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Leaf From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other uses, see Leaf (disambiguation). The leaves of a Beech tree File:3D rendering of a micro CT scan of a piece of dried leaf..ogg 3D rendering of a CT scan of a leaf piece, resolution circa 40 m/voxel. A leaf is an organ of a vascular plant, as defined in botanical terms, and in pa rticular in plant morphology. Foliage is a mass noun that refers to leaves as a feature of plants.[1][2] Typically a leaf is a thin, flattened organ borne above ground and specialized f or photosynthesis, but many types of leaves are adapted in ways almost unrecogni sable in those terms: some are not flat (for example many succulent leaves and c onifers), some are not above ground (such as bulb scales), and some are without major photosynthetic function (consider for example cataphylls, spines, and coty ledons). Conversely, many structures of non-vascular plants, or even of some lichens, whi ch are not plants at all (in the sense of being members of the kingdom Plantae), do look and function much like leaves. Furthermore, several structures found in vascular plants look like leaves but are not actually leaves; they differ from leaves in their structures and origins. Examples include phyllodes, cladodes, an d phylloclades.[2] Contents [hide] 1 General nature of leaves 2 Large-scale features (leaf morphology) 3 Anatomy 3.1 Medium scale features 3.2 Small-scale features 3.3 Major leaf tissues 3.3.1 Epidermis 3.3.2 Mesophyll 3.3.3 Veins 4 Seasonal leaf loss 5 Morphology 5.1 Basic types 5.2 Arrangement on the stem 5.3 Divisions of the blade 5.4 Characteristics of the petiole 5.5 Venation 5.6 Morphology changes within a single plant 6 Terminology 6.1 Shape 6.2 Edge (margin) 6.3 Tip 6.4 Base 6.5 Surface 6.6 Hairiness 7 Adaptations 8 Interactions with other organisms 9 Bibliography 10 See also 11 References 12 External links General nature of leaves[edit source]

Typically leaves are flat and thin, thereby maximising the surface area directly exposed to light and promoting photosynthetic function. Externally they commonl y are arranged on the plant in such ways as to expose their surfaces to light as efficiently as possible without shading each other, but there are many exceptio ns and complications; for instance plants adapted to windy conditions may have p endent leaves, such as in many willows and Eucalyptus. Likewise, the internal organisation of most kinds of leaves has evolved to maxim ise exposure of the photosynthetic organelles, the chloroplasts, to light and to increase the absorption of carbon dioxide. Most leaves have stomata, which open or narrow to regulate the exchange of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and water vapour with the atmosphere. In contrast however, some leaf forms are adapted to modulate the amount of light they absorb to avoid or mitigate excessive heat, ultraviolet damage, or desicca tion, or to sacrifice light-absorption efficiency in favour of protection from h erbivorous enemies. Among these forms the leaves of many xerophytes are conspicu ous. For such plants their major constraint is not light flux or intensity, but heat, cold, drought, wind, herbivory, and various other hazards.[3] Typical exam ples among such strategies are so-called window plants such as Fenestraria speci es, some Haworthia species such as Haworthia tesselata and Haworthia truncata[4] and Bulbine mesembryanthemoides.[5] The shape and structure of leaves vary considerably from species to species of p lant, depending largely on their adaptation to climate and available light, but also to other factors such as grazing animals, available nutrients, and ecologic al competition from other plants. Considerable changes in leaf type occur within species too, for example as a plant matures; as a case in point Eucalyptus spec ies commonly have isobilateral, pendent leaves when mature and dominating their neighbours; however, such trees tend to have erect or horizontal dorsiventral le aves as seedlings, when their growth is limited by the available light.[6] Other factors include the need to balance water loss at high temperature and low humi dity against the need to absorb atmospheric carbon dioxide. In most plants leave s also are the primary organs responsible for transpiration and guttation (beads of fluid forming at leaf margins). Leaves can also store food and water, and are modified accordingly to meet these functions, for example in the leaves of succulent plants and in bulb scales. Th e concentration of photosynthetic structures in leaves requires that they be ric her in protein, minerals, and sugars, than say, woody stem tissues. Accordingly leaves are prominent in the diet of many animals. This is true for humans, for w hom leaf vegetables commonly are food staples. A leaf shed in autumn. Correspondingly, leaves represent heavy investment on the part of the plants bea ring them, and their retention or disposition are the subject of elaborate strat egies for dealing with pest pressures, seasonal conditions, and protective measu res such as the growth of thorns and the production of phytoliths, lignins, tann ins and poisons. Deciduous plants in frigid or cold temperate regions typically shed their leaves in autumn, whereas in areas with a severe dry season, some plants may shed thei r leaves until the dry season ends. In either case the shed leaves may be expect ed to contribute their retained nutrients to the soil where they fall. In contrast, many other non-seasonal plants, such as palms and conifers, retain their leaves for long periods; Welwitschia retains its two main leaves throughou t a lifetime that may exceed a thousand years. Not all plants have true leaves. Bryophytes (e.g., mosses and liverworts) are no n-vascular plants, and, although they produce flattened, leaf-like structures th at are rich in chlorophyll, these organs differ morphologically from the leaves of vascular plants; For one thing, they lack vascular tissue. Vascularised leave s first evolved following the Devonian period, when carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere dropped significantly. This occurred independently in two sep arate lineages of vascular plants: the microphylls of lycophytes and the euphyll

s ("true leaves") of ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms. Euphylls are also refe rred to as macrophylls or megaphylls ("large leaves"). Large-scale features (leaf morphology)[edit source] A structurally complete leaf of an angiosperm consists of a petiole (leaf stalk) , a lamina (leaf blade), and stipules (small structures located to either side o f the base of the petiole). Not every species produces leaves with all of these structural components. In certain species, paired stipules are not obvious or ar e absent altogether. A petiole may be absent, or the blade may not be laminar (f lattened). The tremendous variety shown in leaf structure (anatomy) from species to species is presented in detail below under morphology. The petiole mechanica lly links the leaf to the plant and provides the route for transfer of water and sugars to and from the leaf. The lamina is typically the location of the majori ty of photosynthesis. The upper (adaxial) angle between a leaf and a stem is kno wn as the axil of the leaf. It is often the location of a bud. Structures locate d there are called "axillary". Anatomy[edit source] Medium scale features[edit source] Leaves are normally extensively vascularised and are typically covered by a dens e network of xylem, which supply water for photosynthesis, and phloem, which rem ove the sugars produced by photosynthesis. Many leaves are covered in trichomes (small hairs) which have a diverse range of structures and functions. Medium scale diagram of leaf internal anatomy Small-scale features[edit source] A leaf is a plant organ and is a collection of tissues in a regular organisation . The major tissue systems present are The epidermis, which covers the upper and lower surfaces The mesophyll tissue inside the leaf, which is rich in chloroplasts (also called chlorenchyma) The arrangement of veins (the vascular tissue) These three tissue systems typically form a regular organisation at the cellular scale. Fine scale diagram of leaf structure Major leaf tissues[edit source] Cross section of a leaf.

Epidermal cells

Spongy mesophyll cells Epidermis[edit source] SEM image of Nicotiana alata leaf's epidermis, showing trichomes (hair-like appe ndages) and stomata (eye-shaped slits, visible at full resolution). The epidermis is the waxy outer layer of cells covering the leaf. It forms the b oundary separating the plant's inner cells from the external world. The epidermi s serves several functions: protection against water loss by way of transpiratio n, regulation of gas exchange, secretion of metabolic compounds, and (in some sp ecies) absorption of water. Most leaves show dorsoventral anatomy: The upper (ad axial) and lower (abaxial) surfaces have somewhat different construction and may serve different functions. The epidermis is usually transparent (epidermal cells lack chloroplasts) and coa ted on the outer side with a waxy cuticle that prevents water loss. The cuticle

is in some cases thinner on the lower epidermis than on the upper epidermis, and is generally thicker on leaves from dry climates as compared with those from we t climates. The epidermis tissue includes several differentiated cell types: epidermal cells , epidermal hair cells (trichomes) cells in the stomate complex; guard cells and subsidiary cells. The epidermal cells are the most numerous, largest, and least specialized and form the majority of the epidermis. These are typically more el ongated in the leaves of monocots than in those of dicots. The epidermis is covered with pores called stomata, part of a stoma complex cons isting of a pore surrounded on each side by chloroplast-containing guard cells, and two to four subsidiary cells that lack chloroplasts. Opening and closing of the stoma complex regulates the exchange of gases and water vapor between the ou tside air and the interior of the leaf and plays an important role in allowing p hotosynthesis without letting the leaf dry out. In a typical leaf, the stomata a re more numerous over the abaxial (lower) epidermis than the adaxial (upper) epi dermis and more numerous in plants from cooler climates. Mesophyll[edit source] Most of the interior of the leaf between the upper and lower layers of epidermis is a parenchyma (ground tissue) or chlorenchyma tissue called the mesophyll (Gr eek for "middle leaf"). This assimilation tissue is the primary location of phot osynthesis in the plant. The products of photosynthesis are called "assimilates" . In ferns and most flowering plants, the mesophyll is divided into two layers: An upper palisade layer of tightly packed, vertically elongated cells, one to tw o cells thick, directly beneath the adaxial epidermis. Its cells contain many mo re chloroplasts than the spongy layer. These long cylindrical cells are regularl y arranged in one to five rows. Cylindrical cells, with the chloroplasts close t o the walls of the cell, can take optimal advantage of light. The slight separat ion of the cells provides maximum absorption of carbon dioxide. This separation must be minimal to afford capillary action for water distribution. In order to a dapt to their different environment (such as sun or shade), plants had to adapt this structure to obtain optimal result. Sun leaves have a multi-layered palisad e layer, while shade leaves or older leaves closer to the soil are single-layere d. Beneath the palisade layer is the spongy layer. The cells of the spongy layer ar e more rounded and not so tightly packed. There are large intercellular air spac es. These cells contain fewer chloroplasts than those of the palisade layer. The pores or stomata of the epidermis open into substomatal chambers, which are con nected to the air spaces between the spongy layer cells. These two distinct layers of the mesophyll are absent in many aquatic and marsh plants. Even an epidermis and a mesophyll may be lacking. Instead, for their gas eous exchanges they use a homogeneous aerenchyma (thin-walled cells separated by large gas-filled spaces). Their stomata are situated at the upper surface. Leaves are normally green, due to chlorophyll in plastids in the chlorenchyma ce lls. Plants that lack chlorophyll cannot photosynthesize optimally. Photosynthes is can still be performed utilizing other pigments such as carotenes and xanthop hylls. Veins[edit source] The veins of a bramble leaf The veins are the vascular tissue of the leaf and are located in the spongy laye r of the mesophyll. The pattern of the veins is called venation, and is typicall y characterized by hierarchical structures with abundant closed loops. They were once thought to be typical examples of pattern formation through ramification, but they may instead exemplify a pattern formed in a stress tensor field.[7][8][ 9] A vein is made up of a vascular bundle. At the core of each bundle are clusters of two distinct types of ducts (tubes): Xylem: ducts that bring water and minerals from the roots into the leaf.

Phloem: ducts that usually move sap, with dissolved sucrose, produced by photosy nthesis in the leaf, out of the leaf. A sheath of ground tissue made of lignin surrounding the ducts. This sheath has a mechanical role in strengthening the rigidity of the leaf. The xylem typically lies on the adaxial side of the vascular bundle and the phlo em typically lies on the abaxial side. Both are embedded in a dense parenchyma t issue, called the pith or sheath, which usually includes some structural collenc hyma tissue. Seasonal leaf loss[edit source]

Leaves shifting color in fall Leaves in temperate, boreal, and seasonally dry zones may be seasonally deciduou s (falling off or dying for the inclement season). This mechanism to shed leaves is called abscission. After the leaf is shed, a leaf scar develops on the twig. In cold autumns, they sometimes change color, and turn yellow, bright-orange, o r red, as various accessory pigments (carotenoids and xanthophylls) are revealed when the tree responds to cold and reduced sunlight by curtailing chlorophyll p roduction. Red anthocyanin pigments are now thought to be produced in the leaf a s it dies, possibly to mask the yellow hue left when the chlorophyll is lost yello w leaves appear to attract herbivores such as aphids.[10] Morphology[edit source]

The Citrus leaf is identified by the pores and pigments, as well as the margins. External leaf characteristics (such as shape, margin, hairs, etc.) are important for identifying plant species, and botanists have developed a rich terminology for describing leaf characteristics. These structures are a part of what makes l eaves determinant; they grow and achieve a specific pattern and shape, then stop . Other plant parts like stems or roots are non-determinant, and will usually co ntinue to grow as long as they have the resources to do so. Classification of leaves can occur through many different designative schema, an d the type of leaf is usually characteristic of a species, although some species produce more than one type of leaf. The longest type of leaf is a leaf from a p alm, measuring at nine feet long. The terminology associated with the descriptio n of leaf morphology is presented, in illustrated form, at Wikibooks. Basic types[edit source] Leaves of the White Spruce (Picea glauca) are needle-shaped and their arrangemen t is spiral Ferns have fronds Conifer leaves are typically needle-, awl-, or scale-shaped Angiosperm (flowering plant) leaves: the standard form includes stipules, a peti ole, and a lamina Lycophytes have microphyll leaves. Sheath leaves (type found in most grasses) Other specialized leaves (such as those of Nepenthes) Arrangement on the stem[edit source] Different terms are usually used to describe leaf placement (phyllotaxis): The leaves on this plant are arranged in pairs opposite one another, with succes sive pairs at right angles to each other ("decussate") along the red stem. Note the developing buds in the axils of these leaves. Alternate leaf attachments are singular at nodes, and leaves alternate direction , to a greater or lesser degree, along the stem. Opposite Two structures, one on each opposite side of the stem, typically leaves

, branches, or flower parts. Leaf attachments are paired at each node and decuss ate if, as typical, each successive pair is rotated 90 progressing along the stem . Whorled three or more leaves attach at each point or node on the stem. As with o pposite leaves, successive whorls may or may not be decussate, rotated by half t he angle between the leaves in the whorl (i.e., successive whorls of three rotat ed 60, whorls of four rotated 45, etc.). Opposite leaves may appear whorled near t he tip of the stem. Rosulate leaves form a rosette Rows - The term "distichous" literally means "2 rows". Leaves in this arrangemen t may be alternate or opposite in their attachment. The term "2-ranked" is equiv alent. The terms tristichous and tetrastichous are sometimes encountered. For ex ample, the "leaves" (actually microphylls) of most species of Selaginella are te trastichous, but not decussate. As a stem grows, leaves tend to appear arranged around the stem in a way that op timizes yield of light. In essence, leaves form a helix pattern centered around the stem, either clockwise or counterclockwise, with (depending upon the species ) the same angle of divergence. There is a regularity in these angles and they f ollow the numbers in a Fibonacci sequence: 1/2, 2/3, 3/5, 5/8, 8/13, 13/21, 21/3 4, 34/55, 55/89. This series tends to a limit close to 360 x 34/89 = 137.52 or 13 7 30', an angle known in mathematics as the golden angle. In the series, the nume rator indicates the number of complete turns or "gyres" until a leaf arrives at the initial position. The denominator indicates the number of leaves in the arra ngement. This can be demonstrated by the following: alternate leaves have an angle of 180 (or 1/2) 120 (or 1/3) : three leaves in one circle 144 (or 2/5) : five leaves in two gyres 135 (or 3/8) : eight leaves in three gyres. Divisions of the blade[edit source] A leaf with laminar structure and pinnate venation Two basic forms of leaves can be described considering the way the blade (lamina ) is divided. A simple leaf has an undivided blade. However, the leaf shape may be formed of lobes, but the gaps between lobes do not reach to the main vein. A compound leaf has a fully subdivided blade, each leaflet of the blade separated along a main or secondary vein. Because each leaflet can appear to be a simple l eaf, it is important to recognize where the petiole occurs to identify a compoun d leaf. Compound leaves are a characteristic of some families of higher plants, such as the Fabaceae. The middle vein of a compound leaf or a frond, when it is present, is called a rachis. Palmately compound leaves have the leaflets radiating from the end of the petiol e, like fingers off the palm of a hand, e.g. Cannabis (hemp) and Aesculus (bucke yes). Pinnately compound leaves have the leaflets arranged along the main or mid-vein. odd pinnate: with a terminal leaflet, e.g. Fraxinus (ash). even pinnate: lacking a terminal leaflet, e.g. Swietenia (mahogany). Bipinnately compound leaves are twice divided: the leaflets are arranged along a secondary vein that is one of several branching off the rachis. Each leaflet is called a "pinnule". The pinnules on one secondary vein are called "pinna"; e.g. Albizia (silk tree). trifoliate (or trifoliolate): a pinnate leaf with just three leaflets, e.g. Trif olium (clover), Laburnum (laburnum). pinnatifid: pinnately dissected to the central vein, but with the leaflets not e ntirely separate, e.g. Polypodium, some Sorbus (whitebeams). In pinnately veined leaves the central vein in known as the midrib. Characteristics of the petiole[edit source] The overgrown petioles of Rhubarb (Rheum rhabarbarum) are edible.

Petiolated leaves have a petiole (leaf stem). Sessile leaves do not: The blade a ttaches directly to the stem. In clasping or decurrent leaves, the blade partial ly or wholly surrounds the stem, often giving the impression that the shoot grow s through the leaf. When this is the case, the leaves are called "perfoliate", s uch as in Claytonia perfoliata. In peltate leaves, the petiole attaches to the b lade inside from the blade margin. In some Acacia species, such as the Koa Tree (Acacia koa), the petioles are expa nded or broadened and function like leaf blades; these are called phyllodes. The re may or may not be normal pinnate leaves at the tip of the phyllode. A stipule, present on the leaves of many dicotyledons, is an appendage on each s ide at the base of the petiole resembling a small leaf. Stipules may be lasting and not be shed (a stipulate leaf, such as in roses and beans), or be shed as th e leaf expands, leaving a stipule scar on the twig (an exstipulate leaf). The situation, arrangement, and structure of the stipules is called the "stipula tion". free adnate : fused to the petiole base ochreate : provided with ochrea, or sheath-formed stipules, e.g. rhubarb, encircling the petiole base interpetiolar : between the petioles of two opposite leaves. intrapetiolar : between the petiole and the subtending stem Venation[edit source] Branching veins on underside of taro leaf The venation within the bract of a Lime tree. The lower epidermis of Tilia europaea There are two subtypes of venation, namely, craspedodromous, where the major vei ns stretch up to the margin of the leaf, and camptodromous, when major veins ext end close to the margin, but bend before they intersect with the margin. Feather-veined, reticulate (also called pinnate-netted, penniribbed, penninerved , or penniveined) the veins arise pinnately from a single mid-vein and subdivide into veinlets. These, in turn, form a complicated network. This type of venatio n is typical for (but by no means limited to) dicotyledons. Three main veins branch at the base of the lamina and run essentially parallel s ubsequently, as in Ceanothus. A similar pattern (with 3-7 veins) is especially c onspicuous in Melastomataceae. Palmate-netted, palmate-veined, fan-veined; several main veins diverge from near the leaf base where the petiole attaches, and radiate toward the edge of the le af, e.g. most Acer (maples). Palmate-veined leaf Parallel-veined, parallel-ribbed, parallel-nerved, penniparallel veins run paral lel for the length of the leaf, from the base to the apex. Commissural veins (sm all veins) connect the major parallel veins. Typical for most monocotyledons, su ch as grasses. Dichotomous There are no dominant bundles, with the veins forking regularly by p airs; found in Ginkgo and some pteridophytes. micrograph of a leaf-skeleton. Note that, although it is the more complex pattern, branching veins appear to be plesiomorphic and in some form were present in ancient seed plants as long as 2 50 million years ago. A pseudo-reticulate venation that is actually a highly mod ified penniparallel one is an autapomorphy of some Melanthiaceae, which are mono

cots, e.g. Paris quadrifolia (True-lover's Knot). Morphology changes within a single plant[edit source] Homoblasty - Characteristic in which a plant has small changes in leaf size, sha pe, and growth habit between juvenile and adult stages. Heteroblasty - Characteristic in which a plant has marked changes in leaf size, shape, and growth habit between juvenile and adult stages. Terminology[edit source]

Chart illustrating some leaf morphology terms A portion of a coriander leaf Shape[edit source] Main article: Leaf shape Edge (margin)[edit source] ciliate: fringed with hairs crenate: wavy-toothed; dentate with rounded teeth, such as Fagus (beech) crenulate finely or shallowly crenate dentate: toothed, such as Castanea (chestnut) coarse-toothed: with large teeth glandular toothed: with teeth that bear glands. denticulate: finely toothed doubly toothed: each tooth bearing smaller teeth, such as Ulmus (elm) entire: even; with a smooth margin; without toothing lobate: indented, with the indentations not reaching to the center, such as many Quercus (oaks) palmately lobed: indented with the indentations reaching to the center, such as Humulus (hop). serrate: saw-toothed with asymmetrical teeth pointing forward, such as Urtica (n ettle) serrulate: finely serrate sinuate: with deep, wave-like indentations; coarsely crenate, such as many Rumex (docks) spiny or pungent: with stiff, sharp points, such as some Ilex (hollies) and Cirs ium (thistles). Tip[edit source] Leaves showing various morphologies. Clockwise from upper left: tripartite lobat ion, elliptic with serrulate margin, peltate with palmate venation, acuminate od d-pinnate (center), pinnatisect, lobed, elliptic with entire margin acuminate: long-pointed, prolonged into a narrow, tapering point in a concave ma nner. acute: ending in a sharp, but not prolonged point cuspidate: with a sharp, elongated, rigid tip; tipped with a cusp. emarginate: indented, with a shallow notch at the tip. mucronate: abruptly tipped with a small short point, as a continuation of the mi drib; tipped with a mucro.[11] mucronulate: mucronate, but with a noticeably diminutive spine, a mucronule.[11] obcordate: inversely heart-shaped, deeply notched at the top. obtuse: rounded or blunt truncate: ending abruptly with a flat end, that looks cut off. Haworthia truncata, a classic example of truncate leaves Base[edit source] acuminate: coming to a sharp, narrow, prolonged point. acute: coming to a sharp, but not prolonged point.

auriculate: ear-shaped. cordate: heart-shaped with the notch towards the stalk. cuneate: wedge-shaped. hastate: shaped like an halberd and with the basal lobes pointing outward. oblique: slanting. reniform: kidney-shaped but rounder and broader than long. rounded: curving shape. sagittate: shaped like an arrowhead and with the acute basal lobes pointing down ward. truncate: ending abruptly with a flat end, that looks cut off. Surface[edit source] Scale-shaped leaves of a Norfolk Island Pine, Araucaria heterophylla. farinose: bearing farina; mealy, covered with a waxy, whitish powder. glabrous: smooth, not hairy. glaucous: with a whitish bloom; covered with a very fine, bluish-white powder. glutinous: sticky, viscid. papillate, or papillose: bearing papillae (minute, nipple-shaped protuberances). pubescent: covered with erect hairs (especially soft and short ones). punctate: marked with dots; dotted with depressions or with translucent glands o r colored dots. rugose: deeply wrinkled; with veins clearly visible. scurfy: covered with tiny, broad scalelike particles. tuberculate: covered with tubercles; covered with warty prominences. verrucose: warted, with warty outgrowths. viscid, or viscous: covered with thick, sticky secretions. The leaf surface is also host to a large variety of microorganisms; in this cont ext it is referred to as the phyllosphere. The parallel veins within an iris leaf Hairiness[edit source] Common Mullein (Verbascum thapsus) leaves are covered in dense, stellate trichom es. Scanning electron microscope image of trichomes on the lower surface of a Coleus blumei (coleus) leaf. "Hairs" on plants are properly called trichomes. Leaves can show several degrees of hairiness. The meaning of several of the following terms can overlap. arachnoid, or arachnose: with many fine, entangled hairs giving a cobwebby appea rance. barbellate: with finely barbed hairs (barbellae). bearded: with long, stiff hairs. bristly: with stiff hair-like prickles. canescent: hoary with dense grayish-white pubescence. ciliate: marginally fringed with short hairs (cilia). ciliolate: minutely ciliate. floccose: with flocks of soft, woolly hairs, which tend to rub off. glabrescent: losing hairs with age. glabrous: no hairs of any kind present. glandular: with a gland at the tip of the hair. hirsute: with rather rough or stiff hairs. hispid: with rigid, bristly hairs. hispidulous: minutely hispid. hoary: with a fine, close grayish-white pubescence. lanate, or lanose: with woolly hairs.

pilose: with soft, clearly separated hairs. puberulent, or puberulous: with fine, minute hairs. pubescent: with soft, short and erect hairs. scabrous, or scabrid: rough to the touch. sericeous: silky appearance through fine, straight and appressed (lying close an d flat) hairs. silky: with adpressed, soft and straight pubescence. stellate, or stelliform: with star-shaped hairs. strigose: with appressed, sharp, straight and stiff hairs. tomentose: densely pubescent with matted, soft white woolly hairs. cano-tomentose: between canescent and tomentose. felted-tomentose: woolly and matted with curly hairs. tomentulose: minutely or only slightly tomentose. villous: with long and soft hairs, usually curved. woolly: with long, soft and tortuous or matted hairs. Adaptations[edit source]

Poinsettia bracts are leaves which have evolved red pigmentation in order to att ract insects and birds to the central flowers, an adaptive function normally ser ved by petals (which are themselves leaves highly modified by evolution). In the course of evolution, leaves have adapted to different environments in the following ways: A certain surface structure avoids moistening by rain and contamination (See Lot us effect). Sliced leaves reduce wind resistance. Hairs on the leaf surface trap humidity in dry climates and create a boundary la yer reducing water loss. Waxy leaf surfaces reduce water loss. Large surface area provides large area for sunlight and shade for plant to minim ize heating and reduce water loss. In harmful levels of sunlight, specialised leaves, opaque or partly buried, admi t light through translucent windows for photosynthesis at inner leaf surfaces (e .g. Fenestraria). Succulent leaves store water and organic acids for use in CAM photosynthesis. Aromatic oils, poisons or pheromones produced by leaf borne glands deter herbivo res (e.g. eucalypts). Inclusions of crystalline minerals deter herbivores (e.g. silica phytoliths in g rasses, raphides in Araceae). Petals attracts pollinators. Spines protect the plants (e.g. cacti). Special leaves on carnivorous plants are adapted to trapping food, mainly invert ebrate prey, though some species trap small vertebrates as well (see carnivorous plants). Bulbs store food and water (e.g. onions). Tendrils allow the plant to climb (e.g. peas). Bracts and pseudanthia (false flowers) replace normal flower structures when the true flowers are greatly reduced (e.g. Spurges). Spathe. Interactions with other organisms[edit source]

Some insects mimic leaves (Kallima inachus shown) A girl playing with leaves

Leaf damaged by insects with chewing mouthparts, probably weevils or katydids Dew on a leaf Although not as nutritious as other organs such as fruit, leaves provide a food source for many organisms. Animals that eat leaves are known as folivores. The l eaf is a vital source of energy production for the plant, and plants have evolve d protection against folivores such as tannins, chemicals which hinder the diges tion of proteins and have an unpleasant taste. Some species have cryptic adaptations by which they use leaves in avoiding preda tors. For example, the caterpillars of some leaf-roller moths will create a smal l home in the leaf by folding it over themselves. Some sawflies similarly roll t he leaves of their food plants into tubes. Females of the Attelabidae, so-called leaf-rolling weevils, lay their eggs into leaves that they then roll up as mean s of protection. Other herbivores and their predators mimic the appearance of th e leaf. Reptiles such as some chameleons, and insects such as some katydids, als o mimic the oscillating movements of leaves in the wind, moving from side to sid e or back and forth while evading a possible threat. Bibliography[edit source] Leaves: The formation, charactistics and uses of hundred of leaves in all parts of the world by Ghillean Tolmie Prance. 324 photographic plates in black and whi te, and colour by Kjell B Sandved 256 pages[12] See also[edit source] Cladode - a flattened photsynthetic stem, if very leaf-like then it is called a Phylloclade a stem-like leaf part (synonym: phyllode) Cladophyll Evolution of leaves Leaf Area Index Leaf protein concentrate Leaf sensor a device that measures the moisture level in plant leaves Vernation sprouting of leaves, also the arrangement of leaves in the bud References[edit source] Jump up ^ Haupt, Arthur Wing, Plant morphology. Publisher: McGraw-Hill 1953. Dow nloable from http://www.archive.org/details/plantmorphology00haup ^ Jump up to: a b Mauseth, James D. Botany: An Introduction to Plant Biology. Pu blisher: Jones & Bartlett, 2008 ISBN 978-0763753450 Jump up ^ Willert, Dieter J. von; Eller, Benno M.; Werger, Marinus J. A.; Brinck mann, Enno; Ihlenfeldt, Hans-Dieter: Life Strategies of Succulents in Deserts. P ublisher: Cambridge University Press 1992. ISBN 978-0521244688 Jump up ^ Bayer, M. B. (1982). The New Haworthia Handbook. Kirstenbosch: Nationa l Botanic Gardens of South Africa. ISBN 0-620-05632-0. Jump up ^ Marloth, Rudolf. The Flora of South Africa 1932 Pub. Cape Town: Darter B ros. London: Wheldon & Wesley. Jump up ^ James, Shelley A., Bell, David T. ; Influence of light availability on leaf structure and growth of two Eucalyptus globulus ssp. globulus provenances; Tree Physiology, Volume20, Issue15, Pp. 1007-1018. Jump up ^ Couder, Y.; Pauchard, L.; Allain, C.; Adda-Bedia, M.; Douady, S. (1 Ju ly 2002). "The leaf venation as formed in a tensorial field". The European Physi cal Journal B 28 (2): 135 138. doi:10.1140/epjb/e2002-00211-1. Jump up ^ Corson, Francis; Adda-Bedia, Mokhtar; Boudaoud, Arezki (NaN undefined NaN). "In silico leaf venation networks: Growth and reorganization driven by mec hanical forces". Journal of Theoretical Biology 259 (3): 440 448. doi:10.1016/j.jt bi.2009.05.002. Jump up ^ Laguna, Maria F.; Bohn, Steffen; Jagla, Eduardo A.; Bourne, Philip E. (NaN undefined NaN). "The Role of Elastic Stresses on Leaf Venation Morphogenesi s". PLoS Computational Biology 4 (4): e1000055. doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000055 .

Jump up ^ Thomas F. Dring; Marco Archetti; Jim Hardie (2009), "Autumn leaves seen through herbivore eyes" ( Scholar search), Proceedings of the Royal Society B Bi ological Sciences 276 (1654): 121 127, doi:10.1098/rspb.2008.0858, PMC 2614250, PM ID 18782744[dead link] ^ Jump up to: a b Jackson, Benjamin, Daydon; A Glossary of Botanic Terms with th eir Derivation and Accent; Published by Gerald Duckworth & Co. London, 4th ed 19 28 Jump up ^ Published by Thames and Hudson (London) with an ISBN 0-500-54104-3 External links[edit source] Media related to Leaves at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of leaf at Wiktionary Wikisource-logo.svg Ernest Ingersoll (1920). "Leaves". Encyclopedia Americana. VASCULAR PLANT SYSTEMATICS Section B. General Characters and Character States: P osition and Arrangement Science aid: Leaf Leaf structure and transpiration resource for teens. [hide] v t e Botany Subdisciplines of botany Ethnobotany Paleobotany Plant anatomy Plant ecology Plant evo-devo Plant morphol ogy Plant physiology 1859-Martinique.web.jpg Plants Evolutionary history of plants Algae Bryophyte Pteridophyte Gymnosperm Angiosper m Plant parts Flower Fruit Leaf Meristem Root Stem Stoma Vascular tissue Wood Plant cells Cell wall Chlorophyll Chloroplast Photosynthesis Plant hormone Plastid Tannosome Transpiration Plant reproduction Alternation of generations Gametophyte Plant sexual morphology Pollen Pollinatio n Seed Spore Sporophyte Plant taxonomy Botanical name Botanical nomenclature Herbarium IAPT ICN Species Plantarum Glossaries Glossary of botanical terms Glossary of plant morphology Category Portal Categories: LeavesPlant anatomyPlant morphologyPlant physiologyPhotosynthesis Navigation menu Create accountLog inArticleTalkReadEdit sourceView history Search Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Toolbox Print/export Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch nglisc

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