ 7-3
7.3 Empirical Stiffness........................................................................................................ 7-3
7.3.1 Asphalt Concrete ............................................................................................................................................. 7-3
7.3.2 Cement Treated Base..................................................................................................................................... 7-4
7.3.3 Aggregate Base Course and Sub-base Course........................................................................................ 7-5
7.3.4 Subgrade ............................................................................................................................................................ 7-6
7.4 Design Life .................................................................................................................... 7-7
7.5 Permanent Deformation............................................................................................... 7-8
7.6 Structural Cracking...................................................................................................... 7-9
7.6.1 Asphalt Concrete ............................................................................................................................................. 7-9
7.6.2 Cement Treated Base...................................................................................................................................7-10
7.7 Design example for flexible pavements........................................................................ 7-11
7.7.1 Input Data.......................................................................................................................................................7-11
7.7.2 Operations.......................................................................................................................................................7-13
7.7.3 Design Method...............................................................................................................................................7-13
7.7.4 Subgrade ..........................................................................................................................................................7-14
7.7.5 Pavement Sections.........................................................................................................................................7-14
7.7.6 Computer output...........................................................................................................................................7-15


7-2
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7. Layered Elastic Analysis
7.1 Theory
When a wheel load is applied to a flexible pavement it causes stresses and strains to develop in the
pavement and subgrade. The stresses and strains are distributed according to the elastic properties of the
various layers.

Consider a homogeneous half space with an elastic modulus (E) and Poissons ratio ( ) with a circular
load acting on top of the half space, having a radius (a) and a uniform contact pressure (q). Then consider
a small element with its center at depth (z) below the load and distance (r) from its center. The element
has two horizontal faces, two radial faces and two tangential faces

Theory determines that nine stresses act on this element. There are three normal stresses acting
perpendicular to the faces of the element. These are the vertical stress (s
z
), radial stress (s
r
) and
tangential stress (s
t
). There are also six shearing stresses acting parallel to the faces of the element.
These are
rt
(which equals
tr
),
rz
(which equals
zr
) and
zt
(which equals
tz
). These stresses can
be calculated at any point using Boussinesqs equations.

Under condition under center of load, the following stresses and strains formulas are given.

Vertical Stress and Strain

+
=
3 2 2
3
1
z a
z
q
z

+
+
+
=
3 2 2
3
2 2
2
2 1
1
z a
z
z a
z
E
q
z

Horizontal Stress and Strain

Radial and tangential are equal under center of load

+
+
+
+
+ =
3 2 2
3
2 2
) 1 ( 2
2 1
2
z a
z
z a
z q
r

+
+
+

+
=
3 2 2
3
2 2
) 1 ( 2
2 1
2
) 1 (
z a
z
z a
z
E
q
r

Vertical Deflection ( )

+
+
+
+
=
a
z z a
z a
a
E
qa
2 2
2 2
) 2 1 (
) 1 (


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The elastic strains corresponding to each normal stress are determined from the following equations

vertical strain ( ) ) (
1
t r z z
E
+ =

radial strain ( ) ) (
1
z t r r
E
+ =

tangential strain ( ) ) (
1
r z t t
E
+ =

7.2 Software
Kenlayer pavement design software can be used to analyze the pavement sections and develop strains at
critical points in the pavement. It analyses elastic multilayer system under circular loads and
superimposes values for multiple loads. It can use an iterative approach for nonlinear layers, collocated at
various times for viscoelastic layers. The program can also consider variations in material properties.
The program can determine the design life based upon fatigue cracking, or upon permanent deformation.
However, these are not recommended procedures for the pavements at the port

Input parameters required to run the program are the Z coordinates, and the layer properties. These
include thickness, Poissons ratio, elastic modulus and unit weight. It also requires the interface details
between each layer and details on nonlinear and viscoelastic layers.

The load information required to run an analysis includes the contact pressure, contact radius, the axle
spacing, the wheel spacing and the number of repetitions. It also requires the response positions for
calculating the stresses and strains in X-coordinates and Y-coordinates. Critical locations are at the top of
unbound layers where vertical strain is limiting factor that leads to permanent deformation. This typically
controls the pavement thickness when bound layers are thin. The other critical location is at the bottom of
bound layers where horizontal strain is limiting factor. This leads to fatigue cracking that
controls the pavement thickness when bound layers are thick

7.3 Empirical Stiffness
7.3.1 Asphalt Concrete
As noted above, the elastic properties of asphalt concrete are greatly affected by the mix properties, the
pavement temperature, the age of the asphalt concrete layer and the speed of the container handling
equipment. As such the stiffness of the layer will be different for each load repetition. The potential
range of elastic modulus (E) and Poissons ratio () normally encountered are:

E = 100,000 1,000,000 psi.
= 0.3 0.4


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To streamline the analysis process it is beneficial to select one value that will represent the elastic
properties over the life of the pavement. The following values are typical for the surface course and base
course under slow moving heavy wheel loads over the life of the pavement.

New surface course: E = 250,000 psi. and = 0.40
Existing uncracked surface course: E = 600,000 psi. and = 0.35
Old cracked surface course: E = 400,000 psi. and = 0.30
Failing surface course E = 200,000 psi. and = 0.25
Suggested design values E = 450,000 psi and = 0.35

New base course: E = 400,000 psi. and = 0.40
Existing uncracked base course: E = 700,000 psi. and = 0.35
Old cracked base course: E = 500,000 psi. and = 0.30
Failing base course E = 300,000 psi. and = 0.25
Suggested design values E = 550,000 psi and = 0.35

7.3.2 Cement Treated Base
The compressive strength of cement treated base is typically between 500 psi and 1,000 psi. At these
strengths the material can be mixed in place, but plant mixing is preferred.

The elastic properties of cement treated base are dependent on the strength of the cured material, which is
in turn dependent on the quality of the materials and the amount of cement used in the mix. The elastic
modulus can be derived from compressive tests or from the specified minimum strength. The Poissons
ration does not change. One standard equation to determine the uncracked elastic modulus is as follows:

E = 57,000 x f
c
0.5

and
= 0.2
where

f
c
= compressive strength

Cement treated base undergoes shrinkage as it cures, and this will result in a series of cracks. The cement
treated base will not be as strong in these locations, and as such it is necessary to consider the cracked
modulus. This can be taken as half of the uncracked modulus. As cracking is assumed to have occurred,
it is not necessary to verify the fatigue life properties.


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7.3.3 Aggregate Base Course and Sub-base Course

Aggregate base course and sub-base course are constructed using unbound graded aggregates. These may
be virgin materials, but there is a general preference for recycled granular products. These are most
commonly the result of crushing concrete and asphalt concrete and recycled granular materials. Several
different types of aggregate base are specified in the Standard Specifications for Public Works
Construction Greenbook.

Crushed aggregate base (CAB) is graded crushed rock that is required to have a minimum R-value of 80.
Crushed miscellaneous base (CMB) is a crushed graded recycled aggregate that is also required to have a
minimum R-value of 80. It is available in a fine and coarse gradation. Processed miscellaneous base
(PMB) is a partially crushed graded recycled product that is required to have a minimum R-value of 78.
It is also available in a coarse or fine gradation. Select sub-base is required to have a minimum R-value
of 60 and is available in a coarse or fine gradation. The most common material used for aggregate base at
the Port of Los Angeles is CMB.

The elastic modulus of aggregate base and sub-base layers is dependent on the state of stress, the quality
of the materials, the moisture conditions and the quality of construction, particularly the degree of
compaction. The state of stress is dependent on the wheel load and the properties of the underlying
subgrade. Many computer programs have routines that will calculate the modulus of the unbound layer
based upon these conditions. Research has shown that this relationship holds true for light wheel loading
as encountered in highway design, but that it is far more complex for heavy wheel loads found in airports
and marine terminals. Therefore it is recommended that these routines are not used and that specific
values are input based upon alternative approaches.

One such approach for heavy wheel loads considered by the Corps of Engineers is to calculate the elastic
modulus of the unbound layer based upon the thickness of the layer and the elastic modulus of the
underlying layer. Two equations are used dependent on the quality of the material, i.e., whether they are
base or sub-base materials. The maximum value of a base material will be 100,000 psi using these
equations. Very high values should be used with caution and it is recommended that the maximum value
used for a port pavement should be limited to 80,000 psi. The maximum value of a sub-base material will
be 40,000 psi. These equations are as follows:

For base layers

( ) t E t E E
n n n 10 1 10 10 1
log log 10 . 2 log 52 . 10 1
+ +
+ =
where

E
n
= elastic modulus of the layer under consideration
E
n+1
= elastic modulus of the immediate underlying layer
t = thickness

For sub-base layers

( ) t E t E E
n n n 10 1 10 10 1
log log 56 . 1 log 18 . 7 1
+ +
+ =
where


7-6
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E
n
= elastic modulus of the layer under consideration
E
n+1
= elastic modulus of the immediate underlying layer
t = thickness

To use these equations to calculate the elastic modulus of the different layers is necessary to sub-divide
the sub-base and base into a series of layers. Typically these can be of the thickness that will be used for
construction of each lift of each course. As such, layer thickness will generally be between 6 in and 8 in.
The process starts from the bottom of the unbound layers. The modulus for the bottom layer should
always be determined from the equation for sub-base layers. The elastic modulus for the underlying layer
is that of the subgrade. For the second layer the equation for the appropriate material will be used. The
modulus for the first layer and the thickness of the second layer will be used. The process is repeated to
the top layer of material. The modulus of all base layers should be adjusted downward to a maximum
80,000 psi if they are higher. If the layered elastic analysis program does not have the ability to consider
the total number of layers considered in the equations, the average value for the base and sub-base should
be used.

Poissons ration for unbound granular layers is dependent on the quality of the material and the moisture
conditions. For crushed aggregate base materials the Poissons ratio () can be taken as 0.3. If the
materials are naturally occurring or there is a high moisture content the ration will be 0.35.

7.3.4 Subgrade
The subgrade soils can be highly variable in character across the project site for a marine terminal. This
is particularly relevant where the site has varied history of previous uses or fill operations. It is therefore
important that all soil types are properly identified and characterized for design. It is strongly
recommended that a 200 ft grid of test positions is set out on the site so that there will be adequate
characterization of the soils. If inadequate testing is undertaken, the likelihood of premature failure or
excessive pavement cost can be significant. It is not generally viable to vary the pavement design for
each soil encountered, but some degree of fine tuning of the pavement can be undertaken when there are
trends occurring over larger areas.

The subgrade properties used in design are its resilient modulus and Poissons ratio. These can be
determined directly from laboratory repetitive triaxial testing or derived from other laboratory tests and
in-place testing. For the resilient modulus these include laboratory and in-place CBR tests, hand-held
DCP tests and MEXE probe tests. The latter two provide equivalent CBR values. These tests are
described in greater detail in other sections of this document. Poissons ratio can be estimated based upon
the soil type and engineering judgment. There are several different relationships for converting CBR
values into the resilient modulus in fine grained soils. In the most common method the resilient modulus
can be determined from the CBR value as follows:

M
R
= 1500 x CBR

It is generally considered necessary to limit the resilient modulus of subgrade materials to 30,000 psi.
irrespective of test properties. If the pavement is a rehabilitation project a high level of information can
be determined from FWD testing.


7-7
JN: 5552-06
As a last resort, the resilient moduli can also be estimated on the basis of the material type and
engineering judgment. The following table sets out some typical values of resilient modulus and
Poissons ratio for different subgrade types:

After the test values or estimated values have been determined for each grid point, and assigned to
defined pavement areas it is necessary to develop the appropriate design values for each area. The design
value is generally take as the 85-percentile value. That is, the value at which 85 percent of the test results
are higher. The remaining 15 percent will be below the design value, but this does not necessarily mean
that these locations will fail prematurely. Very l ow results can be treated as soft areas and some
additional depth of subgrade can be removed and replaced with better quality material, or these areas can
be treated or modified. In addition, the variability in traffic loads and patterns will result in only part of
this area being fully loaded. Local experience over the long term with certain subgrade materials may
enable the use of a lower percentile value, or indicate the need for a higher one.

7.4 Design Life
Flexible pavements are considered to fail in a few different ways. These include permanent deformation
(particularly rutting), structural cracking and environmental cracking. Permanent deformation results
from repetitive wheel load applications on the pavement, or more correctly vertical stress and strain
applications to the pavement and subgrade materials. The subgrade is most susceptible to permanent
deformation. Structural cracking also results from repetitive wheel load applications on the pavement, or
horizontal stress and strain applications to the pavement materials. The bottom of asphalt concrete or
cement treated base is the most susceptible to structural cracking. Environmental cracking results from
expansion and particularly contraction of the materials as a result of temperature changes, and from
shrinkage of asphalt concrete as it ages. The top of asphalt concrete is the most susceptible to
environmental cracking.

Failure criteria are subjective issues, and arise from several aspects of the pavement performance. This
may include ride quality, moisture penetration resistance and repair methods. They therefore vary with
the type of application and the authority having jurisdiction. Typically for highway pavements the
permanent deformation condition is defined as rut depths of 1/2 in to 1 in. For airports, similar criteria
are used. Port pavements typically experience rut depths of up to 2 in before issues arise. For
mechanistic design it is beneficial to represent the failure criteria in terms of strain. Much research has
been undertaken to determine the strains at which permanent deformation limits are reached. There are
several different models as a result of laboratory testing programs and pavement performance monitoring.
Structural and environmental cracking is usually defined as a tensile failure of the asphalt concrete or
cement treated base, and the initiation of cracking over 15 to 25 percent of the pavement. Many research
programs have been carried out in this regard to develop limiting strain relationships.

The design life of a pavement is generally considered as the point at which the cumulative strain
repetitions from the design load have reached the allowable strain repetitions for the critical layer in the
pavement or in the subgrade. As mentioned above, for load related failure this will normally be a vertical
compressive strain at the top of an unbound layer or a horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the bound
layer. This does not necessarily mean that the pavement will no longer support traffic, but that it will
have failed according to the definition of failure used in the design method. Rutting will continue to
progress at an increasing rate and cracks may take some time to propagate beyond their point of initiation.
For a port pavement that has significantly variability in the wheel loads and traffic patterns, and further


7-8
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variability in material properties, some pavement areas will fail before the design life has been reached
and other will survive for a longer period.

7.5 Permanent Deformation
Permanent deformation can occur in the asphalt concrete layers, the unbound pavement layers and in the
subgrade. Deformation in the asphalt concrete is generally minimized by the selection of the constituent
material, the mix design process and quality of construction. Numerical fatigue relationships exist that
can model permanent deformation in the asphalt concrete, but these are not generally considered for port
pavement design, and are not included herein. Permanent deformation in the unbound pavement layers
such as aggregate base and sub-base are also small because of the quality of the materials. However,
these can be verified using the same fatigue relationships as used for the subgrade. It should be noted that
improper material selection and construction quality can result in excessive deformation in these layers.

The subgrade is the most critical layer for permanent deformation. There are many different theoretical
relationships that have been developed for subgrade failure in highway conditions. There are fewer
relationships developed from studies with heavy wheel load such as aircraft gear. One such relationship
has been used by the FAA and Corps of Engineers. This relationship relates the allowable number of
repetitions of the design wheel load to the specific level of vertical compressive strain from the layered
elastic analysis of the pavement system, and the elastic modulus of the layer. The relationship is as
follows:

B
z
A
N

= 000 , 10
where

N = allowable repetitions
A = 0.000247 + 0.000245log
10
M
R

M
R
= elastic modulus of layer
z
= vertical tensile strain in layer
B = 0.0658E
0.559

Figure 7-1 is a graphical representation of the relationship for typical subgrade materials :


7-9
JN: 5552-06
ALLOWABLE VERTICAL SUBGRADE STRAIN
800
900
1,000
1,100
1,200
1,300
1,400
1
0
,0
0
0
2
0
,0
0
0
3
0
,0
0
0
4
0
,0
0
0
5
0
,0
0
0
6
0
,0
0
0
7
0
,0
0
0
8
0
,0
0
0
9
0
,0
0
0
1
0
0
,0
0
0
1
1
0
,0
0
0
1
2
0
,0
0
0
1
3
0
,0
0
0
1
4
0
,0
0
0
1
5
0
,0
0
0
1
6
0
,0
0
0
1
7
0
,0
0
0
1
8
0
,0
0
0
1
9
0
,0
0
0
2
0
0
,0
0
0
2
1
0
,0
0
0
2
2
0
,0
0
0
2
3
0
,0
0
0
2
4
0
,0
0
0
2
5
0
,0
0
0
Load Repetitions
M
i
c
r
o
s
t
r
a
i
n
CBR 5
CBR 10
CBR 15
CBR 20

Figure 7-1 Allowable Vertical Strain for Subgrade

Several layered elastic analysis programs have built-in permanent deformation routines that can be used
to develop the design life of the pavement. Care should be taken in using these routines as many are the
result of highway load related research. It is recommended that the computed strains are taken from the
layered elastic analysis output and are analyzed separately.

7.6 Structural Cracking
7.6.1 Asphalt Concrete
Structural cracking occurs at the bottom of the asphalt concrete layer. Several theoretical relationships
have been developed for asphalt concrete. For particular locations the fatigue relationships can also be
determined through laboratory testing on the proposed materials. For cracking at the bottom of the
asphalt concrete it is recommended that the relationship used by the FAA and Corps of Engineers is
adopted. This relationship relates the allowable number of repetitions of the design wheel load to the
specific level of horizontal tensile strain from the layered elastic analysis of the pavement system, and the
elastic modulus of the layer. The relationship is as follows:

E N
h 10 10 10
log 665 . 2 log 0 . 5 68 . 2 log =

where



7-10
JN: 5552-06
h
= horizontal tensile strain in asphalt concrete
E = elastic modulus of asphalt concrete

Figure 7-2 is a graphical representation of the relationship for typical asphalt concrete materials:

ALLOWABLE HORIZONTAL TENSILE STRAIN AC
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1
0
,0
0
0
2
0
,0
0
0
3
0
,0
0
0
4
0
,0
0
0
5
0
,0
0
0
6
0
,0
0
0
7
0
,0
0
0
8
0
,0
0
0
9
0
,0
0
0
1
0
0
,0
0
0
1
1
0
,0
0
0
1
2
0
,0
0
0
1
3
0
,0
0
0
1
4
0
,0
0
0
1
5
0
,0
0
0
1
6
0
,0
0
0
1
7
0
,0
0
0
1
8
0
,0
0
0
1
9
0
,0
0
0
2
0
0
,0
0
0
2
1
0
,0
0
0
2
2
0
,0
0
0
2
3
0
,0
0
0
2
4
0
,0
0
0
2
5
0
,0
0
0
Load Repetitions
M
i
c
r
o
s
t
r
a
i
n
200,000 psi
300,000 psi
400,000 psi
600,000 psi

Figure 7-2 Allowable Horizontal Tensile Strain for Asphalt Concrete

7.6.2 Cement Treated Base
Structural cracking occurs at the bottom of the cement treated base layer. Only a few theoretical
relationships have been developed for cement treated base material. Fatigue properties for tensile strain
can be determine from repetitive load tests undertaken on beams of cement treated base. Several tests
should be run at different stress levels (40%, 60%, and 80%), and fatigue properties should be calculated
from deflections after 100, 1,000 and 10,000 cycles). For cracking at the bottom of the chemically
stabilized layers (including portland cement and lime) it is recommended that the relationship used by the
Corps of Engineers is adopted. This relationship relates the allowable number of repetitions of the design
wheel load to the specific level of horizontal tensile strain from the layered elastic analysis of the
pavement system. The relationship is as follows:

N = 10
C

where



7-11
JN: 5552-06
C =
h
0578 . 0 11 . 9
h
= Horizontal tensile microstrain in cement treated base

Figure 7-3 is a graphical representation of the relationship:

ALLOWABLE HORIZONTAL TENSILE STRAIN CTB
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
1
0
,0
0
0
2
0
,0
0
0
3
0
,0
0
0
4
0
,0
0
0
5
0
,0
0
0
6
0
,0
0
0
7
0
,0
0
0
8
0
,0
0
0
9
0
,0
0
0
1
0
0
,0
0
0
1
1
0
,0
0
0
1
2
0
,0
0
0
1
3
0
,0
0
0
1
4
0
,0
0
0
1
5
0
,0
0
0
1
6
0
,0
0
0
1
7
0
,0
0
0
1
8
0
,0
0
0
1
9
0
,0
0
0
2
0
0
,0
0
0
2
1
0
,0
0
0
2
2
0
,0
0
0
2
3
0
,0
0
0
2
4
0
,0
0
0
2
5
0
,0
0
0
Load Repetitions
M
i
c
r
o
s
t
r
a
i
n

Figure 7-3 Allowable Horizontal Tensile Strain for Cement Treated Base

7.7 Design example for flexible pavements
This chapter describe an design example for flexible pavements using the methods discussed in the
previous section. The design analysis is done by using the Kenlayer computer software. Firstly
preparation of the input data is discussed. Then the design method using the software is presented. The
output from the computer software is also attached.

7.7.1 Input Data
7.7.1.1 Material Properties
7.7.1.1.1 Subgrade
It is assumed that a geotechnical investigation has been undertaken for the area of the proposed pavement.
Boreholes were formed and samples recovered for laboratory testing. The geotechnical report indicates
that the ground conditions comprise recent fill materials including sand, silt and clay. The surficial soils
on which the pavement will be constructed consist of loose to medium dense silty sand with a thickness
of 15 to 30 feet. The soils are variously classified as SP, SM and SP-SM with a range of SPT blow


7-12
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counts between 5 and 20. The water table was a minimum of 12' below the underside of the pavement
section.

Undisturbed samples of the surficial soils within 10' of the underside of the pavement were taken from the
boreholes at several locations to determine in-place density. The densities ranged between 90.3 pcf and
110.6 pcf. Compared with the maximum dry density of 117.2 pcf determined in accordance with ASTM
D1557 during the laboratory test program, these values indicate in-place relative densities of between
77% and 94%. The majority of the results were between 85% and 90% relative density.

Bulk samples of the surficial soils within 10' of the underside of the pavement were taken at eight
locations for laboratory CBR testing. The soaked CBR values were determined in accordance with
ASTM D1883, for in-place densities and relative densities of 90% and 95% of maximum dry density
determined in accordance with ASTM D1557. The four in-place density CBR values were 3.0, 4.0, 4.5
and 6.5. The CBR values at 90% relative density were 7.0, 8.5, 13.0, 13.0, 14.0, 15.0, 15.5 and 16.0 at
0.1 inches penetration. At 95% relative density they were 18.0, 19.5, 23.5, 25.0, 26.0, 26.0, 26.0 and 32.0
at 0.1 inches penetration.

The design CBR will be selected from this data as the 15th percentile for each relative density. The
design CBR values are therefore 3.5, 8.7 and 19.7 respectively. For the analysis of the pavement section
it is necessary to convert the design CBR values into equivalent elastic modulus values. Using a factor of
1,500 the elastic moduli become approximately5,200 psi, 13,100 psi and 29,600 psi respectively for in-
place density and 90% and 95% relative density. These values can be used in a layered subgrade
approach in the analysis.

The specification for subgrade preparation will require that the top 12 inch layer of the subgrade is
compacted to a minimum of 95% relative density (ASTM D1557) and the underlying 12 inches are
compacted to a minimum of 90% relative density (ASTM D1557). To examine the interaction of one
layer over the top of another to evaluate an equivalent composite modulus a Barker and Brabston analysis
can be undertaken. The sub-base equation will be used for the subgrade materials. Using a foundation
modulus of 5,200 psi for the natural soil creates a similar profile of elastic modulus values. This analysis
indicates that the combined effective in-place elastic modulus under the pavement will be approximately
18,500 psi. This value can be used for a uniform subgrade approach in the analysis as an alternative to
the multi-layered approach.

The pavement section analysis method also requires that a Poissons ratio is selected for the subgrade.
This value is not obtained in the soil testing, but should be appropriate for the SP, SM and SP-SM
materials in their eventual in-place condition. The ground water level was recorded to be approximately
12' feet or greater below the underside of the pavement. As the soils are relatively fine grained but well
above the water table a Poissons ratio of 0.4 is considered appropriate.

7.7.1.1.2 Aggregate Base
Two types of aggregate base generally are available to the Port of Los Angeles for its paving projects. In
most cases the port has traditionally used crushed miscellaneous base (CMB) in preference to crushed
aggregate base (CAB). This is a recycled material including crushed concrete and asphalt. The
contractors have the option of crushing and reusing the removed existing pavement materials, provided
they comply with the specification for CMB. The Specification states that the CMB is to be compacted to
a relative density of at least 97% of the maximum dry density determined in accordance with ASTM
D1557. It is to be spread and compacted in lifts no greater than 6" thick. The available aggregate base


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will be Crushed Miscellaneous Base complying with the Greenbook Specification. It will have a
minimum R value of 80.

The elastic modulus value of the aggregate base is required for the pavement analysis. The elastic moduli
of unbound aggregates are stress dependent, and vary as a result of the modulus of the underlying layer
and the thickness of the lift. In theory the values will change each time the layer thicknesses change.
However, to simplify the analysis one option is considered and subsequently fine tuned to verify the final
section. The initial value will be determined assuming an 18 inch thick CMB layer using Barker and
Brabston techniques to develop the design elastic modulus. Three 6" lifts will be considered for this
purpose over the 18,500 psi composite subgrade modulus. This analysis indicates that the values of the
three CMB layers are 40,900 psi, 67,500 psi and 87,400 psi from bottom to top. This provides an average
value of 65,300 psi.

The Poissons ratio used in the pavement section analyses is 0.35. This is a typical value for relatively
free-draining, well-compacted aggregate base materials.

7.7.1.1.3 Asphalt Concrete
The proposed asphalt concrete mixtures used at the Port are mixtures specially developed by the Port of
Los Angeles, and are referred to as Class X and Class Y. These were developed to provide stiffer asphalt
concrete with greater resistance to indentation under corner castings and chassis legs.

The elastic modulus of asphalt concrete is variable dependent on several factors, including age,
temperature and loading time. The elastic modulus increases with age as the asphalt cement oxidizes and
hardens. It reduces as the asphalt cement becomes warm following exposure to high air temperatures and
exposure to sunlight. It also reduces as the loading time increases for slow moving vehicles. For this
analysis an elastic modulus of 450,000 psi for the top lift and 550,000 psi for the bottom lift will be used.
A Poissons ratio of 0.35 is a typical value used for the asphalt concrete. A crack suppression layer of
asphalt concrete with a lower modulus has also been considered at the bottom of the bound layer. This
material will have greater fatigue properties so that cracking is offset.

7.7.2 Operations
7.7.2.1 Design Wheel Load
Top-Picks:
The top-picks will be Taylor THDC 955 machines. The top-picks have a capacity of lifting up to 80,000
lbs, but the critical wheel load will occur when the container weight is 24 long tons and there is a dynamic
factor of 1.2. The dual wheel load used for design will be 91,513 lbs, and the tire pressure will be 120
psi. There will be the equivalent of 6,000 annual repetitions of this wheel load over 20 years for a total of
120,000 repetitions.

7.7.3 Design Method
7.7.3.1 Computer Program
The design analysis will be undertaken using the Kenlayer computer program. This program computes
stresses, strains and deflections at selected positions in the pavement structure. For a single wheel load
the critical conditions occur under the center of the wheel. For dual wheels, these positions are typically
at the center of the two tires. Both of these positions should been analyzed. The critical strains are


7-14
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typically at the bottom of the asphalt concrete and at the top of the subgrade. All layers are considered to
be linear elastic and all interfaces are considered to be fully bonded. No subdivision of layers will be
undertaken in this example.

The following pages set out the printout from the Kenlayer program for each of the options considered.
The principal tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt concrete layer (position 1) and the principle
compressive strain at the top of the subgrade (position 2) are considered for fatigue life criteria.

7.7.3.2 Failure Criteria
Pavement materials fail by fatigue. The repeated application of stresses well below the failure condition
will cause cumulative damage resulting in eventual failure. Relationships have been developed by
various authorities to enable calculation of number of repetitions of an established strain before failure.

7.7.3.3 Asphalt Concrete
The fatigue factors used for the calculation of the allowable horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the
asphalt concrete are set out in the flexible pavement design section of this guide. The relationship is as
follows:

E N
h 10 10 10
log 665 . 2 log 0 . 5 68 . 2 log =
where
h
= horizontal tensile strain in asphalt concrete
E = elastic modulus of asphalt concrete

7.7.4 Subgrade
The fatigue factors used for the calculation of allowable vertical compressive strain in the top of the
subgrade are set out in the flexible pavement design section of this guide. The relationship is as follows:

B
z
A
N

= 000 , 10
where
A = 0.000247 + 0.000245log
10
M
R

M
R
= elastic modulus of layer
z
= vertical tensile strain in layer
B = 0.0658E
0.559

7.7.5 Pavement Sections
7.7.5.1 Alternate Sections
A realistic starting point for evaluating the pavement thickness is to assume that it will be approximately
20+ inches thick. Initial analyses were undertaken using 7 inches of asphalt concrete over 15, 17 and 19
inches of crushed miscellaneous base. Comparative designs were undertaken thickening the asphalt
concrete by 1 inch and reducing the base course by a similar amount. Refer to the following summary.


7-15
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As can be seen from the results, the increase in asphalt concrete thickness has little effect ( approximately
5% increase) on the design life of the pavement and in all cases the pavement sections will not reach their
required design life for this parameter. However, the subgrade achieves the required design life when the
pavement thickness reaches 26 inches thickness.

A further series of sections were analyzed including a 2 inch layer of softer asphalt concrete under the
Class X mix. As this mix has a lower modulus it has a higher allowable strain limit. As evident in the
summary, the pavement develops an adequate life for both subgrade and asphalt concrete criteria when
the pavement is thinner. The two options selected are

3" Class Y asphalt concrete surface course
4" Class X asphalt concrete base course
2" Class D asphalt concrete crack suppression layer
15" crushed miscellaneous base course
or
3
1
/
2
" Class Y asphalt concrete surface course
4
1
/
2
" Class X asphalt concrete base course
2" Class D asphalt concrete crack suppression layer
12" crushed miscellaneous base course

As the former pavement option (24" thick) provides double the life expectancy of the second option (22"
thick) at the subgrade level, this option allows the asphalt concrete to be replaced at the end of the design
life without requiring full depth replacement of the pavement.

7.7.6 Computer output

********************************************************************************************
* *
* 3 + 4 AC on 15 CMB *
* *
********************************************************************************************
MATL = 1 FOR LINEAR ELASTIC LAYERED SYSTEM
NDAMA = 0, SO DAMAGE ANALYSIS WILL NOT BE PERFORMED
NUMBER OF PERIODS PER YEAR (NPY) = 1
NUMBER OF LOAD GROUPS (NLG) = 1
TOLERANCE FOR INTEGRATION (DEL) -- = .00100
NUMBER OF LAYERS (NL)------------- = 4
NUMBER OF Z COORDINATES (NZ)------ = 2
LIMIT OF INTEGRATION CYCLES (ICL)- = 80
COMPUTING CODE (NSTD)------------- = 9
THICKNESSES OF LAYERS (TH) ARE : 3.00000 4.00000 15.00000
POISSON'S RATIOS OF LAYERS (PR) ARE : .35000 .35000 .35000 .40000
VERTICAL COORDINATES OF POINTS (ZC) ARE: 6.99000 22.01000
ALL INTERFACES ARE FULLY BONDED
FOR PERIOD NO. 1 ELASTIC MODULI OF LAYERS ARE: .450000E+06 .550000E+06 .653000E+05 .185000E+05
LOAD GROUP NO. 1 HAS 2 CONTACT AREAS
CONTACT RADIUS (CR)--------------- = 11.02000
CONTACT PRESSURE (CP)------------- = 120.00000
NO. OF POINTS AT WHICH RESULTS ARE DESIRED (NPT)-- = 2
WHEEL SPACING ALONG X-AXIS (XW)------------------- = .00000
WHEEL SPACING ALONG Y-AXIS (YW)------------------- = 24.00000
POINT NO. AND X AND Y COORDINATES ARE :
1 .00000 .00000 2 .00000 12.00000
PERIOD NO. 1 LOAD GROUP NO. 1
POINT VERTICAL VERTICAL VERTICAL MAJOR INTERMEDIATE MINOR VERTICAL MAJOR MINOR HORIZONTAL
PRINCIPAL PRINCIPAL PRINCIPAL PRINCIPAL PRINCIPAL PRINCIPAL
NO. COORDINATE DISP. STRESS STRESS STRESS STRESS STRAIN STRAIN STRAIN STRAIN
1 6.99000 .6586E-01 .6753E+02 .6801E+02 -.1556E+03 -.2101E+03 .3553E-03 .3564E-03 -.3263E-03 -.3263E-03
1 22.01000 .5515E-01 .2152E+02 .2225E+02 .1730E+01 .6776E-01 .1109E-02 .1164E-02 -.5149E-03 -.5149E-03
2 6.99000 .6861E-01 .5989E+02 .5989E+02 -.5937E+02 -.2026E+03 .2756E-03 .2756E-03 -.3686E-03 -.3686E-03
2 22.01000 .5797E-01 .2346E+02 .2346E+02 .2458E+01 .1309E-01 .1215E-02 .1215E-02 -.5596E-03 -.5596E-03
********************************************************************************************
* *
* 3 + 4 AC on 17 CMB *
* *
********************************************************************************************
1 .00000 .00000 2 .00000 12.00000
1 6.99000 .6374E-01 .6853E+02 .6899E+02 -.1485E+03 -.2017E+03 .3471E-03 .3483E-03 -.3161E-03 -.3161E-03
1 24.01000 .5220E-01 .1949E+02 .2016E+02 .1336E+01 -.9632E-01 .1013E-02 .1063E-02 -.4700E-03 -.4700E-03
2 6.99000 .6628E-01 .6100E+02 .6100E+02 -.5094E+02 -.1931E+03 .2662E-03 .2662E-03 -.3575E-03 -.3575E-03
2 24.01000 .5475E-01 .2131E+02 .2131E+02 .1884E+01 -.1535E+00 .1114E-02 .1114E-02 -.5098E-03 -.5098E-03
********************************************************************************************
* *
* 3 + 4 AC on 19 CMB *
* *
********************************************************************************************
1 .00000 .00000 2 .00000 12.00000
1 6.99000 .6183E-01 .6934E+02 .6977E+02 -.1430E+03 -.1952E+03 .3410E-03 .3420E-03 -.3083E-03 -.3083E-03
1 26.01000 .4952E-01 .1773E+02 .1834E+02 .1030E+01 -.2051E+00 .9275E-03 .9734E-03 -.4298E-03 -.4298E-03
2 6.99000 .6420E-01 .6191E+02 .6191E+02 -.4439E+02 -.1858E+03 .2591E-03 .2591E-03 -.3490E-03 -.3490E-03
2 26.01000 .5183E-01 .1941E+02 .1941E+02 .1443E+01 -.2624E+00 .1024E-02 .1024E-02 -.4651E-03 -.4651E-03
********************************************************************************************
* *
* 3.5 + 4.5 AC on 14 CMB *
* *
********************************************************************************************
1 .00000 .00000 2 .00000 12.00000
1 7.99000 .6359E-01 .5908E+02 .5956E+02 -.1609E+03 -.2150E+03 .3463E-03 .3475E-03 -.3264E-03 -.3264E-03
1 22.01000 .5425E-01 .2066E+02 .2135E+02 .1691E+01 .1666E+00 .1062E-02 .1114E-02 -.4892E-03 -.4892E-03
2 7.99000 .6637E-01 .5396E+02 .5396E+02 -.8681E+02 -.2118E+03 .2882E-03 .2882E-03 -.3642E-03 -.3642E-03
2 22.01000 .5693E-01 .2249E+02 .2249E+02 .2349E+01 .1193E+00 .1162E-02 .1162E-02 -.5306E-03 -.5306E-03
********************************************************************************************
* *
* 3.5 + 4.5 AC on 16 CMB *
* *
********************************************************************************************
1 .00000 .00000 2 .00000 12.00000
1 7.99000 .6158E-01 .6020E+02 .6067E+02 -.1531E+03 -.2058E+03 .3376E-03 .3387E-03 -.3154E-03 -.3154E-03
1 24.01000 .5141E-01 .1877E+02 .1940E+02 .1308E+01 -.9673E-02 .9730E-03 .1021E-02 -.4483E-03 -.4483E-03
2 7.99000 .6416E-01 .5520E+02 .5520E+02 -.7765E+02 -.2016E+03 .2781E-03 .2781E-03 -.3523E-03 -.3523E-03
2 24.01000 .5384E-01 .2049E+02 .2049E+02 .1804E+01 -.5988E-01 .1070E-02 .1070E-02 -.4852E-03 -.4852E-03
********************************************************************************************
* *
* 3.5 + 4.5 AC on 18 CMB *
* *
********************************************************************************************
1 .00000 .00000 2 .00000 12.00000
1 7.99000 .5975E-01 .6111E+02 .6155E+02 -.1470E+03 -.1986E+03 .3307E-03 .3318E-03 -.3068E-03 -.3068E-03
1 26.01000 .4883E-01 .1712E+02 .1770E+02 .1010E+01 -.1293E+00 .8940E-03 .9375E-03 -.4114E-03 -.4114E-03
2 7.99000 .6217E-01 .5624E+02 .5624E+02 -.7041E+02 -.1937E+03 .2703E-03 .2703E-03 -.3431E-03 -.3431E-03
2 26.01000 .5104E-01 .1871E+02 .1871E+02 .1385E+01 -.1800E+00 .9854E-03 .9854E-03 -.4442E-03 -.4442E-03
********************************************************************************************
* *
* 3 + 4 + 2 AC on 13 CMB *
* *
********************************************************************************************
THICKNESSES OF LAYERS (TH) ARE : 3.00000 4.00000 2.00000 13.00000
POISSON'S RATIOS OF LAYERS (PR) ARE : .35000 .35000 .35000 .35000 .40000
FOR PERIOD NO. 1 ELASTIC MODULI OF LAYERS ARE: .450000E+06 .550000E+06 .300000E+06 .653000E+05 .185000E+05
1 .00000 .00000 2 .00000 12.00000
1 8.99000 .6217E-01 .5447E+02 .5523E+02 -.8888E+02 -.1210E+03 .4255E-03 .4289E-03 -.3640E-03 -.3640E-03
1 22.01000 .5364E-01 .2016E+02 .2083E+02 .1494E+01 .1072E-01 .1042E-02 .1094E-02 -.4822E-03 -.4822E-03
2 8.99000 .6494E-01 .5049E+02 .5049E+02 -.5204E+02 -.1212E+03 .3705E-03 .3705E-03 -.4023E-03 -.4023E-03
2 22.01000 .5623E-01 .2193E+02 .2193E+02 .2101E+01 -.5545E-01 .1141E-02 .1141E-02 -.5227E-03 -.5227E-03
********************************************************************************************
* *
* 3 + 4 + 2 AC on 15 CMB *
* *
********************************************************************************************
1 .00000 .00000 2 .00000 12.00000
1 8.99000 .6019E-01 .5568E+02 .5642E+02 -.8359E+02 -.1148E+03 .4162E-03 .4195E-03 -.3510E-03 -.3510E-03
1 24.01000 .5085E-01 .1832E+02 .1894E+02 .1155E+01 -.1222E+00 .9547E-03 .1001E-02 -.4411E-03 -.4411E-03
2 8.99000 .6278E-01 .5182E+02 .5182E+02 -.4578E+02 -.1144E+03 .3596E-03 .3596E-03 -.3883E-03 -.3883E-03
2 24.01000 .5321E-01 .1999E+02 .1999E+02 .1610E+01 -.1870E+00 .1050E-02 .1050E-02 -.4770E-03 -.4770E-03
********************************************************************************************
* *
* 3 + 4 + 2 AC on 17 CMB *
* *
********************************************************************************************
1 .00000 .00000 2 .00000 12.00000
1 8.99000 .5839E-01 .5666E+02 .5737E+02 -.7936E+02 -.1100E+03 .4089E-03 .4122E-03 -.3410E-03 -.3410E-03
1 26.01000 .4831E-01 .1672E+02 .1728E+02 .8919E+00 -.2102E+00 .8770E-03 .9195E-03 -.4043E-03 -.4043E-03
2 8.99000 .6083E-01 .5294E+02 .5294E+02 -.4084E+02 -.1090E+03 .3513E-03 .3513E-03 -.3775E-03 -.3775E-03
2 26.01000 .5046E-01 .1826E+02 .1826E+02 .1233E+01 -.2719E+00 .9663E-03 .9663E-03 -.4362E-03 -.4362E-03
********************************************************************************************
* *
* 3.5 + 4.5 + 2 AC on 12 CMB *
* *
********************************************************************************************
1 .00000 .00000 2 .00000 12.00000
1 9.99000 .6013E-01 .4780E+02 .4852E+02 -.8985E+02 -.1204E+03 .4039E-03 .4071E-03 -.3533E-03 -.3533E-03
1 22.01000 .5272E-01 .1935E+02 .1999E+02 .1449E+01 .7485E-01 .9993E-03 .1047E-02 -.4594E-03 -.4594E-03
2 9.99000 .6283E-01 .4517E+02 .4517E+02 -.6213E+02 -.1223E+03 .3658E-03 .3658E-03 -.3880E-03 -.3880E-03
2 22.01000 .5518E-01 .2101E+02 .2101E+02 .2003E+01 .9451E-02 .1092E-02 .1092E-02 -.4972E-03 -.4972E-03
********************************************************************************************
* *
* 3.5 + 4.5 + 2 AC on 14 CMB *
* *
********************************************************************************************
1 .00000 .00000 2 .00000 12.00000
1 9.99000 .5825E-01 .4908E+02 .4980E+02 -.8434E+02 -.1140E+03 .3942E-03 .3974E-03 -.3398E-03 -.3398E-03
1 24.01000 .5004E-01 .1764E+02 .1822E+02 .1121E+01 -.6471E-01 .9179E-03 .9619E-03 -.4216E-03 -.4216E-03
2 9.99000 .6078E-01 .4657E+02 .4657E+02 -.5561E+02 -.1152E+03 .3545E-03 .3545E-03 -.3735E-03 -.3735E-03
2 24.01000 .5228E-01 .1920E+02 .1920E+02 .1534E+01 -.1284E+00 .1007E-02 .1007E-02 -.4552E-03 -.4552E-03
********************************************************************************************
* *
* 3.5 + 4.5 = 2 AC on 16 CMB *
* *
********************************************************************************************
1 .00000 .00000 2 .00000 12.00000
1 9.99000 .5653E-01 .5013E+02 .5084E+02 -.7990E+02 -.1090E+03 .3866E-03 .3898E-03 -.3294E-03 -.3294E-03
1 26.01000 .4760E-01 .1613E+02 .1666E+02 .8664E+00 -.1582E+00 .8453E-03 .8854E-03 -.3876E-03 -.3876E-03
2 9.99000 .5892E-01 .4777E+02 .4777E+02 -.5041E+02 -.1096E+03 .3459E-03 .3459E-03 -.3623E-03 -.3623E-03
2 26.01000 .4965E-01 .1758E+02 .1758E+02 .1176E+01 -.2181E+00 .9296E-03 .9296E-03 -.4173E-03 -.4173E-03
PAVEMENT SECTION
Position 1 Position 2 22 inches 24 inches 26 inches
3 + 4 AC on 15 CMB -3.26E-04 -3.69E-04 35,413 reps
3 + 4 AC on 17 CMB -3.16E-04 -3.58E-04 41,262 reps
3 + 4 AC on 19 CMB -3.08E-04 -3.49E-04 46,538 reps
3.5 + 4.5 AC on 14 CMB -3.26E-04 -3.64E-04 37,604 reps
3.5 + 4.5 AC on 16 CMB -3.15E-04 -3.52E-04 44,399 reps
3.5 + 4.5 AC on 18 CMB -3.07E-04 -3.43E-04 50,679 reps
3 + 4 + 2 AC on 13 CMB -3.64E-04 -4.02E-04 115,006 reps
3 + 4 + 2 AC on 15 CMB -3.51E-04 -3.88E-04 137,289 reps
3 + 4 + 2 AC on 17 CMB -3.41E-04 -3.78E-04 158,084 reps
3.5 + 4.5 + 2 AC on 12 CMB -3.53E-04 -3.88E-04 137,820 reps
3.5 + 4.5 + 2 AC on 14 CMB -3.40E-04 -3.74E-04 166,732 reps
3.5 + 4.5 + 2 AC on 16 CMB -3.29E-04 -3.62E-04 194,147 reps
PAVEMENT SECTION
Position 1 Position 2 22 inches 24 inches 26 inches
3 + 4 AC on 15 CMB 1.16E-03 1.22E-03 26,847 reps
3 + 4 AC on 17 CMB 1.06E-03 1.11E-03 107,448 reps
3 + 4 AC on 19 CMB 9.73E-04 1.02E-03 412,885 reps
3.5 + 4.5 AC on 14 CMB 1.11E-03 1.16E-03 54,756 reps
3.5 + 4.5 AC on 16 CMB 1.02E-03 1.07E-03 204,584 reps
3.5 + 4.5 AC on 18 CMB 9.38E-04 9.85E-04 767,910 reps
3 + 4 + 2 AC on 13 CMB 1.09E-03 1.14E-03 73,283 reps
3 + 4 + 2 AC on 15 CMB 1.00E-03 1.05E-03 276,579 reps
3 + 4 + 2 AC on 17 CMB 9.20E-04 9.66E-04 1,048,302 reps
3.5 + 4.5 + 2 AC on 12 CMB 1.05E-03 1.09E-03 147,784 reps
3.5 + 4.5 + 2 AC on 14 CMB 9.62E-04 1.01E-03 539,525 reps
3.5 + 4.5 + 2 AC on 16 CMB 8.85E-04 9.30E-04 1,923,368 reps
REPETITIONS UNTIL ASPHALT CONCRETE CRACKING
REPETITIONS UNTIL SUBGRADE RUTTING
PAVEMENT THICKNESS HORIZONTAL STRAIN
VERTICAL STRAIN PAVEMENT THICKNESS


JN: 5552-06
8. Concrete Pavement........................................................................................................... 8-1
8.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................... 8-1
8.2 Portland Cement Concrete Materials ............................................................................... 8-2
8.2.1 Cement Types................................................................................................................................................... 8-2
8.2.2 Supplementary Cementitious Materials ................................................................................................... 8-4
8.2.3 Concrete Aggregates ...................................................................................................................................... 8-5
8.2.4 Admixtures........................................................................................................................................................ 8-6
8.3 Concrete Mixing............................................................................................................... 8-7
8.3.1 Water .................................................................................................................................................................. 8-7
8.3.2 Mix Proportioning .......................................................................................................................................... 8-8
8.3.3 Concrete Batching, Transporting, and Placing ...................................................................................... 8-9
8.3.4 Quality Control ..............................................................................................................................................8-11
8.4 Thickness Design for Non-Reinforced Concrete Pavement ............................................. 8-14
8.4.1 Fatigue Damage .............................................................................................................................................8-14
8.5 Joint Design for Non-Reinforced Concrete Pavement ..................................................... 8-16
8.6 Analysis of PCC pavement.............................................................................................. 8-20
8.6.1 Warping Stress Analysis .............................................................................................................................8-20
8.6.2 Temperature Steel Analysis .......................................................................................................................8-22
8.6.3 Dowel Bar Analysis.......................................................................................................................................8-23
8.7 Design Examples............................................................................................................. 8-24
8.7.1 Concrete Pavement Analysis Examples Top Picks...........................................................................8-24
8.7.2 Concrete Pavement Analysis Examples RTG Runway...................................................................8-32


8-1
JN: 5552-06
8. Concrete Pavement

8.1 Introduction

Portland Cement Concrete Pavement (PCCP) is a system of subgrade soil, base course material, and the
surface course of Portland cement concrete. The appropriate design of a PCCP section requires
information on the properties of the subgrade soil and base course material, environmental impacts such
as climate, water table, and drainage, concrete properties, and the type of equipment, wheel loads, and
load repetitions. Prior to designing the pavement section, information about the on-site material
(subgrade), available granular bases, and concrete materials must be determined. It is most important to
design the pavement using a flexural strength that can be readily attained with the local materials. Using
higher than normal strengths may produce a thinner pavement section, but will create problems with
concrete production.

The subgrade soil properties including its load bearing capacity are determined from field and laboratory
tests of materials sampled during the site investigation. The subgrade evaluation, determination of the
subgrade modulus reaction (k value), and improvement are discussed in the Subgrade section of this
study.

The granular base material adds strength to the overall pavement section and also provides a strong, stable
working platform for the paving operation. The strength and durability of the base depends upon the
aggregate gradation, and durability and soundness of the aggregate. Using the base material Modulus of
Subgrade Reaction (k value) of the aggregate base, a composite k value at the top of the base material is
required for concrete pavement design.

At its base level, concrete is an artificial rock composed of aggregates bound by a cementitious paste.
How the aggregates are combined and the paste proportioned defines the strength, durability, and overall
quality of the concrete. Concrete used for PCCP must meet the combined requirements of durability
under repeated, heavy loads, dimensional stability to minimize shrinkage and curling, and non-reactivity
of its constituent material. The concrete mix is proportioned to attain the flexural strength assumed in the
pavement design. Depending upon the local environment, different mix proportions may be prepared to
accommodate hot and cold weather placing operations. The basic concrete materials - Portland cement,
supplementary cementitious materials, aggregates, and chemical admixtures will be discussed in this
section.

Climate and drainage considerations include the expected maximum and minimum daily temperatures and
the evaluation of the drainability and frost susceptibility of subgrade and base materials.

The projected load repetitions for the design life of the pavement are required to design concrete slab
thickness. Determinations of load repetition for various operational areas are discussed in the section 3 of
this study.

The determination of design wheel loads is a critical input in designing the PCCP section. The wheel
configurations and wheel loads for the typical container terminal and intermodal facility equipment are
provided in the section 3 of this study.


8-2
JN: 5552-06
8.2 Portland Cement Concrete Materials

This section provides general guidelines for the selection of Portland cement, supplementary cementitious
materials, aggregates, and chemical admixtures.
8.2.1 Cement Types

Two types of Portland cement are generally available: ASTM C 150, Standard Specification for
Portland Cement and ASTM C 595, Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements. The C150
cements are the most common and are the basis of the C 595 cements. This standard provides for eight
types to specific purposes:
Type I Normal
Type IA Normal, air-entraining
Type II Moderate sulfate resistance, low-alkali option, moderate heat option
Type IIA Moderate sulfate resistance, low-alkali option, moderate heat option, air-
entraining
Type III High early strength
Type IIIA High early strength, air-entraining
Type IV Low heat of hydration
Type V High sulfate resistance

When selecting the type of cement for PCCP pavement, consider the environmental conditions, available
aggregates, and method and speed of construction. The Type IA, IIA, and IIIA cements are manufactured
with an interground air-entraining agent. Generally, these cements are not commercially available.

Type I cement is used in general construction where no special properties are needed, where there are no
concerns about the presence of alkali reactive aggregates, and where concrete is not exposed to sulfates.
This cement would not be suitable for concrete work on projects sited on sulfate soils or in a saltwater
splash zone.

Type II cement is used when concrete has a moderate sulfate exposure. To maximize the sulfate exposure
benefit of Type II cement, the water:cementitious ratio should be kept low, see Table 8-1. The cement can
also be manufactured with a low-alkali option meaning it can provide some mitigation when used with
alkali reactive aggregates. This issue will be discussed more fully in the aggregate section. Type II
cement is typically manufactured as a lower heat of hydration cement. This reduces the temperature rise
and allows larger masses of concrete to be placed without the associated thermal cracking, especially in
hot weather.

Table 8-1 Types of Cement Required for Concrete Exposed to Sulfate Attack
Relative Degree of
Sulfate Attack
Percentage Water-Soluble
Sulfate (as S0
4
) in Soil
Samples
Sulfate (as SO
4
) in Water
Samples (parts/mi lion)
Cement Type
Negligible 0.00 to 010 0 to 150 I
Positive 0.10 to 0.20 150 to 1,500 II
Severe 0.20 to 2.00 1,500 to 10,000 V*
Very Severe 2.00 or more 10,000 or more V+pozzolan**
* Or approved Portland-pozzolan cement providing comparable sulfate resistance when used in concrete.


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** Should be approved pozzo Ian that has been determined by tests to improve sulfate resistance when
used in concrete with Type V cement.
Cement Type

Type III cement is used when high early strength is required. Chemically it is similar to Type I cement,
but Type III has a finer grind. Type III cement is generally used where early strengths are desired and is
not a common paving cement, except for projects under severe time restraints where strengths are needed
in one week versus the typical 28-days.

Type IV cement is used for mass concrete such as gravity concrete dams or other very large structures
where the heat rise from cement hydration must be minimized and strength can be attained in months not
days. This cement is a special order item.

Type V cement is used for concrete that has an extreme sulfate exposure. Again, for it to provide the best
protection, the water:cementitious ratio must be kept low. In California, it is not uncommon to see
cements manufactured to the requirements of both Type II and Type V and to be denoted on the mill
certificate as Types II/V.

ASTM C 595 is a standard for five classes of blended cements used in concrete construction like C 150
cements. The main difference is the C 595 cements are blended with a pozzolan or blast-furnace slag.
While these cements are not common on the West Coast, their use will increase as the demand for more
environmentally friendly construction products increases. Both slag and pozzolans such as fly ash are
recycled industrial waste products. The types of C 595 cements are:
Type IS Portland blast- furnace slag cement
Type IP or Type P Portland-pozzolan cement
Type I (PM) Pozzolan-modified Portland cement
Type S Slag cement
Type I(SM) Slag- modified Portland cement

A Type IS cement is manufactured by intergrinding blast-furnace slag with Portland cement clinker,
separately ground slag is blended with clinker, or a combination of intergrinding and blending. The Type
IS cement is used for general construction and may be manufactured with air-entraining (A), moderate
sulfate resistance (MS), or moderate heat of hydration (MH) optional properties.

Type IP and Type P are Portland-pozzolan cements made by intergrinding or blending Portland cement
clinker with a pozzolan, such as fly ash. Type IP performs similarly to a C 150 Type I cement. Type P
may be designated as a low heat of hydration (LH), moderate sulfate resistant (MS), or air-entraining (A)
cement.

Type I(PM) pozzolan-modified Portland cements are used for general construction. The pozzolan content
is less than 15% of the finished cement and may have a MS, MH, or A optional property.

The Type S slag cement contains a minimum of 70% slag cement combined with Portland cement. It
may be air-entrained.

Type I(SM) slag-modified Portland cement is a general construction cement manufactured by
intergrinding Portland cement clinker and granulated blast-furnace slag or by blending Portland cement


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with ground granulated blast-furnace slag or by a combination of the two. The slag content is less than
25% of the finished cement. It may have optional properties of A, MS, or MH.

Cement is composed of four broad materials lime, iron, silicate, and alumina. The amount of each
material is varied depending upon the type of cement being manufactured. Controlled proportions of
finely ground materials are blended and fed into a sloped, rotating kiln heated to 2500 to 2800
0
F. The
material exiting the kiln is a marble-sized cement clinker. After cooling, the clinker is processed
through a ball mill where it is pulverized to a size that nearly all of it passes the No. 325 mesh sieve (45
micrometer). During the final step, gypsum is added. This sulfate addition provides regulation of the
setting time and assists in improve shrinkage and strength development.

Portland cement is a hydraulic material that is both exothermic and endothermic. When mixed with
water, Portland cement forms a calcium silicate hydrate and calcium hydroxide and releases heat. When
the external temperature is low, the cement hydration is retarded resulting in slower set times and strength
gains. The calcium hydroxide is known as efflorescence and imparts no beneficial property to the
concrete. In fact, it allows external chemicals ready access to the concrete.

8.2.2 Supplementary Cementitious Materials

A supplementary cementitious material (SCM) is one that when used in conjunction with Portland cement
contributes to the properties of the hardened concrete through hydraulic or pozzolanic activity or both.
The most common SCMs are
Fly Ash ASTM C 618, Class C (mildly cementitious)
Class F (low-calcium)
Blast Furnace Slag ASTM C 989
Silica Fume ASTM C 1240
Metakaolin ASTM C 618, Class N
Natural Pozzolan ASTM C 618, Class N

These finely divided materials are either siliceous or aluminosiliceous will react with the calcium
hydroxide produced during cement hydration to form calcium silicate hydrate. As discussed in the
previous section, several of these SCMs are used to produce blended cements (ASTM C 595).

Portland Cement + H
2
O => Calcium Silicate Hydrate (CSH) + Ca(OH)
2

Ca(OH)
2
+ Supplementary Cementitious Material (high silica content) => CSH

When determining how much supplementary cementitious material to use in a mix design, it is important
to understand the reaction between the proposed cement and the different SCMs. The above equations
depict a chemical reaction and not every combination of cement and SCM is equal. Some SCMs may
react better with one cement than another. Therefore it is important to conduct sufficient trial batches to
determine the correct proportions for the project at hand.

Because fly ash is the most commonly used SCM, additional discussion of its properties when used with
C 150 cement is warranted. Fly ash is the by-product of coal fired electrical power plants. As the coal is
burned, the non-volatile matter fuses into spherical shapes and are carried away with the exhaust gases.
Prior to exiting the exhaust stack, these spheres are collected by electrostatic precipitators. Fly ash is
primarily silicate glass which imparts two beneficial properties to concrete. First, the spherical shape aids


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in the workability of the concrete. This is especially important with either or both crushed coarse
aggregate and manufactured sand. Second, the silicate content reacts with the Ca(OH)
2
to produce
additional Calcium Silicate Hydrate (CSH). Note that the additional CSH is not produced until sufficient
Ca(OH)
2
is produced for there to be a reaction. If cement is replaced with fly ash, as is most often the
case, the initial strengths will be lower since there is less cement in the mix. The fly ash mix strengths
generally equal or exceed the non-fly ash mixes between 28 and 42-days. This must be confirmed with
each cement to fly ash combination since it is a chemical reaction.

8.2.3 Concrete Aggregates

Aggregates are classified as light weight, normal weight, or heavy weight. This discussion is limited to
normal weight aggregates which are used in majority of container terminal pavement construction.
Concrete aggregate comprises approximately 60% to 75% of the concrete volume and effects concretes
workability, pumpability, finishability, durability, volume stability, and strength. Coarse and fine (sand)
aggregates are commonly defined by ASTM C 33, Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates.
Coarse aggregates consist of natural or crushed stone larger than 0.2 in up to 1-1/2 in. (sieve sizes #4 to 1-
1/2 in). Natural coarse aggregate is mined from waterways or pits. Since very little stream bed mining
occurs today, most coarse aggregate is crushed from larger stone. Fine aggregate is either natural sand or
manufactured by crushing coarse aggregate.

Both coarse and fine aggregates can be manufactured by crushing and recycling old concrete. The
recycled aggregate is generally blended with fresh aggregate, especially for the sand portion, in concrete
for new pavements. Using recycled aggregate will require additional testing to determine the percentages
of recycled versus fresh and the presence of injurious chemicals. However, there is the potential for
savings in the form of hauling and burying old concrete in landfills and the use of limited virgin aggregate
resources.

The aggregate shape and texture affect the workability of fresh concrete and strength of hardened
concrete. Angular, elongated, or irregular shaped aggregates will increase paste requirements compared to
smooth, round, natural aggregates. Elongated aggregates may also cause problems with segregation
during handling. While rough texture surfaces may increase mechanical bond, an elongated shape may
also indicate an aggregate with weak fracture planes. This may have an adverse effect on the hardened
concrete strength.

Aggregate cleanliness and the presence of silts and clays impact the bond between the cement paste and
the aggregate and increase water demand.

Both chemical and physical durability of aggregate must be considered. Physical durability concerns the
soundness, wear resistance and freeze-thaw characteristics of the aggregate. The most common tests are
ASTM C 88, Sodium Sulfate Soundness, and C 535, Los Angeles Rattler. For projects located in freeze-
thaw areas, if there is no local experience with an aggregate, it should be tested in accordance with C 666,
Resistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing and Thawing. This will determine if the aggregate is
susceptible to D-cracking. D-cracking is related to aggregates that are expansive when saturated with
water and then frozen. The pressure exerted by the repeated expansion is great enough to fracture the
concrete along a joint.


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For significant projects, the aggregates should be investigated for potential alkali-silica reaction between
the cement and aggregate. Local agencies, such as the highway department, may have already determined
the reactivity of the available aggregates. Alkali-silica reactivity produces a gel that expands and slowly
cracks the concrete creating serviceability problems. For aggregates found to be reactive, testing of
various cements and supplementary cementitious materials can determine the most efficient combination
to combat the problem at hand. As an example, C 150 Type II cement with the low alkali option and 25%
low calcium C 618 Class F fly ash are specified by Caltrans.

There are other harmful materials that are easily determined as parts of an aggregate qualification
investigation. It is advisable that the local agencies requirements for specifications on soundness, wear
resistance, and freeze-thaw damage are followed.

Aggregate gradation influences the amount of cement that is required, the handling characteristics of the
plastic concrete, and the hardened concrete properties. ASTM C33 sets gradation limits for coarse and
fine aggregates. While it is important to have aggregates that fall within the gradation limits for both
coarse and fine aggregates, it is more important to have a well graded combined gradation that minimizes
the amount of fine aggregate. There are 4 advantages of such a gradation:
Volume stability more coarse aggregate and less sand equates to less water and less shrinkage
More workability easier to place and finish
Mix does not segregate
Greater strength and durability

To achieve a well-graded mix, additional aggregates, usually in the form of a 3/8 maximum size
aggregate may have to be added. The maximum aggregate size for pavement slabs should not exceed 1.0
to 1.5 inches. Slipform paving machines can easily handle 1.5 inch aggregate, but this size is not always
available. The advantage of the larger size aggregate is slightly less cement and water contents and less
drying shrinkage. If reinforcement is used, the maximum size should not exceed of the minimum
clearance between reinforcing bars and forms.

8.2.4 Admixtures

Admixtures are any material other than cement, supplementary cementitious material, aggregate, or water
added to concrete batch immediately before or during mixing to improve performance or appearance.
The typical admixtures are air-entraining agents, water-reducers, set accelerators, set retarders, and high-
range water-reducers. Admixtures can also be used to reduce shrinkage, control hydration, inhibit
corrosion, reduce permeability, and add color. This discussion will focus on the first set of admixtures
which are used to improve the handling and consolidation of plastic concrete resulting in improved
performance and material characteristics of hardened concrete.

As concrete aggregates become more manufactured having a coarser texture, the workability imparted by
air-entraining is as significant as its ability to protect concrete against freeze-thaw damage. The round
air-bubbles impart workability to the concrete. It should be noted that the same air bubbles also block
water bleeding to the surface which may result in plastic shrinkage cracking, especially on windy days.
The same lack of bleeding also closes off the concrete to external chemical attack.

Water-reducing admixtures have three effects on the concrete mixture.
The cement content is reduced to maintain a constant water:cement ratio


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The water content is reduced and strength increased with no change in slump
The water and cement contents are maintained and the slump is increased.

The use of a high-range water-reducer which increases the slump from the 2-3 range to over 7 may
appear to be inconsistent with paving concrete. Properly designed, the concrete mix can be self-
consolidating. When placed in fixed forms, this type of mix has a labor-savings advantage.

Table 8-2 summarizes the principal advantages and disadvantages of major types of admixtures.

Table 8-2 Admixture Effects of Concrete Properties

Admixture Type Fresh Concrete Hardened Concrete
Air-Entrained

Improve workability
Reduced bleeding
Reduced segregation
Improved freeze-thaw
resistance
Improved sulfate resistance
Increased potential for plastic
shrinkage
Reduced strength
Water-Reducing 5% minimum water reduction
Improved workability
May increase bleeding
May entrain air
Increased strength
Increased impermeability
Improved durability
Set-Retarding Retarded initial set for
difficult placements
Possible increased shrinkage
Reduced early strength
Set-Accelerating
Note: Calcium chloride is
not recommended when
metal is embedded in
concrete.
Sets quicker Increased early strength
May increase final strength
May increased shrinkage
Water-Reducing Set-Retarding 5% minimum water reduction
Improved workability
Retarded initial set
Increased seven-day strengths
Improved durability
High-Range Water Reducing
Note: May be combined
with a set-retarder.
10% minimum water
reduction
Increased slump
Increased workability
Reduced consolidation
required
Increased strength
Improved durability

8.3 Concrete Mixing
This section provided general guidelines for the section of water, mixing proportioning, concrete
batching, transporting, and placing, and quality control.
8.3.1 Water

Portland cement concrete is a hydraulic material requiring water to hydrate the cement. Traditionally, any
water considered to be potable has been acceptable for batching concrete. Clean water regulations no
longer permit the dumping of concrete plant water into waterways. This includes water used to wash-out


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trucks returning to the batch plant. These waters are collected in reclaiming systems and the water is used
as part of the batch water for fresh concrete. The solids content will vary from 2.5% to 10%. Test
cylinders made with this water will be at least 90% of the strength of concrete made with distilled water at
seven-days of age. Concrete mix water also has limits for chloride, sulfate, alkalis, and total solids by
mass.

8.3.2 Mix Proportioning

Concrete mixes are proportioned based upon three principles
Strength is inverse to the water:cementitious ratio (w/c)
Water demand is inverse to the maximum size aggregate used
Well-graded combined coarse and fine aggregates produce the best strengths and finishes and are the
most durable

For non-air entrained concrete, a general guide is 2000 psi concrete has a w/c of 0.7 lb/lb compared to a
0.4 lb/lb for a 4000 psi concrete. At a constant cement content, the addition of water dilutes the cement
paste decreasing the concrete strength.

The water demand for a given slump is governed in part by the maximum sized aggregate (MSA). A
larger MSA has less surface area per volume compared to a smaller MSA. Given that cement requires
approximately 3 gallons to fully hydrate 94 pounds of cement, the absolute w/c is 0.25 lb/lb. The mix
water in excess of 0.25 lb/lb is the water of convenience that imparts workability and placeability to the
concrete. This water also increases drying shrinkage. As an example, for a mix designed with a total of 6
sks of cement and a water content of 36 gallons, the water of convenience is 18 gallons. If the MSA were
decreased and the total mix water went to 42 gallons, the cement content would be increased to 7 sacks to
maintain the w/c, but the water of convenience would increase to 21 gallons and increased drying
shrinkage would be anticipated. If the cement content were not increased, the w/c would increase, the
strength would decrease, the water of convenience would increase to 24 gallons, and drying shrinkage
would further increase.

Well-graded combined coarse and fine aggregates minimize the amount of water needed to produce
concrete of a given workability and decrease the drying shrinkage. Together, the concrete produces the
best strength and is the most durable.

Mixes can be proportioned following prescriptive criteria, trial batches, or empirical data. There are
advantages and disadvantages to each method. Prescriptive criteria mixes specify certain mix properties,
such as minimum cement content, maximum slump, maximum size aggregate, without considering
equipment, labor, and environmental conditions. The advantage is that the mixes rarely fail in strength.
However, the concrete characteristics govern the work instead of having the concrete work for the
contractor. Any innovation in placing, finishing, or improving the operation is limited by the inherent
concrete characteristics. A project stretching over several climate changes will be penalized by the
handcuffs of detailed prescriptive mix criteria. As the weather changes, the concrete additives and
placing conditions should change.

Trial batched mix proportioning utilizes the materials engineers expertise in developing a mix that will
meet the project specifications and match the contractors equipment, environmental conditions, and job
restrictions to produce a performance concrete. The degree to which concrete can be made to perform


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may be limited by the specificity of the specifications for minimum cement content, maximum, maximum
size aggregate, etc.

Empirical mix proportioning is based upon statistical data, such as strength and slump, for a given set of
concrete making materials combined with the contractors desired equipment performance, site
conditions, and environment. The mix can be proportioned to follow general material specifications and
still be a performance mix. Once the mix is proportioned, trial batches can be performed to verify the
strength, workability, and other properties.

The details of mix proportioning methods are found in the American Concrete Institutes guide for
proportioning ACI 211 and in the Portland Cement Associations publication Design and Control of
Concrete Mixtures.

8.3.3 Concrete Batching, Transporting, and Placing

Concrete batching is a highly controlled, computerized process of accurately weighing tons of material
into either a central mix plant or in a dry mix plant. The differences between the two are in a central mix
plant concrete is batched into a stationary mixer drum and mixed at high speed before being discharged
into the delivery vehicle. The delivery vehicle for paving projects is usually a dump truck. For
commercial operations, truck mixers are the typical delivery method. Dry batch plants weigh and deposit
the materials directly into the truck mixer drum where it is mixed enroute to the project. Truck mixers are
generally not used on slip-form paving projects due to a lower discharge rate of concrete. They are
effective on fixed form projects. The process of weighing, mixing, and delivery of concrete is covered in
ASTM C 94, Standard Specification for Ready Mixed Concrete.

Aggregate stockpiles should be segregated by size with no overlap of different sizes. Bins should be of
sufficient size to contain the aggregate and not be overfilled. When the aggregate is stored on the ground,
a solid concrete floor is preferable, but storage directly on grade is acceptable provided the loader
operator feed the batch plant always picks up material above the bottom of the stockpile.

Cement and supplementary cementitious materials must be stored in separate locked silos. There should
be a key checkout system to prevent introducing cement to a SCM silo or vice versa. The consequences
are obvious.

Likewise, chemical admixtures must be securely stored in separate containers to insure there is no
mingling of admixtures until they are introduced into the concrete.

Concrete batching is a planned sequence of events that produces consistently produces uniform concrete
of consistent workability and strength. A similar sequence is followed whether the concrete is batched in
a central mix plant or dry batched. Water is the first element added followed by the air-entraining agent,
if used and then by any water-reducer. Coarse aggregates then fine aggregates begin to be added. After
the coarse aggregate addition is well underway, the cementitious materials are added. Note that to save
space for weigh hoppers, the cement and SCM can be weighed in the same hopper if the cement is
weighed first. The cement and SCM addition is completed before the aggregate. The water and
aggregates end their charging together. It is important that the drum be damp, but contain no excess water
prior to the charging process. Admixtures must be added individually and not mixed prior to entering the


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drum. Coarse aggregates are required to be in the drum prior to the cement addition. If not, the cement
will pack against the head of the drum or form balls. Both conditions lead to non-uniform mixes.

After the truck is batched, the driver will wash off any excess dust and cement from the exterior, but must
not add water to the mix without authorization from the batch man or technical services.

The goal of concrete transportation is deliver concrete of consistent slump, air content, and workability
with every load. Dump trucks should have the load covered to prevent evaporation unless the transport is
very close to the project. Mixer trucks should slowly turn the drum in transit to keep the concrete from
setting. While waiting on the project, the drum should remain in motion.

Constructing concrete pavement requires six steps:
Placing the concrete in a form
Consolidating
Finishing/texturing
Jointing
Curing
Joint sealing

Concrete pavement forms can be fixed or moving. Slip form paving is the oldest system. It utilizes steel
forms set to the height of the finished pavement. The forms are the mold for the pavement section and
establish the grade and alignment and provide the track for the paving equipment. The pavement
smoothness is dependent upon the care with which the forms are set. For a successful fixed form
pavement, the subgrade or base must be stable and built to the specified tolerances. A stringline is used to
set the forms to the correct elevation. The stringline must be established by an accurate survey and once
established not be moved.

Concrete is placed with some type of form riding equipment. The size of the equipment varies with the
project from simple vibrating screeds for single lands to large bridge machines for multiple lane paving.
Regardless, the same placing principles apply:
Place the concrete uniformly across the face of the pavement
Consistently and adequately consolidate the concrete
Keep the placing equipment consistently in a forward motion
Everytime the placing equipment stops, smoothness suffers
Float the surface
Finish to proper grade cross section
Remember, the form is the mold

If dowel bar baskets are used, anchor them to the subgrade and mark on the form where the baskets are
located. Once the concrete is placed, the saw cutter will not be able to see them. It is important that the
joints be sawed over the dowel bars. Deformed tie bars, if used, should be secured to the form to prevent
being moved during the concrete placement.

Slip form paving is a process of extruding extremely dry concrete through a moving paving machine. The
concrete is placed in front of the paver, consolidated, formed into a shape, and extruded at the correct
elevation, alignment, and finish. The first step is to construct a sound, durable base that extends at least


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3 beyond the edge of the pavement section. Since the paving train will ride on this base, it must be kept
clear and clean. An accurately constructed base will save concrete and enhance the pavement
smoothness. Any elevation change will be reflected in the finished product. Second, the stringline that
the paving machine reads for elevation control must be accurately surveyed. Once established, the
stringline cannot be touched. Nothing can be draped over it and care must be taken to not trip on it. The
finished surface is a direct reflection of the care taken to establish and maintain the stringline.

Smooth dowels can be placed either with dowel baskets anchored to the subgrade or installed with an
automatic dowel bar inserter. If dowel baskets are used, mark the centerline of the basket on the grade
outside the track line prior to paving. For dowels installed with a DBI, have the machine automatically
mark the dowels centerline on both sides of the pavement.

To construct a smooth, durable pavement, the concrete must be delivered in consistent quantities so the
paving machine never stops and the concrete must have a consistent slump. It does not matter if the
concrete is discharged directly in front of the mixer, placed with a spreader, or placed with a belt placer.
The important item is consistent workability at a constant rate.

For either fixed or slipformed pavement, once the concrete is placed, any touch-up finishing can be done
with a 10 highway straight edge and the final texture applied. The pavement should be cured
immediately with a pigmented curing compound. For slipformed pavement, the sides of the pavement
should be cured immediately. The sides of fixed form pavements should be cured when the forms are
removed. Insure that the curing compound is applied evenly. At the conclusion of the day, check the
totes that contained the curing compound for the presence of any unused pigment.

Joints should be cut as soon as possible. Mark the joints to be cut over dowel bars using the marks placed
before the paving started. Green sawing the joints will greatly reduce the incidence of random drying
cracking. If green joints will not be widened and sealed, the joint should be sprayed with curing
compound as soon as it is cut. Joints that will be widened and sealed do not need to be cured.

8.3.4 Quality Control

Quality control is the responsibility of every person on the project. One department or entity may be
designated as the responsible party for making inspections and taking test samples, but since quality
cannot be inspected in only built in, everyone is responsible for the final product quality. The intent of
quality control testing is to obtain random samples using repeatable procedures to obtain reproducible
results. This section will address the concrete quality control tests for fresh and hardened concrete and
the significance of them.

Since the American Concrete Institute started the certification program for concrete field technicians in
1981, the overall quality of concrete construction has improved as more individuals became
knowledgeable about the basic field tests and the randomness of testing was decreased. The first step to
improving field quality control is requiring that all field testing be performed by technicians qualified to
at least ACI Field Level I. Additional certifications through ACI are available for laboratory technician,
strength test technician, and concrete transportation inspector.

Before any acceptable test can be performed, the initial sample of concrete must be properly taken.
ASTM C 172 specifies that the concrete sample shall be taken within a 15 minute period at two or more


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regularly spaced intervals from the middle portion of the load (emphasis added). This means that slump
tests, cylinder tests, and unit weight tests made from the first concrete down the chute are invalid because
the concrete sample was invalid. Once the sample has been taken, it should be remixed within a wheel
barrow or other sampling container before the remaining tests are made. The sample should also be
covered to prevent evaporation.

The concretes temperature is measured in accordance with ASTM C 1064. This test can be performed
while the other tests are being conducted since it requires only placing a calibrated thermometer in the
concrete and waiting for the temperature to stabilize.

The slump test (C 143) measures the consistency (workability, placeability) of the concrete. It does not
equate to compressive or flexural strength, except under extremely controlled laboratory conditions. The
batching tolerances for conventional concrete preclude any strength prediction based upon slump results.
Slump tests are best used to judge the consistency of the batching process. If there are sudden changes in
the slump, either up or down, then there has been a change in one of the constituent materials, such as a
gradation change or water content. For slipformed concrete, the slump test is not needed; the machine
indicates whether the concrete is at the correct slump; if the slump is too high, the sides will fall and
require a hastily erected sideform.

Two tests are available to determine the air content of concrete. The volumetric method (C 173), also
called the rollometer, uses an approximately 1/8
th
cf container to test for the concretes total air content.
This meter can be used with either normal or lightweight aggregate. Test method C 231 is the pressure
method and is not used with lightweight aggregate since the applied pressure would also measure any air
contained in the vesicular space of the lightweight aggregate. An advantage of the pressure meter is the
ability to also obtain a rapid unit weight test C 138). The device has an approximate volume of .25 cf.
Note that this half the size required for a unit weight test to resolve yield questions, but it does provide a
reasonable number to monitor the concrete. For a given concrete sample, the unit weight measured with a
.25 cf container will be higher than when measured with a .5 cf container. The consolidation procedures
are the same for both containers resulting in more effort being imparted to the smaller container, thus a
higher unit weight. The quality control testing does not depend upon these differences but on the
deviations from test to test when a consistent size container is used. An increase in unit weight indicates a
decrease in air or water content or an increase in cement or aggregate. Conversely, decreases in unit
weight are an alert for increases in water or air content or decreases in cement or aggregate content.
Decreases in air content may signal long-term problems with freeze-thaw durability. Increases in water
content may portend drying shrinkage problems and increased susceptibility to outside, injurious
chemical attack.

If there is a question about the yield of a mix design, the procedure outlined in C 94 is to test the unit
weight of three separate loads using a calibrated .5 cf unit weight container. The average unit weight is
then divided into the total batch weight, including any field added water, of each truck. This will provide
the volume in cubic feet for each load which can be compared to the ordered volume.

Test samples (C 31) for strength can be either cylinders or flexural beams. It is important to understand
that neither sample represents the strength of the concrete in-place. The test samples only indicate that
the concrete as batched and sampled is capable of producing the tested strength. If the strength is less
than that specified, then an investigation should be conducted to determine first if the tested sample was
correctly made, stored, and tested, then if the in-place concrete is under-strength. It is important to note
the general field curing times for strength samples. For concrete that being tested for conformance to the
design strength, the samples must be initially stored in the field at 60
0
F to 80
0
F and then placed under


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standard laboratory conditions (72.3
0
F, 90% relative humidity) within 48 hours of being fabricated. If
they cannot be in a laboratory condition within 48 hours, at 24 + 8 hours shall be stripped from their
molds in the field and cured at 73
0
F either in a water bath or fog room. Test specimens that receive non-
standard curing, especially exposure to drying, exhibit lower strengths.

Test cylinders are the most common method of determining concrete strength. Laboratories and
technicians are comfortable fabricating, storing, and testing 6 diameter by 12 high cylinders. Flexural
beams are an uncommon item for most laboratories and technicians. The procedure for fabricating beams
is straight forward, but the degree of care needed to properly fabricate a beam is not met in many cases.
The beams are sensitive to drying on the exposed surface which will be vertical during the testing phase.
Any slight drying shrinkage crack on this surface will prematurely fail the beam. Also, the longer the
samples are out of standard laboratory curing, the more difficult it becomes to obtain the design strength.
For paving projects, a good quality control program can incorporate both beams and cylinders. During
the mix development stage, both beams and cylinders are made and compared. A minimum compressive
strength is selected and field quality control is performed using cylinders. Random beam tests are made
to verify that the cylinder tests are accurately reflecting the minimum design strengths.

When developing a field concrete quality control plan, note that C 31 requires slump, air content, and
temperature tests for each set of strength samples. Also, provide for adequate labor to retrieve samples on
weekends and holidays. Samples made on Friday must either be picked up and placed in laboratory
conditions on Saturday or be placed in a field laboratory condition as previously discussed within 48
hours.

In addition to standard samples, ultrasonic and maturity methods can be used to determine the in-situ
strength of hardened concrete. The ultrasonic procedure passes an ultrasonic wave through a concrete test
sample before it is broken. After testing a number of samples, a plot is made relating sound velocity to
strength with higher strengths equating to faster sound. In the field, measurements are taken and strengths
computed.

The maturity method, C 1074, is based upon a trial batch of concrete. A temperature probe measures the
temperature of one specimen while other samples kept at the same condition are tested. For each test, the
time, temperature, and strength are recorded. A time/temperature Maturity factor (M) is calculated and
plotted against the strength. The resulting curve is accurate to + 5%. During construction, temperature
probes are cast in the concrete and monitored. When the desired M factor is reached, the concrete is
assumed to be at the design strength.

Laboratory quality control tests for hardened concrete are typically for compressive (C 39), flexural (C 78
third point loading, C 293- center point loading), and splitting tensile (C 496) strengths. The third point
loading test is more representative of the field loading condition than the center point. Other procedures
detail capping of specimens (C617) and the determination of concretes modulus of elasticity (C 469).
Laboratory trial batching of concrete is covered in C 192. If there is a question about the strength of a
sample, test cores should be obtained using the procedure of C 42.

Aggregate quality control tests have been discussed previously in the aggregate section.


8-14
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8.4 Thickness Design for Non-Reinforced Concrete Pavement

The thickness design procedure is based upon providing a sufficient structural capacity of pavement
system for a sufficient structural capacity of a pavement system for specific type of container handling
equipment loading. The key structural design factors include:

Slab thickness
Slab concrete flexural strength
Foundation support (from base and subgrade)
Equipment load repetition and wheel loads

It is also assumed that a relatively short joint spacing and adequate load transfer at the joints are provided.

8.4.1 Fatigue Damage

Repeated equipment loading results in fatigue damage in the concrete slabs which results in
microcracking at bottom of the slab. These cracks work their way to surface of the slab, eventually
dividing the slab into two or more pieces. In addition, if pumping and loss of support occur at slab
corners, critical stress could increase until a corner break develops.

The slab and foundation are characterized using the Westergaard theory. All stress can be computed us ing
computer programs developed by Portland Cement Association. The important design assumption is that
adequate load transfer is provided at joints so that the load stress that occur at joints are not significantly
higher than the stress at the interior of the slab. Adequate load transfer is provided at joints by a stabilized
base, keyways, mechanical load transfer device or aggregate interlock.

The cracking of a non reinforced jointed concrete slab with relatively short joint spacing is controlled by:
The magnitude of flexural stress caused by the equipment loading
The flexural strength of the concrete
The number of stress applications

The number of allowable stress applications to crack the concrete slab is controlled by the ratio of critical
stress to flexural strength of the concrete. The relationship used in design procedure to relate
stress/flexural strength ratio to the number of stress applications to cracking was developed by the PCA is
shown on Table 8-3. The lower the ratio of the critical stress to flexural strength the larger the
number of load applications that the slab can carry before cracking.


8-15
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Table 8-3 Stress-Strength Ratio and Allowable Coverage Table
Stress-
Strength
Ratio
Allowable
Coverage
Stress-
Strength
Ratio
Allowable
Coverage
0.45 2,300,000 0.63 14,000
0.46 1,700,000 0.64 11,000
0.47 1,300,000 0.65 8,000
0.48 1,000,000 0.66 6,000
0.49 720,000 0.67 4,500
0.50 540,000 0.68 3,500
0.51 400,000 0.69 2,500
0.52 300,000 0.70 2,000
0.53 240,000 0.71 1,500
0.54 180,000 0.72 1,100
0.55 130,000 0.73 850
0.56 100,000 0.74 650
0.57 75,000 0.75 480
0.58 57,000 0.76 370
0.59 42,000 0.77 280
0.60 32,000 0.78 210
0.61 24,000 0.79 160
0.62 18,000 0.80 120

The following five key design inputs are needed to determine the required slab thickness:

Design concert flexural strength
K value at top of Base
Design wheel load
Load repetition

The 28-day third point loading flexural strength is used for pavement design. The design flexural strength
should be as high as practical and economical but not less than 650 pounds per square inches. The actual
mean flexural strength in the field will be grater than the design flexural strength.

The k value is the ratio of unit pressure to deflection of a 30-inch diameter rigid steel plate. The k value
on the subgrade and at the top of the base layers is determined using ASTM D196 method of testing. The
value used for design is that obtained at the top of base. The combined base and subgrade should have a
minimum design k value of 200 pounds per cubic inch to prevent excessive permanent deformation of the
subgrade due to slab corner deflections. A base course of sufficient thickness and quality should be used
to achieve this modulus. However, in no case should design be based on a k value greater than 500
pounds per cubic inch.

The critical load shall be determined as shown in section 3.
The design equipment repetition is calculated as shown on section 3.


8-16
JN: 5552-06
8.5 Joint Design for Non-Reinforced Concrete Pavement

The performance of PCCP, especially at joints, is directly related to the strength of the subgrade. For
example, cement-treated subbases have a joint effectiveness in excess of 80% after 1,000,000 equivalent
single-axle loads compared to 40% for untreated subgrades.

Joints are used to limit curling and warping stresses in pavement which are due to temperature and
moisture gradients through the slab, prevent control cracking due to volume changes, prevent damage to
immovable structures, and facilitate construction.

Most of joints are classified as expansion, contraction and construction joints.

Expansion joints allow for expansion of the pavement and reduction of high compressive stress at critical
locations in the concrete pavement in hot weather. Expansion joints are placed the full depth of the slab.
Use expansion joints at all intersections of pavements with fixed structures, at non-perpendicular
pavement intersections, and between existing and new concrete pavement when joints in adjacent slab are
not aligned. Expansion joints are not otherwise required within the non-reinforced concrete pavement.
See Figure 8-1 for expansion joint details.

Figure 8-1 Isolation/Expansion Joints

Contraction (weakened plane) joints are used to control cracking in the pavement due to volume changes
resulting from a temperature decrease or moisture decrease and, limit curling and warping stress from
temperature and moisture gradients in the pavement. Form contraction joints in concrete by partial depth


8-17
JN: 5552-06
sawing or by installing sawable inserts. The saw cut joint or formed groove provides a weakened plane
which will crack through the full slab depth during shrinkage and contraction of concrete as it cures.
Contraction joints are required in the transverse direction and in the longitudinal direction depending
upon slab thickness and spacing of construction joints. See Figure 8-2 for contraction joints.

Figure 8-2 Transverse Contraction Joints

Construction Joints are used between paving lanes or when abutting slabs are placed at different times.
Longitudinal and transverse expansion may be required. Transverse construction joints will be required
when it necessary to stop concrete placement for a length of time suffic ient to allow the concrete to begin
to set. Longitudinal construction joints are generally spaced 20 to 50 feet apart depending on the
construction equipment. Locate all transverse construction joints at the same location as regularly spaced
transverse joints. Provide for load transfer or a thickened edge.


8-18
JN: 5552-06

Figure 8-3 Longitudinal Construction Joints

See typical longitudinal construction joints shown in Figure 8-3. Some of the typical longitudinal
construction joint types are keyed joint, butt joint, and thickened edge joint. Keyways have been used
extensively to provide load transfer along the longitudinal joints. However, there has been substantial
amount of keyway failure under heavy loading on thinner slabs. Keyed joints should only be used on
slabs 9 inches thick or greater. Butt joint may be considered for longitudinal construction joints on
pavements less than 9 inches thick constructed with stabilized base. Thickened edge joint may be
considered for construction joint for any pavement thickness and base type.

Standard joint spacing for pavements is 12.5 (longitudinal) by 15(transverse) feet. For slabs having a
thickness greater than 12 inches, joint spacing can be increased to a maximum of 20 feet. Transverse joint
spacing shall not vary from longitudinal joint spacing by more than 25 percent. Figure 8-4 shows standard
joint spacing.


8-19
JN: 5552-06

Figure 8-4 Typi cal Spacing of Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement
(source: http://training.ce.washington.edu/WSDOT/Modules/02_pavement_types/02-
6_body.htm)

Properly designed joint must provide adequate load transfer across the joint. Load transfer efficiency is
normally defined as the ratio of deflection of the unloaded side to the deflection of then loaded side of the
joint. Good load transfer will aid in preventing deterioration such as corner breaks, transverse and
longitudinal cracking, faulting, pumping, and spalling. Different amount of load transfer can be obtained
through the use of aggregate interlock, dowel bars, keyways, a stabilized base or combination of these.

Aggregate interlocking can provide adequate load transfer across joints when pavement is originally
constructed, or during hot weather. However, as joint movements due to temperature variation and load
applications increase, and joint begins to open, aggregate interlock is lost and load transfer is greatly
reduced.

Dowel bars are used to provide load transfer load transfer and prevent excessive vertical displacements of
adjacent slabs. Attention shall be paid to quality control during construction when using dowel bars.

Keyways may be used to provide load transfer along longitudinal construction joints.

Stabilized base can be used to improve load transfer effectiveness by reducing joint deflection through
increased support across a joint. Use stabilized base for all slabs less than 9 inches. Where thickened edge
joints are used, the stabilized base is not required.

Joint sealants are used to provide a seal to reduce infiltration of water and incompressible.


8-20
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8.6 Analysis of PCC pavement

Analysis of PCC (Portland Cement Concrete) pavement should include consideration of the following
issues:

Warping Stress Analysis
Temperature Steel Analysis
Dowel Bar Stress Analysis
PCC Slap load stress analysis
Fatigue Analysis
Unreinforced thickness requirements
Final reinforced slab thickness requirements

8.6.1 Warping Stress Analysis

This is a stress caused by daily temperature variation. The magnitude of warping stress in PCC pavement
is primarily dependent on slab size or geometry.

During daytime, horizontal expansion at the top of the slab is greater than the horizontal expansion at the
bottom. The slab tends to warp and induce tensile stress at the bottom of slab. This stress is in addition
to the load induced tensile stress.

Slab warping are evaluated along x & y-axis, as well as edge at the interior of the slabs. Stress analysis is
accomplished by Bradburys analysis of Westerguards slab bending moment equations.

2
t t
e
CE

(edge)

,
_
2
2 1
1 2

C C E
t t
i
(interior)
Where:
e
= edge stress
i
= interior stress
E = Modules of Elasticity of PCC
= Poissons Ratio (0.15)
t
= Coefficient of thermal expansion (5x10
-6
in./in./ F)
t
= Thermal difference between top and bottom.
C
1
and C
2
= Bradbury warping stress coefficients.

The coefficient in C
1
is in the desired direction, where as C
2
is for direction perpendicular to this
derivation. Figure 8-5 can be used to determine these coefficients. The L
x
and L
y
are the free length and
width respectively.


8-21
JN: 5552-06
Radius of relative stiffness can be calculated using:

4
2
3
) 1 ( 12 k
Eh
l

Where:
l = Radius of relative stiffness in (in)
E = Modulus of elasticity (psi)
h = Thickness of pavement
= Poissons ratio of the pavement
k = Modules of subgrade reaction (pci)
.

Figure 8-5 Warping stress coefficients curve


8-22
JN: 5552-06

If the slab is of 10ft or less warping stress is not a major factor. For slab spacing of 20ft or more, warping
stress can be 60% to 100% of the flexural strength of the PCC.

8.6.2 Temperature Steel Analysis

Reinforce steel in rigid pavement system does not provide additional structural strength to the PCC. The
primary purpose of steel reinforcement is to hold crack in the PCC tightly together to ensure adequate
load transfer across the crack.

Reinforcing steel requirements are based on slab foundation drag theory. The friction forces developed
by the slab movement due to semiannual temperature change from the center of the slab to the free end
and it must be equal to the total tension in the concrete.

h
WLf
c
24

Where:
s
c
= Unit stress in the concrete (psi)
W = Weight of slab (psf)
L = length of slab in feet
f = average coefficient of subgrade resistance
h = Thickness of pavement?

For x less than L

,
_

L
x
f f
m a
3
2
1
Where:
f
a
= Average resistance
f
m
= Fully mobilized resistance

t
x
1000

Where:
? t = Change of temperature
L = Length of slab

For x greater than L

x
L f
f
m
a
2 3
2

Friction resistance forces are critical for long slabs (100ft or greater).


8-23
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8.6.3 Dowel Bar Analysis

To insure that all the transverse joints have adequate load transfer is one of the important design
considerations. The best way of transferring the load for container terminal concrete pavement is using
dowel bar.

The sizing of the dowel bar diameter and spacing of dowel bar is based on the Timoshenko Frisberg
Analysis. The analysis is based on criteria of failure where the bearing stress on the PCC by the deflected
steel dowel bar is less than or equal to the allowable bearing strength of concrete.

The maximum bearing stress on the concrete exerted by the dowel bar is given by :

EI
z K P
t
b
3
4
) 2 (
+

4
4EI
Kb

Where:
K = Modulus of dowel support (1.5 x 106 pci)
P
t
= Transferred load
= Relative stiffness of bar embedded in concrete
I = Moment of inertia of the dowel
E = Modules of elasticity, steel (29x106 psi)
z = joint opening

The allowable bearing stress is given by

c b
f
b
f
,
_
0 . 3
4

Where:
c
f = Compressive strength of PCC psi
b = dowel bar diameter (inches)

The number of bars is calculated:

EI b f
z eK P
n
c
t
b
3
) 4 ( 8
) 2 ( 3

+

Where:
e = Joint transfer load efficient
nb = Number of bars


8-24
JN: 5552-06
8.7 Design Examples

In this section, two design examples of PCC pavement are given. One is for top picks. The other is for
RTG runways. The RCC thickness analysis, warping stress analysis, temperature steeling analysis and dowel bar
analysis are illustrated in these examples.

8.7.1 Concrete Pavement Analysis Examples Top Picks

This example includes interior stress analysis, temperature reinforcing analysis, temperature distribution
steel analysis and dowel bar analysis.
8.7.1.1 Top Pick Design Example Interior Stress Analysis

Portland Cement Concrete Pavement Interior Stress Analysis
Mixed Traffic Loading of Kalmar DCF 410CSG Container Handler

Edge of slab thickness, t = 14 inches
Design modulus of rupture of concrete, S
c
= 700 psi
Elastic modulus of concrete, E
c
= 4,000,000 psi
Poisson ratio of concrete, = 0.15
Composite modulus of subgrade reaction, k
c
= 200 pci
Front tire contact stress, p
f
= 144 psi
Rear tire contact stress, p
r
= 144 psi
Radius of relative stiffness, l = 46.51 inches

1
Interior Stress
Container Stress Ratio
Weight Load Estimated
i

i
/S
c

4
Allowable Percent
(pounds) Location Repetitions (psi) (psi) Repetitions Used
0
2
Front Dual 20,420 197.9 0.28 UNLIMITED 0.00
0
3
Rear Single 40,840 377.3 0.54 171,698 23.79
61600
4
Front Dual 17,718 397.0 0.57 77,200 22.95
63800
4
Front Dual 884 403.5 0.58 59,631 1.48
66000
4
Front Dual 884 410.2 0.59 45,696 1.93
68200
4
Front Dual 402 416.9 0.60 35,017 1.15
70400
4
Front Dual 143 423.6 0.61 26,834 0.53
72600
4
Front Dual 96 430.3 0.61 20,563 0.47
74800
4
Front Dual 104 437.0 0.62 15,758 0.66


8-25
JN: 5552-06
77000
4
Front Dual 76 443.6 0.63 12,124 0.63
79200
4
Front Dual 61 450.5 0.64 9,217 0.66
81400
4
Front Dual 41 457.2 0.65 7,063 0.58
83600
4
Front Dual 4 463.8 0.66 5,434 0.07
85800
4
Front Dual 4 470.4 0.67 4,181 0.10
88000
4
Front Dual 2 477.0 0.68 3,217 0.06

5
TOTAL FATIGUE CONSUMPTION = 55%
Is the total fatigue consumption < 100% ? YES
NOTES:
(1) Interior stress calculated using PCA computer program AIRPORT
(2) For each loaded repetition into the stack there is an unloaded repetition.
(3) For each front axle repetition t here is a rear axle repetition that crosses the same (or similar) point.
(4) Look at critical wheel load and heavier wheel loads.
(5) Use Miner's Rule to evaluate cumulative damage from different load cases.


8-26
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8.7.1.2 Top Pick Design Example Temperature Reinforcing Analysis

Notes:
(1) Reinforcing steel is not typically used in traditional jointed concrete pavements, except when very
large or irregularly shaped slabs are used.
(2) The addition of temperature reinforcing steel does not justify a reduction in pavement thickness.
(3) Reinforce odd-shaped slabs. (i.e., L:W (Length : Width) or W:L > 1.25)

Joint Spacing:
(1) Different guidelines exist for maximum un-reinforced pavement joint spacing. See PCA, USACE,
or FAA references.
(2) Common guideline is Max Length, ML = 24 T, where T is the thickness in feet.
(3) Un-reinforced slabs should not exceed 25' between joints for pavements on granular bases or 20'
between joints on stabilized bases.

From thickness calculation, T = 14" (1.17')

5 2 Use N.G. ase) granular b (Assuming 5 2 8 2 ) 7 (24)(1.1 ML >

Theoretically, the free slab panel size could be 25' 25'. Note that a free edge is an untied edge. Plain,
doweled, untied key, expansion, and isolated joints are considered free edges.

Assume for economic reasons a 25' 50' panel size is determined to be more economical, determining
necessary reinforcing.

Slab reinforcing:
Use subgrade drag theory.

Slab thickness, T or h = 14"
Slab length, Ly = 50'
Slab width, Lx = 25'

s
f
f
Wh bC
A
24

Where:
b = Distance between nearest free joints (Feet);

f
C = Coefficient of subgrade (or subbase) resistance to slab movement.;
W = Weight of concrete (LBS/FT3);
h = Slab thickness (inches);

s
f = Allowable stress in steel (PSI), generally taken as 2/3 yield strength;

Assume:

f
C = 1.5 for gravel subbase;

y
= 40,000 PSI (acceptable for grade 60 reinforcing or weld wire);


8-27
JN: 5552-06

/FT IN 64 . 0
) 000 , 40 )( 24 (
) 14 )( 150 )( 5 . 1 )( 50 (
2

Y
A

Example options:
# 3 @ 8" 0.165 IN2/FT;
# 4 @ 14" 0.171 IN2/FT;
W8.5 @ 6" 0.17 IN2/FT;
W18 or D18 @ 12" 0.18 IN2/FT;
W26 or D26 @ 18" 0.17 IN2/FT;
Keep spacing = 18";

/FT IN 082 . 0
) 000 , 40 )( 24 (
) 14 )( 150 )( 5 . 1 )( 25 (
2

X
A

Various bar and wire options exist.


8-28
JN: 5552-06
8.7.1.3 Top Pick Design Example Temperature Distribution Steel Analysis

TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION STEEL ANALYSIS FOR JOINTED
REINFORCED CONCRETE PAVEMENTS (JRCP)

Notes:
(1) Distribution steel is not structural steel reinforcement.
(2) Distribution steel holds cracks together so that load transfer is maintained through aggregate interlock.
(3) Free joints are considered contraction joints, expansion joints, and unrestrained edges.
(4) Subgrade friction factors shown are considered mean values. Actual values may vary significantly.

Typical Yield Strengths and Allowable Stresses for Steel
Yield Strength Allowable Stress
Type and Grade of Steel (psi) (psi)
ASTM A 615, Grade 40 Billet Steel 40,000 27,000
ASTM A 615, Grade 60 Billet Steel 60,000 40,000
ASTM A 185, Cold drawn wire (smooth) 65,000 43,000
ASTM A 497, Cold drawn wire (deformed) 70,000 46,000

Typical Subgrade Friction Factors
Type of Material Beneath Slab Friction Factor (f
a
)
Lean-Concret or Cement-treated Base
w/ Bondbreaker
4.0
Asphalt-treated gravel 5.8
Lime Stabilization 4.0
Crushed Aggregate 1.5
Fine-grained Soil 1.3
Sand 0.8

Slab Thickness h = 14inches
Slab Width L
x
= 25feet (Longest distance between free joints)
Slab Length L
y
= 50feet (Longest distance between free joints)
Allowable Steel Stress f
s
= 40,000psi (Grade 60 Reinforcing)
Density of Concrete
c
= 150pcf
Subgrade Friction Factor f
a
= 1.5

Longitudinal Area of Steel Required A
sy
= 0.1641in
2
/ft of length
Transverse Area of Steel Required A
sx
= 0.0820in
2
/ft of width

Type of reinforcing to be used (i.e. BAR or WIRE) Type = BAR
Longitudinal reinforcing size provided (i.e. 3, 4, 5, etc.) Bar
y
= 3
Longitudinal reinforcing spacing (inches) s
y
= 8inches


8-29
JN: 5552-06
Longitudinal area of steel provided A
sy
= 0.1657in
2
/ft of length
Is sufficient longitudinal steel provided? YES

Transverse reinforcing size provided (i.e. 3, 4, 5, etc.) Bar
x
= 3
Transverse reinforcing spacing (inches) s
x
= 16inches
Transverse area of steel provided A
sx
= 0.0828in
2
/ft of width
Is sufficient transverse steel provided? YES


8-30
JN: 5552-06
8.7.1.4 Top Pick Design Example Dowel Bar Analysis

Use Timdshenkd Analysis to determine dowel bar size and spacing.

PCA, USACE, or FAA guidelines should be used as a starting point for minimum dowel size and
maximum spacing.

Look at 103K Dual Wheel Load from top loader.

Try 1.75" diameter @ 12" O.C.

PCI K
6
10 5 . 1 (Modulus of dowel support)
PSI E
d
6
10 29 (Modulus of elasticity for dowel)
PCI k 200 (Subgrade support)
4
4 4
4604 . 0
64
) 75 . 1 (
64
IN
IN d
I
d

IN
PCI
IN PSI
k r
h E
l
IN PSI
IN PCI
I E
Kd
c
d d
5 . 46
) 200 ]( ) 15 . 0 ( 1 )[ 12 (
) 14 )( 10 4 (
) 1 ( 12
4709 . 0
) 4604 . 0 )( 10 29 )( 4 (
) 75 . 1 )( 10 5 . 1 (
4
25 . 0
2
3 6
25 . 0
2
3
25 . 0
4 6
6
25 . 0
1
]
1
1
]
1
1
]
1
,
_

Assume:
Contraction Joint Width, 5 2 . 0 z
Joint Efficiently, % 100 e
EFF
n = 9 Bars
Bars Directly Below Tire Fully Used,
Then Proportional To Distance Further Away.


8-31
JN: 5552-06

Stress) Bearing (Dowel 3260 ) 00217 . 0 )( 10 5 . 1 (
00217 . 0
) 4604 . 0 )( 10 29 ( ) 4709 . 0 )( 4 (
)] 25 . 0 )( 4709 . 0 ( 2 )[ 5722 (
4
) 2 (
722 , 5
9
5 . 51 2 / 103
6
0
6 3 3
0
#
PSI Ky
IN
I E
z P
y
n
P
b
d d
t
K
EFF
K
t

Assume PSI f
c
000 , 5

3
) 5000 )( 75 . 1 4 (
3
) 4 (
Stress, Bearing Allowable

c
b
f d
f
PSI f
b
3750

OK <
b b
f


8-32
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8.7.2 Concrete Pavement Analysis Examples RTG Runway
8.7.2.1 RTG Runway Design Example Overview

RTG runway design consists of three parts of design: 1) concrete slab design, 2) expansion joint width,
and 3) dowel bar design.

The concrete slab design should consider the following stresses as a minimum:

1) Concrete fatigue stress due to equivalent wheel load repetition.
2) Concrete compression and tension stresses due to different wheel positions on the concrete slab.
3) Temperature warping stress due to differences in temperature at top and bottom surfaces of a
PCC slab.
4) Concrete tensile stress caused by slab expansion and contraction due to temperature changes.

The pavement expansion joint width should be properly sized to allow concrete slab expansion and
contraction. However, excess joint opening can result concrete damage during wheel load transferring
through the joint.

One way to insure proper load transferring between slabs is to provide dowel bars across the joint.

Sample calculations of the fatigue analysis, warping analysis, load stress analysis, subgrade drag
procedure, expansion joint opening, and dowel bar analysis are attached.

Its very important to note that the RTG runway is designed ONLY for RTG wheel load to travel in the
longitudinal direction of the concrete slab. No protection is provided at the transverse direction.
Therefore, any type of vehicle traveling across the RTG runway in the transverse direction is discouraged.


8-33
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8.7.2.2 Example Thickness Design

Thickness Design Report

GENERAL DESIGN INPUT

Design Period: 20

Years

Unit: US Units Total Design Traffic:
109000

Load Repetitions

USER DEFINED INPUT

Design Vehicle/Aircraft: Test Vehicle

Wheel/Axle Configuration:

Single-Single

Pavement Type:

RCC

Modulus of Elasticity

3.6 million psi

Modulus of Rupture (MR): 569 psi

Modulus Subgrade Reaction (k): 250 pci

Computation Method: With Axle Rotation

Loading Condition: Interior Loading
Number of Wheels: 1 Contact Area: 387 sq. Inches

Contact Pressure: 144 psi

Total Load:

55728 lbf

COMPUTATION RESULT

X_Max:

0

inches

Y_Max:

0

inches

Maxi mum Angle:

90

degrees

Maximum Stress:

254

psi

Stress Ratio:

0.446

OUTPUT

Allowable Total Repetitions:

181398 Allowable Daily Repetitions: 25

Final Slab Thickness:

16.0

inches

WHEEL COORDINATES
inches

x:
0

y:
0

NOTE

A stress ratio (stress divided by design strength) greater than 0.75 may be too high to satisfy
routine pavement design requirements (the thickness is inadequate), but may be used to evaluate the
effect of unexpected heavy loads on an existing pavement. If the computed thickness for RCC pavement
is less than 4" or 200 mm (20 cm), 4" or 200 mm should be used in design.

Note: the above is modified from the output of the pavement design program RCCPave.


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8.7.2.3 RTG Runway Design Example Warping Stress Analysis

Warping (Curling) PCC Stress Analysis

The thermal gradient assumed for slab thickness 2 F / in

Slab Length (Ly) = 6 ft
Slab Width
(Lx) = 50 ft

Compressive
Strength of PCC (f'c)
= 4000
psi
Assumed
Slab
Thcikness
(h) = 16.0 inch

Pavement Modulus
of Elasticity (Ec) = 3605 ksi
Poisson
Ratio (u) = 0.15

Coefficient of
Thermal Expansion
(At) = 0.000005
Subgrade
Modulus
(k) = 250 pci

Allowable Steel
Reinforcement
Stress (fs) = 24.00 ksi
Radius of
Wheel
Contact
(ac) = 12.12 in

Modulus of Rupture
(fr) = 632 psi
fr = 10 *
f'c
0.5

Thermal Gradient
(Dt) = 32.00 F Dt = 3 * h

Raduis of Relative
Stiffness (l) = 47.37 in
= ( Ec * h
3
/
(12 ( 1 - u
2

) * k) )
0.25

Lx / l = 12.67 Ly / l = 1.52

Check Figure 1, Cx
= 1.02 Cy = 0

EDGE STRESS
Edge Stress = Cx * Ec * At * Dt / 2
= 294 psi

INTERIOR STRESS
Interior Stress =
Ec*At*Dt/2*[(Cx+uCy)/(1-
u^2)]
= 301 psi

CORNER STRESS
Corner Stress =
Ec*At*Dt/[3*(1-
u)]*(ac/l)
0.5

= 114 psi


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8.7.2.4 RTG Runway Design Example Load Stress Analysis

Load Stress Analysis

Slab Thcikness (h) = 16.00 inch

Raduis of Relative
Stiffness (l) = 47.37 in
Tire Load (W) = 60.00 kips
Tire Pressure (Ps) = 130.00 psi

Tire Contact Area (a)
= 461.54 in^2

Radius of Wheel
Contact (ac) = 12.12 in

Flexural Strength of
Rupture (fr) = 632 psi

Radius of Resisting
Section (b) = 11.36
in = (1.6*ac
2
+ h
2
)
0.5
-
0.675*h
4*log (l/b) = 2.48

EDGE LOADING (TENSILE STRESS AT THE SLAB TOP)
e =
0.572 * W * [4 * log
(l/b) + 0.359] / h
2

Load Stress = 381 psi
Warping Stress = 294 psi
Total Stress = 675 psi
(day time temperature
gradient)
f'r = 750
psi concrete flexural
strength specified
?
INTERIOR LOADING (TENSILE
STRESS AT THE SLAB BOTTOM)
i =
0.3162 * W * [4 *
log (l/b) + 1.069] / h
2

(night time temperature
gradient)
f'r = 750
strength specified

CORNER LOADING (TENSILE STRESS AT THE SLAB TOP)
c =
3 * W * [1 - (ac * 2
0.5

/ l )
0.6
] / h
2

(day time temperature
gradient)
f'r = 750
strength specified


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8.7.2.5 RTG Runway Design Example Subgrade Drag Procedure

SUBGRADE DRAG PROCEDURE

Cross-Sectional Area in Square Inches of Steel per Lineal Foot of Slab Width
As = f * L * W / 2 / fs

Allowable Steel Stress (fs = 0.75
Fy) = 45.00 ksi A307 Rebar Fy = 60 ksi
Friction Factor (f) = 1.80 ( 1.5 ~ 2.0 ) Welded Wire Fabric Fy = 70 ksi
Slab Thcikness (h) = 16.00 inch
Dead Weight of PCC Slab (W) = 200.00 psf
Slab Length (Ly) = 6.00 ft
Slab Width (Lx) = 50.00 ft

Long. Temp. Reinforcement (As)
= 0.02 in^2/ft #4 @ 18 As = 0.17 in^2/ft OK

Trans. Temp. Reinforcement
(As) = 0.20 in^2/ft #5 @ 18 As = 0.21 in^2/ft OK


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8.7.2.6 RTG Runway Design Example Dowel Bar Analysis

Dowel Bar Analysis

Modulus of Dowel
Support (K) = 1.5E+06 pci
Applied
Wheel Load
(Pw) = 55.8
Joint Opening (z) = 0.50 inch
Joint Transfer
Load Efficient
(e) = 0.90

Dowel Bar
Diameter (b) = 1.50 inch
Dowel Bar
Spacing (s) = 8.00

Dowel Bar Area
(A) = 1.77 in
2

Dowel Bar
Strength (Fy)
= 36.00

Modulus of
Elasticity of Steel
(Es) = 29000000 psi
Compressive
Strength of
PCC (f'c) = 4000.00

Dowel Bar
Moment of Inertia
(Is) = 0.25 in^4
Raduis of
Relative
Stiffness (l) = 47.37

Relative Stiffners
of Bar () = 0.53 /inch
=( K * b / ( 4
* Es * Is ))
0.25

Number of
Effective Dowels
(Neff) = 5.92 bars Neff = l / s

Load Transferred
Across the Joint
(Pt) = 25.09 kips Pt = Pw * e / 2

Max Shear on
Each Dowel (Pc) = 4.24 kips Pc = Pt / Neff

Max Shear Stress
on Each Dowel
(Vc) = 2.40 ksi Vc = Pc / A < 0.4 Fy OK

Deflection at Face
of Joint (yo) = 0.0023 in
yo = Pc * (2 +
z) / (4 *
3

* Es * Is)

Max Bending
Moment on Each
Dowel (Mc) = 0.60 k-in Mc = Pc * z / 2

Max Bending
Stress on Each
Dowel (Fb) = 1.81 ksi
Fb = Mc * b /
2Is < 0.66 Fy OK

Allowable
Concrete Bearing
Stress (fb) = 3333.33 psi
fb = (4 - b ) *
f'c / 3

Concrete Bearing
Stress at Face of
Joint (b) = 3381.08 psi b = K * yo < fb
Close
Enough
?


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Shrinkage/Expansion Joint Opening

Joint Width (z) =
= C * L *
( e * t -
)
= 0.44 in
Slab Length (Lx) = 50 ft

Temperature
Change (Dt) = 70.00 degree F

Base Friction
Restraint Factor
(C) = 0.80 /degree F = 0.65
Stabilized
Bases
= 0.80
Granular
Bases

Concrete Thermal
Expansion (e) = 6.0E-06 /degree F
= 6.6E-06 quartz = 5.3E-06 granite
= 6.5E-06 Sandstone = 4.8E-06 basalt
= 6.0E-06 gravel = 3.8E-06 Limestone

New PCC
Shrinkage
Coefficient () = 5.0E-04 in/in
= 8.0E-04
Indirect Tensile
Strength of 300
psi or less
= 4.5E-04
Indirect Tensile
Strength of 500
psi
= 2.0E-04
Indirect Tensile
Strength of 700
psi or greater


JN: 5552-06
9. Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC) Pavement....................................................................... 9-1
9.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 9-1
9.2 RCC Design Approach.................................................................................................. 9-1
9.3 Structural Analysis and Load Configurations............................................................... 9-2
9.3.1 Distribution of Pavement Stresses .............................................................................................................. 9-2
9.3.2 Pavement Loads ............................................................................................................................................... 9-3
9.3.3 Strength and Fatigue Relationships ........................................................................................................... 9-3
9.3.4 Pavement Design............................................................................................................................................. 9-4
9.4 Materials Characterization........................................................................................... 9-4
9.4.1 RCC Aggregate ................................................................................................................................................ 9-4
9.4.2 Strength and Modulus of Elasticity............................................................................................................ 9-4
9.4.3 Subgrade Support........................................................................................................................................... 9-5
9.5 RCC Mix Design........................................................................................................... 9-5
9.5.1 Determining Maximum Density.................................................................................................................. 9-5
9.5.2 Determining Cement Content...................................................................................................................... 9-6
9.5.3 Admixtures and Freeze-Thaw Consideration......................................................................................... 9-6
9.6 RCC Pavement Performance........................................................................................ 9-6
9.6.1 Smoothness........................................................................................................................................................ 9-6
9.6.2 Cracking and Faulting ................................................................................................................................... 9-7
9.6.3 Durability, Permeability................................................................................................................................ 9-7
9.6.4 Maintenance ..................................................................................................................................................... 9-7
9.7 Construction................................................................................................................. 9-8
9.7.1 Mixing ................................................................................................................................................................ 9-8
9.7.2 Transporting..................................................................................................................................................... 9-8
9.7.3 Placing and Compacting ............................................................................................................................... 9-8
9.7.4 Shrinkage and Cracking Control .............................................................................................................9-10
9.7.5 Curing ..............................................................................................................................................................9-11
9.7.6 Weather ...........................................................................................................................................................9-11
9.8 QC/QA Methods ......................................................................................................... 9-12
9.9 Design Example .......................................................................................................... 9-13
9.10 References................................................................................................................... 9-16
9.11 Appendix Tables and Figures ..................................................................................... 9-17


9-1
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9. Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC) Pavement
9.1 Introduction
Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC) is a zero-slump concrete consisting of dense-graded aggregate and
sand, cement, and water. Because it contains a relatively small amount of water, it cannot be placed by
the same methods used for conventional concrete. For pavement applications, the concrete is usually
placed with an asphalt paver, and densified by compacting with a vibrating roller. The low water-cement
ratio (usually ranging from .30 to .40) provides for very high strengths.

The use of RCC as a material to construct pavements began in the 1970s in Canada. It was originally
used by the logging industry to provide an all-weather platform for unloading logging trucks and storing
and sorting logs. In the past 25 years it has gained acceptance as a strong and durable pavement material
that can withstand heavy loads and severe climates with little required maintenance.

RCC pavements have been successfully used for container terminals and intermodal rail yards in many
parts of North America, including the following examples:

- Conley Terminal, Massachusetts Port Authority, Boston (78,000 sq.yds.)
- Intermodal Terminal, Burlington Northern Santa Fe RR, Denver (126,000 sq. yds.)
- Pier 300, Port of Los Angeles (40,000 sq. yds)
- Intermodal Terminal, Canadian National Railway, Calgary (87,000 sq. yds.)
- Norfolk International Terminal, Norfolk, VA (50,000 sq. yds)

9.2 RCC Design Approach
The approach used for designing RCC pavements for container terminals and intermodal rail yards is very
similar to that used for designing conventional concrete pavements for industrial applications. This varies
somewhat from design procedures used to design concrete pavements for highways because the load
configurations and traffic operations are different, and there is no comparable database for industrial
pavement performance as exists for highway pavements.

The design approach for RCC pavements for heavy industrial applications is based upon limiting the
stress in the pavement to a level such that the pavement structure can withstand repeated loadings of this
stress magnitude without failing in fatigue. When wheel loads are applied to the interior of a concrete
slab, it will deform in the shape of saucer. This deformation causes compression in the top of the slab,
and tension at the bottom. The number of repeated stress applications that can be withstood before failure
is the fatigue life. With conventional portland cement concrete and roller-compacted concrete, the
relationship between stress level and fatigue has best been expressed through the ratio of the applied
critical stress to the Modulus of Rupture:

Stress Ratio = Critical applied stress
Modulus of Rupture
where:
Critical applied stress is the maximum tensile stress at the bottom of the concrete pavement slab,
and


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Modulus of Rupture is the tensile strength of a concrete beam tested using third-point loading at
28 days.

This relationship has been developed for roller-compacted concrete through laboratory studies of fatigue
testing conducted by the Portland Cement Association (PCA) (Ref 1).

In the design process, the designer considers the economic and structural tradeoffs of concrete strength,
pavement thickness, and foundation support with regard to the applied wheel loads and number of
expected load applications. The applied pavement stress is determined theoretically, and compared to the
concrete strength, which can be tested in the laboratory for each mix design.

The specifics of this design process are explained in further detail in the sections below. This procedure
follows the approach used by the PCA since 1986 (Ref 2). Other design procedures used by the Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA) for the design of airport pavements (Ref 3), and by the U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers (Ref 4) can also be used for the design of RCC pavements, but are not covered in this design
guide.

9.3 Structural Analysis and Load Configurations
As mentioned above, the applied tensile stress at the bottom of the concrete slab must be theoretically
determined in order to calculate the stress ratio. The calculation of the applied stress is based on the
mechanics of a slab on an elastic foundation.

The magnitude of the theoretical applied tensile stress will be a function of the applied load (expressed in
terms of a circular load area and magnitude), the Modulus of Elasticity of the concrete, and the assumed
load position. In most terminal and intermodal yard applications, the interior loading condition can be
assumed because there are no designed joints in roller-compacted concrete, and traffic operations are
conducted away from the edge of the slab.

9.3.1 Distribution of Pavement Stresses
The methodology used to calculate pavement stresses was originally developed by Westergaard (Ref 5)
and expanded by Pickett and Ray (Ref 6). As described above, the critical stress being evaluated is the
maximum tensile stress at the bottom of the concrete slab.

The basic equation (for interior loading) is:
25 . 0
3
2
) 1 ( 12
) 069 . 1 log 4 (
316 . 0
=
+ =
k
Eh
l
b
l
h
P
i

where:

i =
tensile stress at the bottom of the interior of the concrete slab (psi)
P = applied wheel load (lbs.)
h = thickness of slab (in.)
b = a = radius of loaded area (if a > 1.724h), or
b = (1.6a
2
+ h
2
)
0.5
0.675h ; when a < 1.724h
l = radius of relative stiffness (in.)


9-3
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E = modulus of elasticity of concrete (psi)
= Poissons ratio of concrete (normally assumed to be 0.15)
k = modulus of subgrade reaction (psi/in, or pci)

The radius of relative stiffness is a comprehensive term that incorporates the stiffness of the concrete
material, the thickness of the slab (which affects the slab moment of inertia), and the stiffness of the
material underlying the slab.

The modulus of subgrade reaction relates the stiffness of everything underneath the slab. So, if the slab is
placed on more than one layer of material, such as a subbase layer, then the k value must consider the
effects of both the subbase and the subgrade. The k value can be measured in the field, using a plate
bearing test. This test measures the pressure necessary to penetrate a plate into the subbase, expressed in
terms of applied pressure (psi) per inch of penetration. Because of the time and expense of conducting
this test in the field, estimates of k values are usually preferred, based on other material properties that can
be determined in the laboratory (see Appendix Figure 1).

9.3.2 Pavement Loads
The load magnitude and area of application is the primary factor in determining the resulting stress in a
pavement slab. In most cases pavement loads are not applied through a single wheel, but through
multiple wheel configurations where the stresses caused by one wheel overlap the stresses caused by
other nearby wheels. The stresses from these nearby wheels are cumulative, so the additive effects of
multiple wheels need to be included in the design procedure.

The designer must characterize the spacing between wheels, the load per wheel, and the area of load for
each wheel. The area of load application (sq. in.) is most commonly determined by dividing the wheel
load (lbs.) by the tire pressure (psi). If hard (non-pressurized) tires are used, the footprint area can be
used.

The pavement is designed for the wheel load and configuration that generates the most critical stress
condition. If the terminal can be divided into different areas of operation, with different traffic conditions
in each area, then significant savings can be realized by designing the pavement separately for each traffic
area. If mixed traffic exists, where multiple types of traffic exist in the same area, then the contribution to
fatigue must be calculated for each traffic type, and added together to make sure the total loading does not
exceed 100% of the pavement fatigue life. Pavement fatigue is discussed below in more detail, and
shown in the design example.

9.3.3 Strength and Fatigue Relationships
Because there is no large empirical database of pavement performance for RCC pavements, there is no
way to relate critical stress to actual field performance. Instead, RCC materials are evaluated in the
laboratory at different stress levels to determine the fundamental relationships that explain the fatigue
behavior of RCC. The PCA design procedure for RCC pavement is based on research conducted in the
mid-1980s (Ref 2). In this research, a fatigue relationship was developed for RCC pavements, based
upon the ratio of the applied flexural stress to the flexural strength. This relationship is shown in
Appendix Table 1.


9-4
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9.3.4 Pavement Design
To determine the pavement design, the designer must have the expected traffic, expressed in terms of
wheel loads, load configuration, and number of load applications expected over the design period. Since
the design of a terminal facility is for a long period of time, a design life of 20 30 years is typical.

For the expected number of load applications, the designer can select the following parameters, which all
have an affect on either the flexural stress, or the flexural strength, of the RCC pavement:

modulus of subgrade reaction
flexural strength (and elastic modulus) of the concrete mix
thickness of the concrete slab

By evaluating the economics and other design constraints of the three factors above, the designer can
select the best overall RCC pavement for a given project. The designer may decide to increase the
subbase thickness, change the flexural strength of the concrete mix, or increase the thickness of the slab,
depending on the pavement loading and the economics of these different changes. Once the design
flexural strength is determined, then the concrete mix can be developed to meet that requirement.

To make the calculation of designing the pavement slab easier, charts have been developed to aid the
process. In addition, computer programs are available which greatly simplify the effort required to
evaluate the pavement (Ref 7).

9.4 Materials Characterization
9.4.1 RCC Aggregate
Proper selection of aggregate is one of the most important factors that will affect the construction and
performance of an RCC pavement. The aggregate must be dense-graded in order to provide stability
during and after construction, and to minimize the amount of voids in the mix (since the volume of paste
is much smaller in RCC than that for conventional concrete).

A figure illustrating the recommended gradation from ACI 325 (Ref 8) is shown in Appendix Figure 2.
Normally the nominal maximum size aggregate (NMSA) should not exceed in., and the allowable
percentage passing the #200 sieve is 2 8 %. For high quality RCC, both the coarse and the fine
aggregate fractions should be composed of hard, durable particles evaluated by standard physical property
tests such as those listed for ASTM C33.

9.4.2 Strength and Modulus of Elasticity
The strength of the RCC mix is expressed in terms of the modulus of rupture (flexural strength), as
determined by third-point loading. Because compressive strength testing is often more practical to
complete than flexural beam tests, relationships have been developed between compressive strength and
flexural strength for RCC materials. For design purposes, the following relationship is suggested:


9-5
JN: 5552-06
( )
5 . 0
9
c r
f f =
where:

r
f =

flexural strength (psi)

c
f = compressive strength (psi)

A similar relationship exists for estimating the modulus of elasticity as a function of the concrete
compressive strength. This relationship is:

( )
5 . 0
000 , 57
c
f E =
where:
E = modulus of elasticity (psi)

9.4.3 Subgrade Support
As discussed earlier, the value of the modulus of subgrade reaction, k, can be estimated from laboratory
tests such as CBR or R-value, or soil classification tests. Estimates of k based on these relationships are
shown on the chart in Appendix Figure 1. In addition, the effect of on k values when using a subbase is
shown in Appendix Table 2.

9.5 RCC Mix Design
The recommended method in this guide of proportioning aggregate, water, and cement to determine the
project RCC mix is based on evaluating compacted laboratory specimens. The equipment and
procedures are very similar to those used for determining maximum density and optimum water content
for aggregates and soils. Other mix design procedures are also available, but are not discussed in detail
here (see Ref 8).

The mix design process begins with a selected aggregate that meets specifications previously discussed.
Then the design cement content must be selected, and the optimum moisture content for proper
compaction of the mix.

9.5.1 Determining Maximum Density
There are two procedures that can typically be used to determine the maximum density of RCC mixtures:
1) ASTM D1557 (using the Proctor procedure), and 2) ASTM C1435 (using a mechanical vibrating
plate). Either procedure uses a specified ASTM method to compact a sample. The samples are prepared
at 3 or 4 levels of moisture, and then weighed, to determine at which moisture content the material has the
highest dry density.

Previous research has found that the strength of RCC mixes depends significantly on the amount of
compaction. If the mix is too dry, then there is not enough moisture to lubricate the particles so that they
can move closer together. In addition, if too dry, an insufficient amount of cement paste will develop to
spread among the soil and aggregate particles. If the mix is too wet, the water particles will take up too
much volume, and the solid particles will not fit as tightly together. It is at the optimum moisture content
that maximum density and maximum strength are achieved.


9-6
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9.5.2 Determining Cement Content
The desired cement content is the minimum amount that will satisfy the required design flexural strength.
The cement content is typically expressed as a percentage of the total weight of solids (oven dry
aggregates plus cement) in the mix. Common values of cement content range from 10% to 16%.

Laboratory samples are created at optimum water content over a range of 3 4 cement contents, and
tested in compression. Strength values are plotted versus cement content so that the designer can
determine the value of cement content that will satisfy the design strength.

9.5.3 Admixtures and Freeze -Thaw Consideration
Chemical admixtures are used differently in RCC than in conventional concrete, because the much lower
volume of paste makes it more difficult to incorporate many admixtures. While its low water/cement
ratio helps give RCC its high-strength properties, there are times when certain admixtures may be
considered, such as:

Set retarders can be used to delay the setting time of the cementitious materials and are useful when there
is a long haul time between the point of production and the project location. Set accelerators can be used
if the intent is to speed the setting time of the RCC, such as when opening a project early to traffic. Water
reducers and plasticizers can help distribute the small amount of cementitious paste uniformly throughout
the RCC mix and improve speed and workability during production and placement. Air-entraining
admixtures are very difficult to homogenously incorporate throughout a batch of RCC due to the
extremely dry nature of the mix and are not commonly used.

Whenever any admixtures are being considered for use in RCC mixes, extensive laboratory and field
testing should be conducted to determine the effectiveness and proper dosage rates. Just as important as
the aggregates, water, and cementitious materials, the correct selection of admixtures is important to the
production and placement of quality RCC mixes.

Many years of observing RCC pavements in cold climates have shown very good performance with
regard to freeze-thaw effects (Ref 9). However, traditional laboratory evaluations of freeze-thaw
durability with RCC mixes have not shown good results. Given that the good field experience has not
correlated with the laboratory results, it is not recommended that freeze-thaw testing of RCC mixes be
conducted. Additional information on the freeze-thaw performance of RCC can be found in Reference
10.

9.6 RCC Pavement Performance
9.6.1 Smoothness
RCC pavements are not as smooth as conventional concrete pavements. As a result, operating speeds on
RCC pavements typically do not exceed 35 40 mph. The measurement of smoothness is usually
expressed as the deviation in elevation of the pavement surface at any point along a 10 ft. straight-edge.
Projects have been successfully constructed using a to 3/16 in. straight-edge tolerance.

If pavement smoothness is particularly important for a RCC project, the following steps can be taken to
improve the final results:
- use a maximum aggregate size no larger than in.


9-7
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- do not construct the pavement in layers exceeding 8 in. in thickness (after compaction)
- use a high-density paver with string-line grade control
- be able to achieve compaction without excessive rolling

If high-speed operations are required, a thin (2-3 in.) layer of asphalt or bonded concrete can be placed
over the RCC slab to provide a smooth travelling surface. Diamond grinding of the RCC surface has also
been used, and can provide additional smoothness without the construction of a surface overlay.

9.6.2 Cracking and Faulting
Cracks will develop in an RCC pavement slab as a natural result of the shrinkage process during curing.
These cracks will normally occur on a random basis every 30 70 ft. Because there is no bleed water in
RCC, there is less shrinkage cracking than that which occurs with conventional concrete.

The shrinkage cracks that occur in RCC pavements are usually small (less than 1/8 in.) and very good
load transfer exists across the crack through aggregate interlock. This aggregate interlock is enhanced
through the use of the dense-graded aggregates that are specified for RCC mixes. Long-term performance
studies of RCC pavements (Ref 9) have shown almost no evidence of crack faulting (the vertical
displacement of the pavement slab at the crack), which provides further indication of the load transfer
provided by aggregate interlock.

To improve the appearance of the final RCC product, control joints can be sawn every 20 30 ft. to
eliminate most of the random shrinkage cracking. (See section below on construction of control joints).

9.6.3 Durability, Permeability
Roller Compacted Concrete, as an engineering material, can be considered to be impermeable. Because
the shrinkage cracks are narrow, very little water moves through to the bottom of the slab, and good
aggregate interlock has made the problems associated with pumping of RCC pavements very rare.

The durability of RCC pavement is excellent, both in terms of environmental effects, and the physical
wearing caused by equipment operations. In some cases a small amount of wear will occur (less than
in.) on the pavement surface if it was not adequately bonded during construction. However, experience
indicates that this wear will be arrested and will not increase even after years of traffic and abrasion (Ref
9).

9.6.4 Maintenance
RCC pavements have shown to require very little maintenance. Cracks are sometimes routed and sealed,
but usually crack spalling is not a significant problem.

The most common type of repair occurs with small areas where the RCC may have been placed by hand,
or around structures. In these locations, if the RCC is not satisfactory, it can be removed and replaced
with a repair using conventional concrete.


9-8
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9.7 Construction
9.7.1 Mixing
The mixing plant should be located within a 30-minute haul time from the point of RCC placement. The
plant should be capable of producing an RCC pavement mixture in the specified proportions, and be able
to produce a uniform mixture at a rate compatible with the paving equipment.

Pugmill Plant. Pugmill plant shall be a central plant with a twin shaft pugmill mixer, capable of batch or
continuous mixing, equipped with synchronized metering devices and feeders to maintain the correct
proportions of aggregate, cement, pozzolan and water

Rotary Drum Mixer. Rotary drum batch mixer shall be capable of producing a homogeneous mixture,
uniform in color and having all coarse aggregate coated with mortar.

9.7.2 Transporting
Dump trucks for hauling the RCC material from the plant to the paver should have covers available to
protect the material from drying and inclement weather. The number of trucks should be sufficient to
ensure adequate and continuous supply of RCC material to the paver.

The trucks should be dumped clean with no buildup or hanging of RCC material in the corners,
depositing the material directly into the hopper of the paver or into a secondary material distribution
system which deposits the material into the paver hopper. Dump truck delivery should be timed and
scheduled so that RCC material is placed and compacted within one hour from the time it is mixed.

9.7.3 Placing and Compacting
Before placing RCC the subgrade should be graded and compacted so that a good, stable platform is
available for paving. A stone subbase is often used to provide additional support for the concrete slab and
reduce the chances of future pumping.

RCC is usually placed with an asphalt-type paver, with the concrete placed in the paver by dump trucks.
Either high-density or conventional pavers can be used. High-density pavers have been designed with
tamping bars and other devices located inside the paving screed that consolidate the concrete a substantial
amount during placement. The density of the mix after paving will be about 90% - 95% of maximum
with the high-density pavers, compared with 80% - 85% of maximum with conventional paving
equipment.


9-9
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Figure 9-1 Placement with asphalt paver and rolling of RCC.

Typical construction specifications (Ref 11) for RCC call for 96% - 98% of maximum density, so
compaction after paving is necessary to meet density requirements. Smooth-wheel vibrating rollers are
used to achieve compaction, with some contractors preferring to use pneumatic-tire rollers for finish
rolling. A test strip is essential at the beginning of the project to determine the behavior of the RCC mix
during placing and compaction, and to verify that the contractors equipment and rolling pattern can
achieve the required density.

Construction joints can be considered to be fresh if adjacent material is placed within 1 hour. For fresh
joints, the contractors rolling pattern should provide for both sides of the joint to be uncompacted before
kneading them together to ensure proper blending and compaction. Sometimes water or evaporation
retarder is sprayed on the open face of a fresh joint to reduce drying before placement of the adjacent
material.


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Figure 9-2 Construction of fresh joint within 1 hour of placing first section.

If adjacent material is placed after 1 hour, then a cold joint should be constructed. The face of the cold
joint should be trimmed so that a vertical face exists and any slumped material is removed. Grout should
be brushed on the face of the cold joint immediately ahead of the paver to provide better bonding when
paving along a cold joint.

9.7.4 Shrinkage and Cracking Control
Concrete will shrink due to drying and hydration curing. Because of this shrinkage, the concrete can be
allowed to crack naturally, or control joints can be sawn to relieve the shrinkage strains. With RCC, there
is less shrinkage than conventional concrete because there is less paste in the mix. Saw cuts (typically to
a depth of the slab thickness) can be performed with early entry saws with RCC, usually within 2-3
hours of compaction. Spacing between control joints is usually 20 to 30 feet, depending upon the
thickness of the slab.

Load transfer across the shrinkage crack is accomplished by aggregate interlock. Figure 9-3 shows the
crack that forms at a control joint. No steel reinforcement or dowel bars are used in RCC.


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Figure 9-3 Side view of crack at control joint in RCC slab.

9.7.5 Curing
As with conventional concrete, curing is very important for RCC. However, RCC has no bleed water, so
the main concern is drying. At least three negative things will happen if RCC is allowed to dry: 1) the
concrete will experience drying shrinkage which will lead to cracking, 2) the cement will not continue to
hydrate which will result in lower strengths and less durability, especially at the surface, and 3) dusting of
the surface is more prevalent.

To keep RCC from drying the surface should be kept moist for 7 days, or until a curing compound is
applied. The surface should be gently moistened with water from the time compaction is complete.
Curing compounds conforming to ASTM C 309, which are used for conventional concrete, can be used
for RCC. However, because RCC has a more open surface texture than conventional concrete, the curing
compound application rates are 1.5 to 2 times the application rates used for conventional concrete.

9.7.6 Weather
When the ambient temperature is 40 degrees F or less, or may reach 40 degrees F in the 24 hour period
after RCC paving, all protective equipment and material must be available before paving begins in order
to ensure adequate protection against the effects of cold weather. The same precautions and procedures
used for cold weather construction for conventional concrete should also be used for RCC construction.

Hot temperatures will make the concrete less workable and more difficult to place and compact, resulting
in a poorer quality final product. High temperatures lead to higher rates of moisture evaporation, which is
very important to monitor with RCC because there is so little moisture in the concrete. As temperatures


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increase from 70 degrees F to 90 degrees F, the time to initial set and final set are reduced by 20 to 30
percent.

When placing RCC during hot weather, it will be to the contractors advantage to keep the concrete as
cool as possible during placement and compaction. As ambient air temperature increases beyond 90
degrees F, the time allowed from time of mixing to completion of compaction should be reduced
accordingly (for example, from 60 minutes to 30 to 45 minutes). To compensate for moisture loss during
hauling and placement, additional mix water can be added at the plant. For long haul times, consideration
should be given to the use of set-retarding admixtures to provide more workability time.

9.8 QC/QA Methods
Some quality control procedures for RCC are similar to those used for conventional concrete, and others
are similar to those used for soil compaction. At the mixing plant, care must be made that the feed
controls are calibrated and accurate. Aggregate stockpiles should be monitored for consistent moisture
content and the possibility of size segregation.

Monitoring the density of the compacted RCC is one of the most important quality control steps. The
maximum density will be determined in the laboratory, as discussed earlier, or in the field through the use
of a test strip. The engineer will specify what percentage of the maximum density must be obtained in the
field. This required percentage is typically 96% - 98% of maximum, and is measured in the field using a
nuclear moisture-density gauge. Care must be taken to calibrate the moisture measurements if using a
nuclear gauge, since the hydrating cement in the RCC mix can affect the gauge readings.

Cylinders of the RCC mix can be cast in the field, and tested for compressive strength after waiting the
required number of days. In addition, cores can be taken after a number of days to determine the strength,
thickness, and uniformity of the as-constructed material.

Figure 9-4 Density testing for freshly placed RCC.


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9.9 Design Example
The design example in this section follows the example given in the Section 3 of this study, where various
types of traffic are tabulated for a container terminal operations scenario. The scenario provides traffic
for three different types of loads: Top/Side Pick, RTG, and Trucks.

In the design example below, designs are prepared for the Top/Side Pick area, and the RTG area. Both of
these areas also have truck traffic that will be considered in addition to the equipment loading.

For the Top/Side Pick area, the equipment loading will be considered first. Figure 9-5 shows a load
distribution diagram from the load data given in the Section 3 of this study. The PCA design procedure
for RCC does not consider equivalent loads in the design process. Instead, pavement evaluations are
conducted for different loads, and the anticipated damage for the different loads is added together (as
described in Section 9.3).

Cumulative Frequency of Top/Side Pick Loads
0
25
50
75
100
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000
Front Wheel Load (lbs)
P
e
r
c
e
n
t

Figure 9-5 Cumulative load distribution for Top/Side Pick equipment.

Since it is not practical to perform calculations on every load, the load frequency is divided into quartiles,
and calculations are performed on four representative loads (at 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% of the load
frequency curve). For each of the four representative loads, the load stress was calculated using the
RCCPave computer program. This program uses the same procedure explained in Section 9.3, but does
the calculations automatically without using manual procedures.

Once the number of loads to failure for each load is calculated, then the damage can be summed for all of
the four representative loads (see Table 9-1 below). For the example given, a pavement thickness of 17
inches was tried, but the sum of damage was larger than 1.0. The table shows that a thickness of 17.5
inches is satisfactory.


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Table 9-1 Design table for Top/Side Lifter equipment.
Load
(lbs)
Thickness
(in)
Stress
(psi)
Stress
Ratio
Appl. to
Failure
Number
Appl.
Fractional
Damage
46,000 17.5 331 .472 92,807 37,545 .405
39,000 17.5 283 .405 533,430 37,545 .070
35,000 17.5 255 .364 unlimited 37,545 .000
27,000 17.5 201 .287 unlimited 37,545 .000
Total .475

The same procedure was followed to evaluate the design required for the RTG area. The load distribution
is shown in Figure 9-6, and the design table is shown in Table 9-2.

Cumulative Frequency RTG Load
0
25
50
75
100
40000 45000 50000 55000 60000 65000 70000
Wheel Load (lbs)
P
e
r
c
e
n
t

Figure 9-6 Cumulative load frequency for RTG area.

Table 9-2 Design table for RTG area
Load
(lbs)
Thickness
(in)
Stress
(psi)
Stress
Ratio
Appl. to
Failure
Number
Appl.
Fractional
Damage
61,000 15.5 296 .423 329,554 111,840 .339
57,000 15.5 281 .401 578,360 111,840 .193
54,500 15.5 271 .388 unlimited 111,840 .000
50,000 15.5 254 .363 unlimited 111,840 .000
Total .532

As mentioned earlier, truck traffic (conventional trucks with legal wheel loads) operates in both the
Top/Side Lifter area, and the RTG area. Therefore, the effect of the truck traffic should be added to the
effect of the heavy equipment in Figure 9-5 and Figure 9-6. The evaluation of the truck traffic in the RTG


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area is shown below in Figure 9-7 and Table 9-3. This example illustrates how many facility designs are
primarily affected by the heaviest loads, leading to very little or no effect from the smaller loads.

Cumulative Frequency Truck Wheel Loads
0
25
50
75
100
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Truck Wheel Load (lbs)
P
e
r
c
e
n
t

Figure 9-7 Cumulative load distribution for trucks operating in RTG area.

Table 9-3 Design table for trucks operating in RTG area
Load
(lbs)
Thickness
(in)
Stress
(psi)
Stress
Ratio
Appl. to
Failure
Number
Appl.
Fractional
Damage
4,100 15.5 54 .077 unlimited 3.4 mill. .000
Total .000


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9.10 References
1. Tayabji, S. D., and Okamoto, P.A., Engineering Properties of Roller-Compacted Concrete,
Transportation Research Record 1136, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C. 1987.
2. Structural Design of Roller-Compacted Concrete for Industrial Pavements, Portland Cement
Association, Skokie, Il. 1987.
3. Airport Pavement Design and Evaluation, Advisory Circular 150/5320-6C, Federal Aviation
Administration, Washington, DC 1978.
4. Roller-Compacted Concrete, Engineering and Design. Publication EM 1110-2-2006, U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, Vicksburg, MS Aug 1985.
5. Westergarrd, H. M., Theory of Concrete Pavement Design, HRB Proc., Vol 7, Part 1, pp 175-181,
1927.
6. Pickett, G. and Ray, G. K., Influence Charts for Concrete Pavements, Paper 2425, ASCE
Transactions, Vol 116, 1951.
7. Computer Program RCCPave2000, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Il., 2000.
8. Production of Roller Compacted Concrete, IS332, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Il., 2006.
9. Piggott, R.W., Roller Compacted Concrete Pavements A Study of Long Term Performance, RP
366, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Il., 1999.
10. Frost Durability of Roller-Compacted Concrete Pavements: Research Synopsis, IS692, Portland
Cement Association, Skokie, Il., 2006.
11. Guide Specification for Construction of Roller-Compacted Concrete Pavements, IS009, Portland
Cement Association, Skokie, Il., 2004.


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9.11 Appendix Tables and Figures

Appendix Figure 1. Correlation of K value with other material properties.


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Appendix Table 1. Fatigue relationship for RCC based on stress ratio.


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Appendix Figure 2. Recommended aggregate gradation for RCC.


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JN: 5552-06
10. Pavement Management................................................................................................... 10-1
10.1 PMS Concepts .............................................................................................................10-1
10.2 Components of a Pavement Management System........................................................10-6
10.3 Database......................................................................................................................10-6
10.4 Maintenance Policies and Costs ...................................................................................10-6
10.5 Rehabilitation Strategies..............................................................................................10-7
10.6 Performance and Costs ................................................................................................10-7
10.7 Optimation..................................................................................................................10-7
10.8 Prioritization and Funding ..........................................................................................10-8
10.9 Structural Analysis ......................................................................................................10-8


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10. Pavement Management
Historically, many agencies with responsibility for pavement maintenance and rehabilitation have utilized
an informal ad-hoc approach for establishing needs and allocating funding. While this approach can be
effective on a small scale, it is often too subjective and inefficient for large facilities such as marine
terminals.

However, over the last ten or so years standardized methods for improved decision making have been
formalized in an integrated system, commonly referred to as a Pavement Management System (PMS). A
pavement management system provides a consistent, objective and systematic procedure for setting
priorities and schedules, allocating resources, and establishing budgets for pavement maintenance and
rehabilitation. A PMS can also quantify information and provide specific recommendations for actions
required to maintain a pavement network at an acceptable level of service while minimizing the cost of
maintenance and rehabilitation. A properly developed PMS can assist the engineer, budget director, and
management to make cost-effective decisions regarding maintenance and rehabilitation for a pavement
network.

10.1 PMS Concepts
In its most basic form, a PMS is typically based on visually identifying pavement distresses and
computing an objective pavement condition rating. The system can include other elements such as
analysis of drainage, structural performance, or surface friction depending on user requirements.

A PMS not only evaluates the present condition of a pavement facility, but can also be used to estimate its
future condition through the use of a pavement condition indicator. By projecting the rate of
deterioration, a life-cycle cost analysis can be performed for various alternatives to arrest deterioration,
and the optimal time of application of the best alternative can be determined. This is critical to avoid
higher maintenance and repair (M&R) costs at a later date.

Figure 10-1, Typical Pavement Condition Life Cycle illustrates how a pavement generally deteriorates.
The figure also illustrates the relative cost of rehabilitation at various times during its life. Note that
during the first 75% of a pavements life, it performs relatively well. After that, however, it begins to
deteriorate rapidly. The number of years a pavement stays in good condition depends on how well it is
maintained. Numerous studies have shown that the ratio of total annual costs between maintaining a good
pavement and periodically rehabilitating a poor pavement is in the order of 1 to 4 or 5.


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Figure 10-1 Typical Pavement Condition Life Cycle

To standardize characterization of pavement condition, the Pavement Condition Index (PCI) was
developed. The PCI is a numerical index from 0 (failed) to 100 (excellent). The PCI is computed from
prescribed visual measurements based on the type, severity, and amount (density) of observed distresses.
The PCI process is depicted graphically in Figure 10-2, Condition Survey. The measurement process,
referred to as a pavement condition survey, and computation of the PCI is described in ASTM D-6433,
Standard Practice for Roads and Parking Lots Condition Survey. PMS software programs, such as
described below, allow for automated PCI computations. A tabulation of typical flexible and rigid
pavement distresses is shown in Table 10-1 and Table 10-2, MicroPAVER Distress Mechanisms. The
table also includes the mechanisms that are primarily responsible for causing a particular distress.


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CONDITION SURVEY

PCI RATING COLOR PAVER RATING

100

86

EXCELLENT

85

71

VERY GOOD

70

56

GOOD

55

41

FAIR

40

26
POOR

25

11

VERY POOR

10

0

FAILED
Figure 10-2 Condition Survey
PAVEMENT CONDITION RATING
PCI
DISTRESS
QUANTITY
DISTRESS
TYPE
DISTRESS
SEVERITY


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MicroPAVER DISTRESS MECHANISMS

Table 10-1 MicroPAPER Distress Mechanisms for Asphalt Surfaced Roads and Parking Areas
CODE DISTRESS MECHANISM
01 Alligator Cracking Load
02 Bleeding Other
03 Block Cracking Climate
04 Bumps and Sags Other
05 Corrugation Other
06 Depression Other
07 Edge Cracking Load
08 Joint Reflection Cracking Climate
09 Lane/Shoulder Drop Off Other
10 Longitudinal/Transverse Cracking Climate
11 Patching and Utility Cut Patching Other
12 Polished Aggregate Other
13 Potholes Load
14 Railroad Crossing Other
15 Rutting Load
16 Shoving Other
17 Slippage Cracking Other
18 Swell Other
19 Weathering and Raveling Climate

Table 10-2 MicroPAPER Distress Mechanisms for Portland Cement Concrete Roads and Parking
Areas
CODE DISTRESS MECHANISM
21 Blow-up/Buckling Climate
22 Corner Break Load
23 Divided Slab Load
24 Durability ("D") Cracking Climate
25 Faulting Other
26 Joint Seal Damage Climate
27 Lane Shoulder Drop Off Other
28 Linear Cracking Load
29 Patching, Large/Utility Cut Other
30 Patching, Small Other
31 Polished Aggregate Other
32 Popouts Other
33 Pumping Other
34 Punchout Load
35 Railroad Crossing Other
36 Scaling/Map Cracking/Crazing Other
37 Shrinkage Cracking Climate
38 Spalling, Corner Climate
39 Spalling, Joint Climate

From Figure 10-1it is also significant to note that beyond a certain point, referred to as the critical PCI,
the pavement deteriorates rapidly. In fact, the first 40% drop in quality typically occurs during the first


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75% of pavement life, while the next 40% occurs during only 12% of pavement life. Therefore, it is
important and cost-effective to maintain a pavement above its critical PCI. As discussed, deferral of
necessary maintenance or rehabilitation can increase costs 4 or 5 fold in a relatively short period. If
maintenance is performed in a timely and predicable manner, the rate of deterioration can be slowed and
more costly rehabilitation deferred. This concept is depicted in Figure 10-3. PMS Preventive
Maintenance Concept.

Figure 10-3 PMS Preventive Maintenance Concept
The condition survey results will also identify whether and to what extent pavement condition is being
affected by load, environmental, or other (e.g., construction related) mechanisms. This information is
useful in evaluating the effectiveness of different maintenance or rehabilitation strategies. For example, it
would not be cost-effective to attempt to repair a structural distress such as alligator cracking with a seal
coat, which is a functional repair method. Likewise, it may not be necessary to apply a structural repair
method such as reconstruction for a functional distress such as block cracking.

Further, if the pavement is experiencing load related distresses, this would indicate the need to augment
the visual condition survey results with a structural evaluation that would typically include nondestructive
deflection testing, cores, and borings.

Future condition (i.e., PCI) can be extrapolated based on the current PCI, prior inspection results, and the
last rehabilitation date. Estimates of the future PCI and deterioration rates are useful in identifying
optimal maintenance and rehabilitation timing, and whether a particular pavement feature is above or
below the critical PCI.

Information on pavement deterioration, by itself, is not sufficient to answer questions involved in
selecting cost-effective maintenance and repair strategies. For example, should a pavement be seal
coated, reconstructed, or resurfaced? This type of decision requires information on the cost of various
maintenance and repair procedures and their effectiveness. In other words, the proposed solution should


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be targeted toward the source of the deficiency, type of distress and associated mechanisms, and whether
it will improve the pavements condition rating and keep the pavement in this improved condition for a
time period sufficient to recover the cost of the repairs. A pavement management system, then, should
enable a user to store information in a data base and use the system to identify the most cost-effective
solution.

10.2 Components of a Pavement Management System
In order to take full advantage of a pavement management system, information must be collected and
periodically updated, decision criteria established, alternative strategies identified, and optimization
procedures that consider the entire pavement life cycle developed. A system for accomplishing these
objectives will generally include the following basic elements.

A systematic means for collecting and storing information;
An objective and repeatable system for evaluating current and future pavement condition;
Procedures for identifying alternative maintenance and rehabilitation strategies;
Procedures for predicting the performance and costs of alternative strategies; and
Procedures for identifying the optimum alternative for maintenance and/or rehabilitation.

10.3 Database
The PMS data is stored in a database that would typically include:

Pavement Features: Dimensional hierarchal segments typically referred to as branches
and sections;
Pavement Structure: Pavement thickness and composition for each feature from as-built
records, supplemented by cores, as necessary;
Construction History: Dates, activities, and costs of major construction activities (e.g.,
overlay, reconstruction);
Maintenance History: Prior maintenance activities and costs to enable evaluation of
various maintenance procedures in extending pavement life;
Traffic Data: Types of vehicles, weights, and load repetitions; and
Pavement Condition: The ability to objectively quantify pavement condition and track
the rate of deterioration is a fundamental element of the PMS. Most pavement management
systems utilize the Pavement Condition Index (PCI) for establishing estimates of current and
projected pavement condition (see Figure 2).

10.4 Maintenance Policies and Costs
The PMS needs to include maintenance policies and costs to repair identified pavement distresses. The
repairs are categorized as a function of distress, type, and severity. For example, low severity cracking
may require no action; however, medium and high severity cracking may require routing and sealing.
The PMS should include maintenance policies and costs matched to each distress type and severity level.


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10.5 Rehabilitation Strategies
For pavements with PCIs below the critical PCI, or those with structural distresses, alternate strategies for
rehabilitation (e.g., overlay, mill and fill, recycling, and reconstruction) need to be identified. The
rehabilitation strategies and costs are typically related to pavement condition (i.e., PCI). Figure 10-4,
Rehabilitation Options is an example of typical maintenance and rehabilitation options and costs as a
function of PCI.

The strategy that is applied to a particular feature (section) should consider pavement condition, rate of
deterioration, distress mechanisms, future utilization, and expected life of a particular alternative.

Figure 10-4 Rehabilitation Options

10.6 Performance and Costs
The expected performance of each identified maintenance or rehabilitation option needs to be identified.
For example, distress repairs (i.e., maintenance) would result in recomputation of pavement condition
(e.g., PCI) after the repairs. On the other hand, both overlay and reconstruction would result in a post-
rehabilitation PCI of 100. However, the projected performance, cost, and longevity of the two would be
different.

10.7 Optimation
In order to select a particular alternative, a procedure that evaluates several options (e.g., life cycle cost
analysis) is needed.


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10.8 Prioritization and Funding
Since funding constraints must be addressed, the PMS should prioritize needs (i.e., the order in which
pavements should be repaired or rehabilitated).

The system should include several optimization techniques (e.g., worst first, repairs as a function of
PCI, maintain current condition, etc.) that can be applied for selection of the option that will result in the
most cost-effective utilization of funding on a long term basis. The PMS should also be capable of
evaluating alternate funding scenarios and identify improvements in the overall condition of the pavement
network with different funding levels. An example of the effect of different budget scenarios on
condition is depicted in Figure 10-5, Budget Scenarios.

BUDGET SCENARIOS

Figure 10-5 Budget Scenario
10.9 Structural Analysis
Depending on the traffic utilization and amount of structural distresses identified, the PMS should allow
for supplemented structural analysis. This will typically consist of nondestructive testing (NDT), or other
physical tests, analysis of traffic, and analysis of structural performance. The structural analysis will help
in the selection of the most appropriate rehabilitation option to meet future pavement performance
expectations. Guidelines for performing nondestructive testing are included in ASTM D-4602, Standard
Guide for Nondestructive Testing Using Cyclic Loading Dynamic Deflection Equipment; ASTM D-
4694, Standard Test Method for Deflection with a Falling Weight Impulse Load Device; and ASTM D-
4695, Standard Guide for General Pavement Deflection Measurements. There are also various
references that describe how to utilize the data in a structural evaluation framework.

U N L I MI T E D B U D G E T
$ 2 . 0 M B U D G E T
$ 1 . 5 M B U D G E T
Z E R O B U D G E T
Ye a r s
0
2 0
4 0
6 0
8 0
1 0 0
F e b 1 9 9 8 F e b 2 0 0 0 F e b 2 0 0 2 F e b 2 0 0 4 F e b 2 0 0 6 F e b 2 0 0 8
F e b 1 9 9 9 F e b 2 0 0 1 F e b 2 0 0 3 F e b 2 0 0 5 F e b 2 0 0 7
A v g .
Co n d i t i o n
P C I


JN: 5552-06
11. PMS Software ................................................................................................................. 11-1
11.1 Overview of Network Level Analysis ...........................................................................11-1
11.2 Report Generation and Usage......................................................................................11-2
11.3 Micropaver Software ...................................................................................................11-2
11.4 Other PMS Software....................................................................................................11-3


11-1
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11. PMS Software

There are several PMS software packages that can be used for pavement management. Some are
proprietary that were developed by private enterprises. A non-proprietary program that has enjoyed
widespread use by local, state and federal agencies, as well as commercial users, is the MicroPAVER
program. This computer program was developed by the U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research
Laboratory under contract to the U.S. Departments of Transportation and Defense. Program updates have
been continually supported by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), Federal Highway
Administration (FHWA), U.S. Army Corp of Engineers, U.S. Air Force, U.S. Navy, and other agencies to
meet the needs of current users.

The program allows for storage of pavement condition history, nondestructive testing data, construction
and maintenance history, and repair cost data. This data base provides many capabilities including
evaluation of current conditions, prediction of future conditions, identification of maintenance and
rehabilitation needs, inspection scheduling, economic analysis, and budget planning. MicroPAVER not
only computes and evaluates the present condition of the pavement using the pavement condition index
(PCI) described in ASTM D-6433, but it can also be used to estimate the future pavement conditions. As
discussed, the PCI is a numerical indicator that reflects the structural integrity and functional condition of
a pavement based on objective measurements of distress type, severity, and quantity. By projecting the
pavements rate of deterioration, a life-cycle cost analysis can be performed to test various maintenance
and rehabilitation alternatives for selecting the best alternative and optimal time of application.

Although the program can be used for evaluation of the entire pavement network (network level), it can
also be used to support a particular rehabilitation project for a specific feature (project level). Actually,
both are similar, except that the project level analysis will typically involve a higher frequency of
inspection and may include additional elements to support a particular project (e.g., structural analysis).

11.1 Overview of Network Level Analysis
In network level pavement management, the system is used to identify short and long range budget needs,
the current and future condition of the pavement network, and candidates for project level analysis. In
addition to providing an automated inventory of the pavements being managed, MicroPAVER provides a
series of programs which access the database and produce customized reports.

These reports help the user making decisions regarding inspection scheduling, identification of pavements
for rehabilitation, budget forecasting, identification of routine maintenance projects, evaluation of current
condition, and prediction of future condition.

Condition prediction is used as the basis for developing inspection schedules and identifying pavements
requiring maintenance or rehabilitation. Once pavements requiring future work have been identified, a
budget for the current year and for several years into the future can be developed. By using an agencys
prioritization scheme, and maintenance and rehabilitation policies and costs, and comparing the budget to
actual funds available, a list of potential projects can be produced. This list becomes the link with project
level management.


11-2
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11.2 Report Generation and Usage
MicroPAVER can assist in the decision making process through the use of several standard reports. Each
report can be customized to include only the pavements and/or conditions of interest and can be generated
to represent various budget/condition scenarios. The use of each report is briefly outlined below.

Inventory Report: This report is a listing of all pavements in the network and contains information
such as surface type, location, area, and pavement function.

Inspection Scheduling Report: This report allows the user to schedule inspections for the next 5 years
based on a pavements minimum acceptable condition (PCI) level and rate of deterioration.

PCI Frequency Report: This report provides the user with an indication of overall network condition
based on the PCI scale for the current and future years. The projected condition can be used to assist
in planning future maintenance and repair needs and keeping management informed. Since the PCI
extrapolation used assumes no major repairs have occurred between the last inspection and prediction
dates, the user can see the impact on the overall network condition of deferring major repairs.

Budget Planning Report: This report allows the user to produce 5-year projected budgets required to
maintain the pavement network above a user-specified condition level. The user is required to input
three forms of data: (1) minimum PCI values for each pavement type;
(2) average unit repair costs based on surface type and PCI ranges; and
(3) the inflation rate during the analysis period.
The report predicts the year in which the minimum PCI will be reached and calculates the cost of repair
for each section.

Network Maintenance Report: This report uses the agencys maintenance policy which is stored in
the data base and applies it to the distresses identified in the latest PCI survey. This report can be
used to estimate both the type and cost of routine maintenance for development of an annual
maintenance plan.

Economic Analysis Report: This report can be used to help select the most cost-effective alternative
for a pavement repair. For each feasible alternative, the user must input initial costs, periodic
maintenance costs, one-time future maintenance costs, interest rates, and discount rates. The program
performs a life-cycle cost analysis and provides the user to vary interest rates, repair costs, and timing
so that their effect on alternatives can be analyzed.

11.3 Micropaver Software
The MicroPAVER software package together with its users guide can be obtained from a distribution
center. Currently, there are several distribution centers, with each center responsible for establishing
individual fees for distribution and providing updates and corrections as they become available. The fees
vary according to the service provided to the user (training, implementation assistance, users group
membership, etc.). Users should contact each center and determine which one will best suit their needs.
The location of the distribution centers, user manuals, and product updates are provided on the
MicroPAVER website at http://WWW.cecer.army.mil/paver/.


11-3
JN: 5552-06
11.4 Other PMS Software
Pavement management systems other than MicroPAVER are used by consulting engineer firms that
provide pavement evaluation and management services. The software programs used by these firms are
not in the public domain and typically cannot be purchased for use by an individual or an agency.

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