Cell Structure and Function

CELLS ARE THE STARTING POINT

All of the living organisms on Earth are divided in pieces called cells. There are
smaller pieces such as proteins and organelles. There are also larger pieces called
systems and communities. Cells are small compartments that hold all of the biological
equipment necessary to keep an organism alive and successful on Earth.

A main purpose of a cell is to organize. Cells hold a variety of pieces and each
cell has a different set of functions. It is easier for an organism to grow and survive
when cells are present. You could only get to a certain size if you were one cell. Being
one cell you certainly would not have the ability to think, lift objects, and run. Cells
make our life possible.
 The Cell Membrane

*Structure - 2
primary building blocks
include protein (about 60% of the membrane) and lipid, or fat (about 40% of the membrane).
The primary lipid is called phospholipid, and molecules of phospholipid form a 'phospholipid
bilayer' (two layers of phospholipid molecules). This bilayer forms because the two 'ends' of
phospholipid molecules have very different characteristics: one end is polar (or hydrophilic) and
one (the hydrocarbon tails below) is non-polar (or hydrophobic):

*Functions include:
--supporting and retaining the cytoplasm
--being a selective barrier
The cell is separated from its environment and needs to get nutrients in and waste
products out. Some molecules can cross the membrane without assistance, most cannot. Water,
non-polar molecules and some small polar molecules can cross. Non-polar molecules penetrate
by actually dissolving into the lipid bilayer. Most polar compounds such as amino acids, organic
acids and inorganic salts are not allowed entry, but instead must be specifically transported
across the membrane by proteins.
 The Cell Wall
The Cells' First Line of Defense

Overview:
The plant cell wall, is what is called an "extra-cellular matrix" that contains the cell in
one small area, and is what mainly distinguishes plant cells from animal cells.
Structure:
This cell wall, is generally made up of polysaccharides, and in the plants case, usually
cellulose. Cellulose provides a stiff and rigid environment for the cell to live in.
Function:
The cell wall performs a many of the most important functions in the cell overall . The
cell wall provides the protoplast, or living cells, with mechanical protection and a chemically
buffered environment. This function allows the cell to perform homeostasis upon itself, and live
in a natural and contained environment.
The cell wall is a wall that allows for the circulation and distribution of water, minerals,
and other small nutrient molecules into and out of the cell. It provides rigid building blocks
from which stable structures such as leaves and stems can be produced.
Lastly it provides a storage site of regulatory molecules that sense the presence of
pathogenic microbes and control the development of tissues within the cell. The cell wall in
plants also helps to distinguish the plant cell from the animal cell.
 The Cytoplasm

Structure
The cytoplasm consists of water, salt, organic molecules, as well as enzymes which help
catalyze the reactions with the cytoplasm. Due to the fact that the cytoplasm consists of salt, it is
known as a good conductor of electricity. The cytoplasm consists in the inner region of the plasma
membrane and also in the outer region of DNA. In addition to all of these components cytoplasm
holds within "microtubules" (dividers of the cell), also cytoplasm contains another group that are
known as Actin Filaments. Furthermore, the components of cytoplasm help to keep the cell stable.
Function
Cytoplasm functions as a "molecular soup" that holds together all of the cell's organelles,
and divides the organelles within the cell. Cytoplasm is thought to be the "home" of the
cytoskeleton; the cytoskeleton provides movement of the cell as well as its shape through the
"cytoplasmic streaming", when the cytoskeleton moves to push the cell membrane it is then when
the cytoplasm moves and fills the empty space. Proteins that occur in the cytoskeleton help to keep
the shape of the cell, for the proteins are known to be used for "intracellular support".
Also,cytoplasm contains nutrients that have been dissolved and it help for the dissolving of
the waste products. Within the cytoplasm there are also "microtubules" which function as cell
dividers, they are known for "temporary scaffolding"-for the other organelles. Furthermore, the
cytoplasm is composed of components that benefit the cell and keep the organelles separate from
one another.
 The Nucleus and Nucleolus

Structure:
The nucleus is the most obvious organelle in any eukaryotic cell. It is a
membrane-bound organelle and is surrounded by a double membrane. It
communicates with the surrounding cytoplasm via numerous nuclear pores.
Function:
Within the nucleus is the DNA responsible for providing the cell with its unique
characteristics. The prominent structure in the nucleus is the nucleolus. The nucleolus
produces ribosome, which moves out of the nucleus to positions on the rough
endoplasmic reticulum where they are critical in protein synthesis.
The nucleus is of primary importance because it controls all the activities which
take place in the cell. For example, the synthesis of proteins is regulated by the coded
information contained in the chromosomes.
 The Vacuole

Structure:
A vacuole is a membrane-bound sac. Vacuoles tend to be large in plant cells. In
animal cells, vacuoles are generally small.
Function:
In plant cells, vacuoles play a role in turgor pressure. When a plant is well-
watered, water collects in cell vacuoles producing rigidity in the plant. In animal cells
vacuoles play roles in intracellular digestion and the release of cellular waste products.

Mitochondria
Structure:
Mitochondria are membrane-bound organelles, and like the nucleus have a
double membrane. The outer membrane is fairly smooth. But the inner membrane is
highly convoluted, forming folds called cristae. The cristae greatly increase the inner
membrane's surface area. It is on these cristae that food (sugar) is combined with
oxygen to produce ATP - the primary energy source for the cell.
Function:
Mitochondria provide the energy a cell needs to move, divide, produce secretory
products, contract - in short; they are the power centers of the cell. They are about the
size of bacteria but may have different shapes depending on the cell type.

The Ribosome
Structure
Ribosome is made up of proteins and ribonucleic acid (RNA). These molecules are
arranged into two subunits called the large and small subunits. These subunits are attached to
each other and together form the entire ribosome. When viewed through a light microscope the
ribosome appear as dots, they are very small and the subunits can not be seen.
Function
The only function of ribosome is to build proteins. The plan for the protein in the form of
mRNA passes through a groove in the ribosome. The ribosome "reads" the plan and assembles
the proper sequence of amino acids to build the protein.
There are two kinds of ribosome those attached to the endoplasmic reticulum and those
floating in the cell cytoplasm. Attached ribosomes make proteins that are used in the ER or
transported within the ER. Free ribosomes make proteins that are used in the cytoplasm.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

The ER membrane is a continuation of the outer nuclear membrane and its

function suggests just how complex and organized the eukaryotic cell really is.
Structure:
When viewed by electron microscopy, some areas of the endoplasmic reticulum
look "smooth" (smooth ER) and some appear "rough" (rough ER). The rough ER
appears rough due to the presence of ribosome on the membrane surface.
Function:
Smooth and Rough ER also have different functions. Smooth ER is important in
the synthesis of lipids and membrane proteins. Rough ER is important in the synthesis
of other proteins.

Golgi Apparatus
Structure:
The Golgi apparatus is a membrane-bound structure with a single membrane. It
is actually a stack of membrane-bound vesicles .
Function:
The Golgi apparatus is important in packaging macromolecules for transport
elsewhere in the cell. The stack of larger vesicles is surrounded by numerous smaller
vesicles containing those packaged macromolecules. The enzymatic or hormonal
contents of lysosomes, peroxisomes and secretory vesicles are packaged in
membrane-bound vesicles at the periphery of the Golgi apparatus.

Lysosomes
Structure:

Lysosomes are a variety of small membrane-bound organelles that differ primarily in

their contents.

Function:

Lysosomes (common in animal cells but rare in plant cells) contain hydrolytic enzymes
necessary for intracellular digestion. In white blood cells that eat bacteria, lysosome contents
are carefully released into the vacuole around the bacteria and serve to kill and digest those
bacteria. Uncontrolled release of lysosome contents into the cytoplasm can also cause cell
death (necrosis).

The Centrosome and the Centrioles

ANIMAL CELL CENTROSOME

Structure:
The centrosome, also called the "microtubule organizing center", is an area in the
cell where microtubles are produced. Within an animal cell centrosome there is a pair
of small organelles, the centrioles, each made up of a ring of nine groups of
microtubules. There are three fused microtubules in each group. The two centrioles are
arranged such that one is perpendicular to the other.
Function:
During animal cell division, the centrosome divides and the centrioles replicate
(make new copies). The result is two centrosomes, each with its own pair of centrioles.
The two centrosomes move to opposite ends of the nucleus, and from each
centrosome, microtubules grow into a "spindle" which is responsible for separating
replicated chromosomes into the two daughter cells.

The Chloroplast
Structure:
Chloroplasts are specialized organelles found in all higher plant cells. These
organelles contain the plant cell's chlorophyll, hence provide the green color. They
have a double outer membrane.
Function:
The chlorophyll present in the chloroplast traps sunlight and converts light energy
into chemical energy. This process is called photosynthesis which enables green plants
to make their own food.