PN - Junction Diode Characteristics: S.No Name of The Equipment/ Component Specifications Quantity

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS LAB

72
1. PN - JUNCTION DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
Aim:
a) To Plot V-I characteristics of PN junction diode both in
i) Forward Bias
ii) Reverse Bias.
b) To calculate the Forward Static and dynamic resistance of the diode at a
particular operating point.

Apparatus Required:
S.No
Name of the
Equipment/ Component
Specifications Quantity
1 Diode 1N4001
V
R
(max)=1000V
I
R
(max)=50mA
1
2 Resistor 1K
Power rating=0.5w
Carbon type
1
3 Regulated power Supply 0-30V,1A 1
4 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 20MHz 1
5 Voltmeter 0-1V, 0-10V 1
6 Ammeter 0-100mA, 0-30A 1

Theory:
A diode conducts in forward bias (when anode is positive with respect to cathode).It
does not conduct in reverse bias. When diode is forward biased the barrier potential
at the junction reduces. The majority carries then diffuse across the junction. This
causes the current to flow through the diode. In reverse bias, the barrier potential
increase, and almost no current can flow through the diode.
From the forward characteristics at a given operating point we can determine the
static resistance R
d
and dynamic resistance r
d
of the diode. The static resistance is
defined as ratio of the dc voltage to dc current. It is given by
R
d
= V / I
The dynamic resistance is the ratio of a small change in voltage to the corresponding
change in current. It is given by
r
d
= V / I

73

Circuit Diagram:

Fig A: Forward Bias Fig B: Reverse Bias

Procedure:
a) Forward Bias:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig A.
2. Apply the supply voltage, V
IN
in steps of 0.5V from 0V to 6V.
3. Measure the voltage, V across the diode from voltmeter and current I
through the diode from ammeter for different steps of applied voltage, V
IN.

4. Draw a graph between the voltage, V and current, I.
5. At suitable operating-point, calculate the static and dynamic resistances of
the diode.

b) Reverse Bias:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig B.
IN
in steps of 0.5V from 0V to 6V.
3. Measure the voltage, V across the diode from voltmeter and current, I through
the ammeter for different steps of applied voltage, V
IN.

4. Draw a graph between the voltage V and current I.

74

Tabular Forms:
a) Forward Bias:
S. No.
Applied
voltage,
V
IN
(volts)
Diode Voltage
V (Volts)
Diode Current
I (mA )
1 0 0 0
2 0.5 0.34 0
3 1 0.5 0
4 1.5 0.56 1
5 2 0.59 12
6 3 0.60 25
7 4 0.61 35
8 6 0.64 45

b) Reverse Bias:

S.NO
Applied voltage,
V
IN
(Volts)
Diode Voltage
V (Volts)
Diode Current
I(A)
1 0 0 0
2 0.5 0.5 3
3 1 1 6
4 1.5 1.5 8
5 2 2 10
6 3 2.5 16
7 4 3.5 20
8 6 5.5 30
75

Model Graph:

Fig C: VI - Characteristics
Calculations:
1. Static Resistance, R
d
= V / I= 82.43.
2 .Dynamic Resistance, r
d
= V / I = 17.
Precautions:
1. Connections must be done very carefully.
2. Readings should be noted without parallax error.
3. The applied voltage, current should not exceed the maximum rating of the diode.
Result:
The V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode is verified.
Inference:
The cut-in voltage observed in forward bias is 0.64V for the given diode.

Questions & Answers:
1. Define Cut-in voltage of PN junction diode.
A. The minimum forward voltage at which the diode starts conduction.
2. List the applications of PN-junction diode.
A. Switch, rectifier.
3. Give typical values of cut-in voltage for both Germanium and Silicon.
A. Germanium=0.3V, Silicon =0.7V.
76
2. ZENER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
Aim:
To plot the V-I characteristics of Zener diode in a) Forward bias b) Reverse bias
Apparatus Required:

Theory:
A PN junction diode does not conduct when reverse biased. But if reverse voltage is
increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting heavily. This voltage is called
break down voltage. High current through the diode can permanently damage it. But
the zener diode in reverse bias maintains almost constant voltage across its
terminals whatever may be the input voltage and current through it. So a zener diode
is a PN-junction diode specially made to work in break down region. It is used in
voltage regulators.
Circuit Diagram:

Fig A: Forward Bias Fig B: Reverse Bias
S. No Name of the
1 Zener Diode( BZ 7.5) V
Z
= 7.5V 1
2 Resistor 1K Power rating=0.5w
Carbon type
1
3 Dual Regulated power supply 0-30V,1A 1
4 Voltmeters 0-1V, 0-10V 1
5 Ammeter 0-25mA 1
77
Procedure:
a) Forward Bias:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig A.
IN
in steps of 0V up to 10V.
3. Measure the voltage across the diode, V from voltmeter and current, I
through the ammeter for different steps of applied Voltage, V
IN
.
4. Draw a graph between the voltage, V and the current, I.
5. At suitable operating point, calculate the static and dynamic
Resistances of the diode.

b) Reverse Bias:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig B.
IN
from 0V up to 30V.
3. Measure the voltage across the diode, V from volt meter and current,
through the ammeter for different steps of applied voltage,
V
IN.

4. Draw a graph between the voltage ,V and current ,I

Tabular Forms:
a) Forward Bias:

S.No
Applied voltage
V
IN
(Volts)

Diode Voltage
V (V)
Diode Current
I(mA)
1 1 0.69 0.5
2 2 0.73 1.25
3 3 0.74 2.25
4 4 0.75 3.25
5 5 0.76 4.25
6 6 0.77 5.25
7 7 0.77 6.25
8 8 0.77 9.25
9 9 0.78 9.5
10 10 0.85 11
78
b) Reverse Bias:

Model Graph:

Fig C: VI - Characteristics
Precautions:
1. Connections must be given very carefully.
2. Readings should be noted without any parallax error.
3. The applied voltage, current should not exceed the maximum ratings of
the zener diode.
S.No
Applied voltage
V
IN
(Volts)

Diode Voltage
V(V)
Diode Current
I(mA)
1 0 0 0
2 1 2.06 0
3 2 3.04 0
4 4 4.1 0
5 5 6.12 2
6 10 6.23 3
7 15 6.24 4
8 20 6.25 5
9 25 6.26 6
10 30 6.27 7
79

Result:
The V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode is verified.

Inference:
The breakdown voltage observed in reverse bias is 6.27V for the given zener diode.
It provides Constant Voltage by entering into the breakdown region.

1. Define Reverse Break down voltage.
A. The maximum reverse voltage at which the junction breaks down and sudden
raise in current occurs.
2. List the Applications of Zener diode.
A. Constant voltage source, Voltage regulator.

80

3. COMMON BASE TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS

Aim:
1. To plot the input and output static characteristics of transistor in common
base configuration.
2. To calculate the input dynamic resistance from the input characteristics and
output dynamic resistance from the output characteristics of the given
transistor.

Apparatus required:
S.No Name of the
Equipment/Component
1 Transistor BC107 I
cmax
=100mA
P
D
=300mw
V
ceo
=45V
V
beo
=50V
1
2 Resistors 1K,100 Power rating=0.5w
Carbon type
1
3 Regulated Power Supply 0-30V,1A 1
5 Ammeters 0-10mA 2

Theory:
In common base configuration, the base is common to both input and output. For
normal operation the BaseEmitter junction is forward biased and base collector
junction is reverse biased .The input characteristic are plotted between I
E
and V
EB

keeping the voltage V
CB
constant. This characteristic is very similar to that of a
forward biased diode. The input dynamic resistance is calculated using the formula
r
i
= V
EB
/ I
E
at constant V
CB.

The output characteristics are plotted between I
C
and V
CB
keeping I
E
constant. These
curves are almost horizontal. The output dynamic resistance is given by
r
o
= V
CB
/ I
C
at constant I
E.

At a given operating point, current gain can be defined as follows
Current gain, = I
C
/ I
E
at constant V
CB.
81

Circuit Diagram:

Fig A: Transistor Common Base Configuration

Procedure:
a) Input Characteristics:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig 1.
2. Keep the voltage V
CB
as constant at 1V by varying V
CC.

3. Vary the input voltage, V
EE
in steps of 1V from 0V to 10V.
4. Measure the voltage, V
BE
from voltmeter and current, I
E
through the
ammeter for different values of input voltages.
5. Repeat the step 3and 4 for V
CE
values of 5V and 10V.
6. Draw input static characteristics for tabulated values.

b) Output Characteristics:
1. Fix input emitter current, I
E
at constant value say at 0, 2 and 3mA
respectively.
2. Vary the output voltage, V
CC
in steps of1V from 0V to10V.
CB
from voltmeter and current I
C
through the
4. Repeat above steps 2and 3 for various values of different values of I
E.

5. Draw output static characteristics for tabulated values.
6. At suitable V
CB
, calculate the value of .

82

Tabular Forms:
V
CB
= 1V V
CB
= 5V V
CB
= 10V
S.No

Applied
Voltage
V
EE
(V)
V
BE
(V) I
E
(mA) V
BE
(V) I
E
mA) V
BE
(V) I
E
(mA)
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 1 0.4 0 0.4 0 0.28 0
3 2 0.52 0.4 0.53 0.5 0.31 0.4
4 3 0.62 1.3 0.61 1.6 0.33 1.1
5 4 0.65 2.3 0.63 2.3 0.34 2.1
6 5 0.72 3.3 0.64 3.3 0.35 3.1
7 6 0.73 4.2 0.65 4.2 0.35 3.6
8 7 0.74 5.2 0.66 5.2 0.36 4.6
9 8 0.75 8.1 0.68 6.2 0.36 5.4
10 9 0.76 7.1 0.7 7.2 0.36 5.2
11 10 0.76 8.0 0.7 8.0 0.38 6.8

I
E
= 0mA I
E
= 2mA I
E
= 3mA
S.No

Applied
Voltage
V
CC
(V)
V
CB
(V) I
C
(mA) V
CB
(V) I
C
(mA) V
CB
(V) I
C
(mA)
1 0 -0.44 0 -0.68 0 -0.7 0
2 1 -0.44 1.5 -0.68 1.7 -0.7 1.8
3 2 0.55 1.5 -0.56 2.4 -0.68 2.5
4 3 1.43 1.5 -0.39 2.4 -0.64 3.2
5 4 2.43 1.5 1.44 2.4 0.02 3.6
6 5 3.51 1.5 2.44 2.4 0.92 3.6
7 6 4.50 1.5 3.38 2.4 1.95 3.6
8 7 5.54 1.5 4.36 2.4 2.82 3.6
9 8 6.52 1.5 5.38 2.4 3.64 3.6
10 9 7.56 1.5 6.45 2.4 4.69 3.6
11 10 8.51 1.5 7.49 2.4 5.69 3.6

83

Model graphs:

Fig B: Input Characteristics Fig C: Output Characteristics

Model Calculations:
r
i
= V
BE
/ I
E
at V
CB
constant = 0.06/0.5X10
-3
=120
Output dynamic resistance r
o
= V
CE
/ I
C
at I
E
constant
= 0.625/4X10
-3
=156
Current gain, = I
C
/ I
B
at V
CB
constant =1.8/2=0.9
Result:
The CB Characteristics are observed and its characteristics were plotted. The input
and output dynamic resistances and current gain are calculated.

Inferences:
It is observed from the input characteristics that as V
CB
increases, the curves are
shifted towards left side.

1. Give collector current equation in CB configuration
A. I
C =
- I
E
+I
CBO
2. Give the applications of Transistor
A. Switch, Amplifier
84

4. COMMON EMITTER TRANSISTOR
CHARACTERISTICS
Aim:
1. To plot the input and output static characteristics.
2. To calculate the input dynamic resistance from the input characteristics
and output dynamic resistance and current gain from the output
characteristics of the given transistor.

Apparatus Required:
S.No
Name of the
Equipment/Component
1 Transistor (BC 107)
I
cmax
=100mA
P
D
=300mW
V
ceo
=45V
V
beo
=50V
1
2 Resistors-39K,1K
Power rating=0.5W
Carbon type
1
4 Volt meters 0-1V, 0-10V 1
5 Ammeters 0-300A, 0-10mA 1

Theory:
In common emitter configuration the emitter is common to both input and output.
For normal operation the Base-Emitter junction is forward biased and base-
collector junction is reveres biased .The input characteristics are plotted between
I
B
and V
BE
keeping the voltage V
CE
constant. This characteristic is very similar to
that of a forward biased diode. The input dynamic resistance is calculated using a
r
i
= V
BE
/ I
B
at constant V
CE.

The output characteristics are plotted between I
C
and V
CE
keeping I
B
constant.
These curves are almost horizontal. The output dynamic resistance is given by,
r
o
= V
CE
/ I
C
at constant I
B.

At a given operating point, we define DC and AC current gains (beta) as follows
Current gain

= I
C
/ I
B
at constant V
CE.

85

Circuit diagram:

Fig A: Transistor Common Emitter Configuration

Procedure:
2. Keep the voltage V
CE
as constant at 2V by varying V
CC
.
3. Vary the input voltage, V
BB
in steps of 1V from 0V to 10V.
BE
from voltmeter and current, I
B
through the
5. Repeat the step 3 and 4 for V
CE
values of 5V and 10V.
6. Draw input static characteristics for tabulated values.
7. At suitable operating point, calculate input dynamic resistance.
1. Fix input base current, I
B
at constant value say at 10A.
2. Vary the output voltage, V
CC
in steps of 1V from 0V up to10V.
CE
from voltmeter and current I
C
through the
ammeter for different values.
4. Repeat above steps 2and 3 for various values of I
B
=20A and 30A.
5. Draw output static characteristics for tabulated values.

86
Tabular forms:
V
CE
= 2V V
CE
= 5V V
CE
= 10V
S. No

Applied
Voltage
V
BB
(V)
V
BE
(V) I
B
(A) V
BE
(V) I
B
(A) V
BE
(V) I
B
(A)
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 0.2 0.258 0 0.279 0 0.231 0
3 0.4 0.461 35 0.460 45 0.474 40
4 0.6 0.562 60 0.620 60 0.592 60
5 0.8 0.609 90 0.629 90 0.620 90
6 1.0 0.625 110 0.670 110 0.662 110
7 2.0 0.648 140 0.679 140 0.682 140
8 3.0 0.654 160 0.681 160 0.692 160
9 4.0 0.669 190 0.684 185 0.724 190
10 5.0 0.690 210 0.689 210 0.726 218


I
B
= 10A I
B
= 20A I
B
= 30A
S. No

Applied
voltage
Vcc (V)
V
CE
(V) I
C
(mA) V
CE
(V) I
C
(mA) V
CE
(V) I
C
(mA)
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 0.2 0.02 0 0.02 0 0.02 0
3 0.4 0.06 0 0.05 0 0.04 0
4 0.6 0.08 1.0 0.08 2.2 0.05 2.6
5 0.7 0.1 3.2 0.09 4.5 0.06 4.6
6 0.8 0.12 5.0 0.1 6.2 0.07 6.5
7 1.0 0.21 6.2 0.15 7.0 0.12 7.5
8 2.0 0.31 6.5 0.18 7.5 0.17 7.8
9 3.0 0.51 6.7 0.29 7.7 0.28 9.9
10 4.0 0.68 6.8 0.34 8.5 0.33 10.0
11 5.0 0.88 6.9 0.49 8.9 0.39 10.5

87

Model graphs:

Fig B: Input Characteristics Fig C: Output Characteristics

Calculations:
Input Resistance, r
i
= V
BE
/ I
B
at V
CE
constant
= (0.654-0.647) / (90-30) X 10
-6

= 116.
Output dynamic resistance, r
o
= V
CE
/ I
C
at I
B
constant
= (0.9-0.15) / (9.25-7.2) X10
-3

= 365.85.
Current gain,

= I
C
/ I
B
at V
CE
constant
= (8.8-6.8)10
-3
/10X10
-6

= 200
Precautions:
2. Readings should be noted without parallax error
3. The applied voltage, current should not exceed the maximum rating of the
given transistor.

88
Result:
Input and output characteristics are observed for the given transistor in
common emitter configuration. The input resistance, output resistance and the
current gain are calculated.

Inference:
It is observed from the input characteristics that as V
CE
increases, the curves are
shifted towards right side. This is due to the Early effect.

1. List various operating regions of Transistor
A. Active region, cut-off region, and saturation region.
2. List various biasing circuits
A. Fixed bias, collector to base bias, and self bias.
3. Give Transistor current equation in CE configuration
A. I
C
= I
B
+ (1+) I
CEO.

89
5. HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
Aim:
To observe the working of half wave rectifier with and without filter & calculate its
ripple factor.

Apparatus Required:
S.No Name of the Equipment/
component
1 Transformer 6-0-6V,500mA 1
2 Resistor(1K) Power rating=0.5W
Carbon type
1
3 Diode(1N4001 or 1N4007) V
R
(max)=1000V
I
R
(max)=50mA
1
4 Capacitor(1000F/25V) Electrolytic type,
Voltage rating= 1.6v
1
5 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 20MHz 1
6 Digital Multimeter 4 digit

1

Theory:
The ac voltage across the secondary winding of the transformer changes polarity
after every half cycle of ac input voltage. The diode is forward biased and hence it
conducts current. During the negative half cycle of input ac voltage, the diode is
reverse biased and it conducts no current. In this way, the current flowing through the
resistor is in the same direction. Hence DC output is obtained across the resistor.
When a capacitor filter is placed across the rectifier, output is parallel to the load
resistance, the pulsating DC voltage can be made as a pure DC voltage is applied to
the capacitor filter, as the rectifier voltage increases, it charges and supplies current
to the load at the end of the quarter cycle, the capacitor charges to peak value V
m
of
the rectifier voltage. Now the capacitor starts to discharge through load and voltage
across it will decrease very slightly because the next voltage peak comes and
charges the capacitor. This process is repeated and the output waveform is obtained.

90

Circuit Diagram:

Fig A: Half wave Rectifier without Filter

Fig B: Half wave Rectifier with Filter

Procedure:
2. Apply the supply voltage 230V, 50Hz at the primary winding of the
transformer.
3. Connect the CRO at the secondary winding of the transformer and measure
the maximum voltage (V
m
) and time period (T) at the input. Calculate the RMS
input voltage using V
rms
=V
m
/2.
4. Now connect the multimeter at the secondary and measure the rms voltage of
the input signal. The rms voltage measured by both CRO and multimeter
must be same.
5. Now connect the CRO across the load resistor and measure the maximum
voltage, V
m
and time period, T of the output voltage. Calculate the rms and
average (dc) values of the output signal using the formula V
rms
= V
m
/ 2 and
V
dc
=V
avg
= V
m
/ and measure the AC and DC voltages across the load
resistor using multimeter and calculate the ripple factor as r = V
ac
/ V
dc

91
6. calculate the ripple factor using theoretical formula
r = [ [(V
rms
/ V
dc
)
2
1]]
1/2
7. Now close the switch s to connect the capacitor filter across the load
resistor, R
L
then connect the CRO at output terminals and measure the both
ripple AC voltage and DC voltages. Also measure the time period of ripple AC
voltage.
8. Tabulate the values with filter and without filter.
Observations:

Fig C: Input Waveform

Fig D: Output Wave form without filter

Fig E: Output Wave form with filter
92

Tabular form:

With-Out Filter With Filter Half-Wave
Rectifier CRO Multimeter CRO Multimeter
V
ac
(V) 3.08 3.3 0.01 0.01
V
dc
(V) 2.546 2.5 8 7.4
Ripple Factor, r 1.2133 1.32 0.012 0.013

Precautions :
2. Readings should be taken with out any parallax error.
3. The applied voltage and current should not exceed the max ratings of the
diode.

Results:
The input and output wave forms with and without filter are plotted. Ripple factor is
calculated.

Inference:
The ripple factor of half wave rectifier with filter is better compared to with out filter.

1.Give theoretical values for ripple factor and efficiency
A. r=1.21,=40.6%
2.That is the need of a Filter circuit
A. The output of rectifier is not pure DC, to provide that filter circuits are used.

93
6. FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
Aim:
To observe the working of full wave rectifier with and without filter & calculate its
ripple factor
Apparatus Required:
S.No Name of the
1. Diode(1N4001) V
R
(max)=1000V
I
R
(max)=50mA
1
2. Resistor 1K 1
3. Transformer 6-0-6V,500mA 1
4. Capacitor 1000F/25V 1
5. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 20MHz 1
6. Digital Multi meter 4 digit 1

Theory :
In the full wave rectifier circuit the transformer has a center-tap in its secondary
winding. It provides out of phase voltages to the two diodes. During the positive half
cycle the input, the diode D
2
is reverse biased it does not conduct. But diode D
1
is in
forward bias and it conducts. The current flowing through D1 is also passes through
the load resistor, and a voltage is developed across it. During negative half cycle
diode D
2
is forward biased and diode D
1
is reverse biased. Now the current flows
through diode D
2
and load resistor. The current flowing thought the load resistor R
L

passes in the both half cycles. The DC voltage obtained at the output is given by V
dc

= 2V
m
/ . Where V
m
is peak AC voltage between center-tap point and one of the
diodes. It can be proved that the ripple factor of a full- wave rectifier is 0.482.The
output of the full-wave rectifier contains an appreciable amount of AC voltage in
addition to DC voltage. But, the required output is pure DC with out any AC voltage in
it. The AC variation can be filtered by a shunt capacitor filter connected in shunt with
the load. The capacitor offers low impedance path to the AC components of current.
Most of the AC current passes through the shunt capacitor. All the DC current passes
through the load resistor. The capacitor tries to maintain the output voltage constant
at V
m
.
94

Circuit Diagrams:

Fig A: Full wave Rectifier without Filter

Fig B: Full wave Rectifier with Filter

Procedure :
2. Apply the supply voltage 230V, 50Hz at the primary winding of the
transformer.
3. Connect the CRO at the secondary winding of the transformer and measure
the maximum voltage (V
m
) and time period (T) at the input. Calculate the RMS
input voltage using V
rms
=V
m
/2.
4. Now connect the multimeter at the secondary and measure the rms voltage of
the input signal. The rms voltage measured by both CRO and multimeter
must be same.
5. Now connect the CRO across the load resistor and measure the maximum
voltage, V
m
and time period, T of the output voltage. Calculate the rms and
average (dc) values of the output signal using
V
rms
= V
m
/ 2 and V
dc
=V
avg
= 2V
m
/ .
95

6. Measure the AC and DC voltages across the load resistor using multimeter
and calculate the ripple factor as r = V
ac
/ V
dc
7. While finding ripple factor using CRO, use r =[ [(V
rms
/ V
dc
)
2
1]]
1/2

8. Compare the measured ripple factor value with theoretical value.
9. Now close the switch s to connect the capacitor filter across the load
resistor, R
L
then connect the CRO at output terminals and measure the both
ripple AC voltage and DC voltages. Calculate the ripple factor. Also measure
the time period T of ripple AC voltage.
10. Tabulate the values with filter and without filter.
Observations :

Fig C : Input Waveform

Fig D: Output Wave Form Without Filter

Fig E: Output Wave form with filter

96

Tabular form:

With Out Filter With Filter Full-Wave
Rectifier CRO Multimeter CRO Multimeter
V
rms
(V) 6.36 6.38 0.34 0.32
V
dc
(V) 5.72 13.29 10 9.1
Ripple Factor, r 0.4808 0.4808 0.034 0.035

Precautions :
2. Readings should be taken with out any parallax error.
3. The applied voltage and current should not exceed the maximum ratings of
the diode.

Result:
Input and output waveform with and without filter of a full wave rectifiers are
observed. The ripple factor with and with out filter are calculated.

Inference:
The ripple factor of Full wave rectifier with filter is less compared to that with out filter.

1.What are the limitations of half wave rectifier
A. Poor efficiency, less ripple factor.
2. Give theoretical values for ripple factor and efficiency of center tapped
full wave rectifier.
A. r=0.48,=81.2%

97
7. FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS
Aim:
1. To plot the drain and transfer characteristics.
2. To calculate the drain dynamic resistance and mutual conductance of the
given FET.
Apparatus Required:
S. No Name of the
Component/Equipment
1 Diode 1N4001 V
R
(max.)=1000V
I
R
(max.)=50mA
1
2 FET BFW10 V
DS
(max.)= 30V
V
GS
(max.)= -30V
I
G
(max.)= 10mA
P(max.)= 300mW
1
3 Resistor 100 Power rating=0.5W
Carbon type
1
4 Regulated power supply 0 30V, 1 A 1
5 Voltmeters 0-10V 2
6 Ammeter 0-15mA 1
7 Digital Multimeter 4 digit 1

Theory:
Like an ordinary junction transistor, a field effect transistor is also a three terminal
device. It is a unipolar device, because its function depends only up on one type of
carrier. (The ordinary transistor is bipolar, hence it is called bipolar-junction transistor)
Unlike a BJT, a FET has high input impedance. This is a great advantage.
A field effect transistor can be either a JFET or MOSFET. Again a JFET can either
have N-channel or P-channel. An N-channel JFET has an N type semiconductor bar.
The two ends of which the drain and source terminals on the two sides of this bar,
PN junctions are made. These P regions make gates. Usually, these two gates are
connected together to form a single gate. The gate is given a negative bias with
respect to the source. The drain is given positive potential with respect to the source.
In case of a P channel JFET, the terminals of all the batteries are reversed.
98
In this case, PN junction is reverse biased and hence the thickness of the depletion
region increases. As V
GS
is decreased from zero, drain is positive with respect to the
source with V
GS
= 0.Now the majority carriers flow through the Nchannel from
source to drain. Therefore the conventional current flows from drain to source. Since
the current is controlled by only majority carriers, FET is called as a unipolar device.
The drain current I
D
is controlled by the electric field that extends into the channel
due to reverse biased voltage applied to the gate. The drain current depends on the
drain voltage V
DS
and the gate voltage V
GS
. Any of these variables may be fixed and
the relation between the other two are determined when V
DS
= V
P
, I
D
becomes
maximum. When V
DS
is increased beyond V
P
, the length of the pinch off region or
saturation region increases.
The important parameters of a JFET are defined below.
1. Drain dynamic resistance, r
d
= V
DS
/ I
D
at

V
GS
= constant.
2. Mutual conductance = g
m
= I
D
/ V
GS
at

V
DS
=constant
3. Amplification factor = = g
m
/ r
d
= V
DS
/ V
GS
at

I
D
= constant.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig A: FET Characteristics
Procedure:
a) Static Drain Characteristics:

2. First fix V
GS
at some value say 0V. Increase the drain voltage V
D
slowly in
steps. Note drain current for each step. Now change V
GS
to another value
say -1V and repeat the above.
99
3. Plot the drain characteristics.
4. Use the definitions given in brief theory to calculate the FET parameters from
the characteristics.
b) Transfer characteristics:
2. First fix V
DS
at some value say 5V. Increase the gate voltage V
GG
in steps of
0.5V from 0V to 10V. Note drain current for each step. Plot the transfer
characteristics.
Calculations:
1. r
d
= V
DS
/ I
D
at

V
GS
= constant= (1.04-0.77)/(3.78-3)X10
-3
=346
2. = V
DS
/ V
GS
at I
D
= constant = (4.8-0.77)/(2-1) =4.03
3. Mutual conductance = g
m
= I
D
/ V
GS
at

V
DS
=constant
= (3.5-1)X10
-3
/ (3-2)=2.5m
Tabular Forms:
a) Static Drain Characteristics:

V
GS
= 0V V
GS
=-1V Applied
Voltage
V
DD
(V)
V
DS

(V)

I
D

(mA)
V
DS

(V)

I
D

(mA)
0 0 0.03 0.01 0.05
1 0.17 0.78 0.26 0.75
2 0.35 1.54 0.58 1.4
3 0.59 2.4 0.97 2.0
4 0.77 3.0 1.4 2.42
5 1.04 3.78 2.11 2.75
6 1.3 4.4 2.98 2.88
7 1.66 5.02 3.9 2.95
8 2.1 5.56 4.8 3.02
9 2.85 5.86 5.8 3.10
10 3. 4.3 6.32 6.74 3.12
11 4.8 6.34 7.82 3.14
12 5.9 6.35 3.20
100

b) Transfer Characteristics:

Model Graph:

Fig B: Drain Characteristics Fig C: Transfer characteristics

V
DS
= 5 V Applied voltage
V
GG
(V) V
GS
(V) I
D
( mA )
0 0 12
1 0.8 9.5
2 1.5 6.5
3 2.8 3
4 3.5 1
5 4.5 0.5
6 5.5 0
7 6.5 0
8 7.5 0
9 8.5 0
10 9.5 0
101

Result:
The drain or output and transfer characteristics are obtained and plotted on the
graph.
Inference:
1. Drain dynamic resistance is observed as 1.35 for the given FET (BFW10).
2. Amplification factor of the given FET (BFW10) is observed as 1.58.


1. FET is voltage controlled device. Justify?
A. The voltage at input terminal controls the output current. Hence FET is called
voltage controlled device.
2. Define Pinch off voltage?
A. The drain source voltage at which the drain current become nearly constant is
called Pinch off voltage.

102

8. MEASUREMENT OF h PARAMETERS

Aim:

To measure h parameters of a transistor in common base and common emitter
configurations.

Apparatus Required:

S. No Name of the
Equipment/Component
1 Regulated power supply 0 30V, 1A 1
2 Transistor BC107 I
cmax
=100mA
P
D
=300mw
V
ceo
=45V
V
beo
=50V
1
3 Resistors 1 K, 39 K,100 Power rating=0.5W
Carbon type
1
5 Ammeters 0-10mA 1

Theory:
Based on the definition of h parameters, the mathematical model for two port
networks known as h parameter model can be developed. If the input current i
1
and
the output voltage V
2
are taken as independent variables, the input voltage V
1
and
the output current i
2
can be written as
V
1
= h
11
i
1
+ h
12
V
2

i
2
= h
21
i
1
+ h
22
V
2

If we consider the Common Base transistor hybrid model, the above equations can
be written as
V
EB
= h
iB
I
E
+ h
rB
V
CB

I
C
= h
fB
I
E
+ h
oB
V
CB

If we consider the Common Emitter transistor hybrid model, the above equations can
be written as
V
BE
= h
iE
I
B
+ h
rE
V
CE

I
C
= h
fB
I
EB
+ h
oE
V
CE

103

Equivalent h parameter model of transistor:

Fig A: Common Base transistor model

Fig B: Common Emitter transistor model
Procedure:
From the characteristics of common base transistor, the h parameters can
be calculated by using the following:
Input impedance = h
iB
= V
EB
/ I
E
at constant V
CB

Output admittance = h
oB
=

I
C
/ V
CB
at constant I
E

Forward current gain = h
fB
= I
C
/ I
E
at constant V
CB

Reverse voltage gain = h
rB
= V
EB
/ V
CB
at constant I
E

From the characteristics of common emitter transistor, h parameters can be
calculated by using the following:
Input impedance = h
iE
= V
BE
/ I
B
at constant V
CE

oE
=

I
C
/ V
CE
at constant I
B

104
fE
= I
C
/ I
B
at constant V
CE

rE
= V
BE
/ V
CE
at constant I
B

Model Graph & Calculations:
a) Common Base Transistor:
To calculate input impedance,

Fig C: Input characteristics

Input impedance = h
iB
= V
EB
/ I
E
at constant V
CB

= (0.61 0.27) / (1.5 0.5) X 10
-3

at constant V
CB
= 10V
= 340
To calculate output admittance,

Fig D: Output characteristics
oB
=

I
C
/ V
CB
at constant I
E

= (1.2 0.8) X 10
-3
/ (1.32 (- 0.67)) at I
E
= 2mA
= 0.2X10
-3
A/V.
105
To calculate forward current gain from output characteristics,

Fig E: Calculation of forward current gain
fB
= I
C
/ I
E
at constant V
CB

= - (3.1 1.7) X10
-3
/ (4 2) X 10
-3
at V
CB
= 0.4V
= -0.7
To calculate reverse voltage gain from input characteristics,

Fig F: Calculation of reverse voltage gain

rB
= V
EB
/ V
CB
at constant I
E

= (0.577 0.576) / (10 5) at I
E
= 0.5mA
= 0.2 X10
-3
.

106
b) Common Emitter Transistor:

To calculate input impedance,

Fig G: Input characteristics
Input impedance = h
iE
= V
BE
/ I
B
at constant V
CE

= (0.711 0.62) / (80.1 0.2) X10
-6
at V
CE
=0V
= 1.13 K.

To calculate output admittance,

Fig H: Output characteristics

oE
=

I
C
/ V
CE
at constant I
B

= (6.8 6.4) X10
-3
/ (0.6 0.3) at I
B
= 30 A
= 1.3mA/V

107
To calculate forward current gain from output characteristics,

Fig I: Calculation of forward current gain
fE
= I
C
/ I
B
at constant V
CE

= (9.5 9) X10
-3
/ (30 20) X10
-6
at V
CE
= 0.4V
= 50.

To calculate reverse voltage gain from input characteristics,

Fig J: Calculation of reverse voltage gain
rE
= V
BE
/ V
CE
at constant I
B

= (0.72 0.7) / (4 2) at I
B
= 20 A
= 0.01

108
Precautions:
given transistor.
Result:
Thus hparameters of transistor in common base and common emitter configurations
are measured from their input & output characteristics.

Inference:
It is observed that the h-parameters are different for same type of transistor.

1. List the advantages of h parameters?
A. h parameters are real values.
Calculation of h- parameters is easy compared to Z parameters, ABCD
parameters etc.

109

9. COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER
Aim:
To plot the frequency response characteristics of CE amplifier

Apparatus Required:
S.No Name of the
Component/ Equipment
1 CE Amplifier Circuit Board ____ 1
3 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 20 MHz 1
4 Signal Generator 0-1MHz 1

Theory:
Common Emitter amplifier has the emitter terminal as the common terminal between
input and output terminals. The emitter base junction is forward biased and collector
base junction is reverse biased, so that transistor remains in active region throughout
the operation. When a sinusoidal AC signal is applied at input terminals of circuit
during positive half cycle the forward bias of base emitter junction V
BE
is increased
resulting in an increase in I
B
, The collector current I
c
is increased by times the
increase in I
B,
V
CE
is correspondingly decreased. i.e output voltage gets decreased.
Thus in a CE amplifier a positive going signal is converted into a negative going
output signal i.e..180
o
phase shift is introduced between output and input signal and
it is an amplified version of input signal.
Characteristics of CE amplifier

1. Large current gain (A
I
)
2. Large voltage gain (A
V
)
3. Large power gain(A
P
=A
I
.A
V
)
4. Phase shift of 180
o

5. Moderate input & output impedances.
The voltage gain of the amplifier is given calculate the gain in by
Gain = A
V
= 20 Log V
O
/ V
S

Where, V
o
is the output voltage.
V
S
is input voltage of applied AC signal.
110
Circuit Diagram:

Fig A: CE Amplifier

Procedure:
CC
=12V.
3. Now feed an ac signal V
S
of 20mV peak to peak at the input of the
amplifier, vary the frequency of input signal ranging from 10HZ to 1MHZ
and measure the amplifier output voltage V
0
.
4. Now calculate the gain in dB for various input signal frequencies.
5. Draw a graph with frequency on X-axis and gain dBs on Y-axis. From
graph, calculate bandwidth.

111

Tabular form: Input voltage, V
I
=20mVpeak-peak

S.No
Input Frequency
(HZ)
Output Voltage,
V
o
(V)
Gain = A
V
=20 log (V
o
/ V
I
)
(dB)
1 20 0.1 13.97
2 50 0.15 17.50
3 70 0.2 20.00
4 300 0.3 23.52
5 500 0.75 31.48
6 1K 1.2 35.56
7 10K 6.1 49.68
8 50K 6.1 49.68
9 70K 6.1 49.68
10 100K 6.1 49.68
11 200K 6.1 49.68
12 500K 6.1 49.68
13 1M 6.1 49.68
14 10M 5.6 48.94
15 200M 1.2 35.56
16 300M 1.0 33.97

Model graph:

Observations:
Maximum gain (A
v
) =49.68dB
Lower cutoff frequency (F
L
) =5.5 KHz
Upper cutoff frequency (F
H
) =45MHz
Band width (B.W) = (F
H
F
L
) = 38.9MHz
Gain bandwidth product = A
v
(B.W) =2.23GHz.
112

Precautions:
2. Readings should be noted without parallax error
given transistor.

Result:
The frequency response of characteristics of CE Amplifier are verified and drawn.

Inference:
The bandwidth of given CE amplifier is observed as 38.9MHz.

1. What are the characteristics of C.E amplifier?
a. 1.Moderate input and output impedances.
2. High voltage gain.
3. High current gain.
4. High power gain.
2. What is the main application of CE amplifier?
a. It is mostly used as a Audio Signal Voltage Amplifier.

3. What is meant by Bandwidth of an amplifier?
a. The range of frequency over which gain is equal to or greater than 70.7% of
maximum gain.
4. Find the phase relation b/w input and output?
a. The phase relation b/w the input and output voltage can be determined when V
i

increases in positive direction. It increases the base emitter voltage V
BE
. An
increase in V
BE
raises the level of I
C
. There by increasing the drop across R
C
.
V
CC
= V
O
+I
C
R
C
=> V
O
=V
CC
-I
C
R
C
Thus as V
i
increase in positive direction, V
C
goes in negative direction and vice
versa. This shows that amplifier o/p voltage is 180
o
out of phase with input
voltage.

113
10. CC AMPLIFIER
Aim:
To plot the frequency response characteristics of CC amplifier.

Apparatus Required:
S. No Name of the
Component/Equipment
1. CC Amplifier Circuit Board ___ 1
2. Signal Generator 0-1MHz 1
3. Regulated Power Supply 0-30V, 1A 1
4. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 20 MHz 1

Theory:
The CC amplifier can also be called as emitter follower. This amplifier has a voltage
gain which is very close to unity. The voltage drop across the emitter resistor may be
either positive or negative depending on whether a PNP or NPN transistor is used.
The input resistance of emitter follower is high (tens of kilo ohms to hundreds of kilo
ohms). The output resistance of emitter follower is low (about 25 ohms). This circuit
performs impedance transformation over a wide range of frequencies with voltage
gain close to unity. In addition to this, emitter follower increases the power level of
the signal.

114
Circuit Diagram:

Fig A: CC Amplifier
Procedure:
2. Apply the supply voltage , V
CC
=12V
3. Now feed an ac signal V
S
of 40mV peak to peak at the input of the
amplifier, vary the frequency of input signal ranging from 10HZ to 1MHZ
and measure the amplifier output voltage V
0
.
4. Now calculate the gain in dBs at various input signal frequencies
5. Draw a graph with frequency in Hz on X-axis and gain in dB on Y-axis.
From graph calculate bandwidth.

115
Tabular Form: Input voltage, V
S
=40mV peak-peak
S. No
Input Frequency
(Hz)
Output
Voltage
Vo (mV)
Gain= A
V
=20log(V
o
/V
S
)
(dB)
1 10 14 -9.11
2 15 20 -6.02
3 20 28 -3.09
4 50 32 -1.93
5 100 32 -1.93
6 500 32 -1.93
7 1K 32 -1.93
8 5K 32 -1.93
9 10K 32 -1.93
10 50K 32 -1.93
11 100K 28 -3.09
12 200K 14 -9.11

Model graph:

Observations:
Maximum gain (A
v
) =-1.93dB
L
) =16.5Hz
H
) =140K

Hz
H
F
L
) = 140 KHz-16.5 Hz = 139.98 KHz
v
(B.W) = 139.98X16.5=270.16KdBHz.
116

Precautions:
given transistor.

Result:
The frequency response of CC Amplifier characteristics was obtained and bandwidth
is calculated.

Inference:
The bandwidth of given CC amplifier is observed as 139.98 KHz.

1. What is other name of common collector amplifier?
A. Emitter follower.
2. What are the features of CC amplifier?
A. a) High input impedance.
b) Low output impedance.
c) Unity voltage gain & High current gain.
3. What are the applications of CC amplifier?
A. a) Buffer amplifier for impedance matching.
b) Used in sweep circuits.

117
11. RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER
Aim:
To plot the frequency response characteristics of two stages RC coupled
amplifier.
Apparatus Required:
S. No Name of the
Specifications Quantity.
1 Two stage RC Coupled
Amplifier Circuit Board
___ 1
3 Signal Generator 0 -1MHZ 1

Theory:

To improve gain characteristics of an amplifier, two stages of CE amplifier can be
cascaded. While cascading, the output of one stage is connected to the input of
another stage. If R and C elements are used for coupling, that circuit is named as RC
coupled amplifier.

Each stage of the cascade amplifier should be biased at its designed level. It is
possible to design a multistage cascade in which each stage is separately biased
and coupled to the adjacent stage using blocking or coupling capacitors. In this circuit
each of the two capacitors C
1
& C
2
isolate the separate bias network by acting as
open circuits to dc and allow only signals of sufficient high frequency to pass through
cascade.

118

Circuit Diagram:

Fig A: Two stage RC Coupled Amplifier
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Apply supply voltage, Vcc= 12V.
3. Now feed an ac signal of 20mV peak-peak at the input of the amplifier
with different frequencies ranging from 20Hz to 1MHz and measure
the amplifier output voltage, V
o
.
4. Now calculate the gain in dB for various input signal frequencies using
A
V
= 20 log
10
(V
0
/V
S
).
5. Draw a graph with frequencies on X- axis and gain in dB on Y- axis.

119
Tabular Form:
Input voltage, V
S
= 20mV peak-peak

S. No
Input Frequency
(Hz)
Output
Voltage
peak-peak
Vo (mV)
Gain,
Av = 20log(Vo/Vs)
(dB)
1
50 22 0.82
2
100 25.5 02.11
3
200 58 09.24
4
500 152 17.61
5
1K 330 24.34
6 5K 8500 52.56
7
10K 8500 52.56
8
20K 8500 52.56
9 50K 8500 52.56
10 100K 8500 52.56
11
200K 8500 52.56
12
300K 8500 52.56
13
500K 8500 52.56
14
700K 4000 46.02
15
1M 900 33.06
Model Graph:

120
Observations:
Maximum gain (A
v
) = 52.56dB
l
) = 4.5 KHz
H
) =580 KHz
H
F
L
) = 575.5 KHz
v
(B.W) = 30.24M Hz

Precautions:
the given transistor.
Result:
Frequency response of RC Coupled Amplifier Characteristics of was observed.
Inference:
The bandwidth of RC coupled amplifier is large compared to CE amplifier.
1. List different coupling methods
A. a) Direct coupled b) Transformer coupled c) RC coupled
2. Define lower cut-off and upper cut-off frequencies
A. Lower cutoff frequency is defined as the frequency at which magnitude of voltage
gain in low frequency range falls to 1/2 or 0.707 of magnitude of gain in mid
frequency range.
Upper cutoff frequency is defined as the frequency at which magnitude of voltage
gain in high frequency range falls to 1/2 or 0.707 of magnitude of gain in mid
frequency range.
3. Define Band width
A. Bandwidth is defined as difference between upper & lower cutoff frequencies.

121
12. FET AMPLIFIER
Aim:
To observe the frequency response characteristics of a FET amplifier.

Apparatus Required:
S. No Name of the
Component/Equipment
1 FET Amplifier Circuit Board ____ 1
2 Signal Generator 0-1MHz 1
3 Regulated Power Supply 0-30V, 1A 1

Theory:
The FET amplifier uses n-channel field effect transistor. Unlike a bipolar transistor,
the input impedance of FET is very high and it works like a vacuum pentode. The
combination R
S,
C
S
provides self bias. R
G
provides DC path for reverse biasing of
gate source junction. R
d
is the load resistance of the amplifier. Typical values of
components are shown in the figure. From the drain and transfer characteristics of
FET, the drain current of FET is a function of drain to source voltage and gate to
source voltage. The linear small signal equivalent circuit for FET can be drawn
analogous to the BJT. A low frequency model for FET has a Nortons output circuit
with a dependent current generator whose magnitude is proportional to gate to
source voltage.
The proportionality constant is the Transconductance. The output resistance r
d
, the
input resistance between gate and source is infinite, since it is assumed that the
reverse biased gate draws no current. A low frequency model for FET has a
dependent current generator whose magnitude is proportional to the gate to source
voltage. The FET has three parameters: 1) Dynamic drain resistance (R
d
)
2) Amplification factor () and 3) Trans conductance (g
m
)

122
Circuit Diagram:

Fig A: FET Amplifier

Procedure:
2. Apply supply voltage, V
DD
as 12V.
3. Now feed an AC signal 40mV at the input of the amplifier with different
frequencies ranging from 20Hz to 1MHz and measure the amplifier output
voltage V
0
.
4. Now calculate the gain in dB for various input signal frequencies.
5. Draw a graph with frequency in Hz on X- axis and gain in dB on Y- axis.

123
Tabular Form:
Input voltage V
S
= 40 mV.
S.No
Input
frequency (Hz)
Output voltage,V
o

(V)
Gain, A
V
=20 log(V
o
/ V
S
)
(dB)
1 20 0.05 1.9382
2 50 0.1 7.958
3 100 0.15 11.48
4 200 0.35 18.84
5 500 0.35 18.84
6 1K 0.35 18.84
7 3K 0.35 18.84
8 5K 0.35 18.84
9 7K 0.35 18.84
10 10K 0.35 18.84
11 20K 0.35 18.84
12 50K 0.35 18.84
13 90K 0.35 18.84
14 100K 0.35 18.84
15 200K 0.35 18.84
16 500K 0.35 18.84
17 600K 0.3 17.501
18 1M 0.25 15.91

Model Graph:

124

Observations:
Maximum gain (A
v
) =18.84 dB
l
) = 155Hz
H
) =1M

Hz
H
F
L
) = 999.845 KHz
v
(B.W) = 18.84 X 999.845 = 18837.0798KdBHz.

Precautions:
the given transistor.

Result:
The FET Amplifier results are observed practically and theoretically using graph.

Inference:
The bandwidth of given FET amplifier is observed as 499.5 KHz

1. Classify different Amplifiers
A.
a) Common Source amplifier.
b) Common Drain amplifier.
c) Common Gate amplifier.
2. Specify different biasing techniques
A. a. Voltage divider gate biasing.
b. Self biasing.

125
13. WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR
Aim:
To measure the frequency of oscillations of Wien bridge oscillator.

Apparatus Required:

Theory:
The circuit diagram of Wien bridge oscillator is given in figure .The circuit consists of
a two stage RC coupled amplifier which provides a phase shift of 360 or 0. A
balanced bridged is used as the feed back network which has no need to provide any
additional phase shift. The feed back network consists of lead-lag network (R
1
-C
1
and
R
2
-C
2
) and a voltage divider. The leadlag network provides positive feed back to the
input of first stage and the voltage divider provides a negative feed back to the
emitter of Q1.If the bridge is balanced,
R
3
/R
4
=(R
1
-jXc
1
)/(R
2
)(-jX
2
)/(R
2
-jXc
2
)).
Where X
c1
and X
c2
are the reactance of the capacitors.
By simplifying and equating the real and imaginary parts on both sides, we get the
frequency of oscillation as,
f
o
= 1/ ( 2R
1
R
2
C
1
C
2
)
=1/(2RC), if R
1
=R
2
=R
3
and C
1
=C
2
=C.

S. No Name of the
Component/Equipment
1 Transistor( BC107) I
cmax
=100mA
P
D
=300mw
V
ceo
=45V
V
beo
=50V
2
2 Resistors 67.8K,47K,
1.5K,2.2K,330
Power rating=0.5w
Carbon type
Each 2

1
3 Capacitors 10F/ 25V,
47F/ 25V,0.01F,0.1F
Electrolytic type
Each 2
126
The ratio of R
3
to R
4
being greater than 2 will provide a sufficient gain for the circuit to
oscillate at the desired frequency. This oscillator is used in commercial audio signal
generator.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig A: Wien Bridge Oscillator
Procedure:
2. Switch on power supply.
3. Connect the CRO at output of the circuit.
4. Adjust potentiometer for distortion free wave form.
5. Measure the output frequency and amplitude on CRO and compare the
theoretical and practical frequencies.
6. Repeat the procedure for different values of capacitors.

127
Tabular Form:
S. No
Theoretical
Frequency(KHz)
Practical
Frequency(KHz)
% Error
1 7.234 6.982 3.4

Model Graph:

Result:
The frequency of oscillations of Wien Bridge Oscillator are observed.

Inference:
It is observed that the Wien bridge oscillator produces low frequency oscillations at
audio frequencies.

1. Classify oscillators depending on discrete components used
A. RC oscillators, LC oscillators
2. What are the differences between oscillators and amplifiers?
A. Oscillators employs positive feed back, where as amplifiers employs feed back

128
14. RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR
Aim:
To determine the frequency of oscillations of an RC Phase shift oscillator.

Apparatus Required:

Theory:
In the RC phase shift oscillator, the combination RC provides self-bias for the
amplifier. The phase of the signal at the input gets reverse biased when it is amplified
by the amplifier. The output of amplifier goes to a feedback network consists of three
identical RC sections. Each RC section provides a phase shift of 60
0
. Thus a total of
180
0
phase shift is provided by the feedback network. The output of this circuit is in
the same phase as the input to the amplifier. The frequency of oscillations is given by
F=1/2 RC (6+4K)
1/2
Where, R
1
=R
2
=R
3
=R,
C
1
=C
2
=C
3
=C and
K=R
C
/R.

S. No Name of the
Component/Equipment
1 Transistor( BC107) I
cmax
=100mA
P
D
=300mw
V
ceo
=45V
V
beo
=50V
1
2 Resistors -
56K,2.2K,100K,10K
Power rating=0.5w
Carbon type
1
3
3 Capacitors 10F/25V ,0.01F Electrolytic type
Voltage rating=1.6v
2
3
4 Potentiometer 0-10K 1
129

Circuit Diagram:

Fig A. RC Phase shift Oscillator

Procedure:
2. Switch on the power supply.
3. Connect the CRO at the output of the circuit.
4. Adjust the R
E
to get undistorted waveform.
5. Measure the Amplitude and Frequency.
6. Compare the theoretical and practical values.
7. Plot the graph amplitude versus frequency

Theoretical Values:
f = 1 / 2 RC 6+4K
=1 / 2 (10K) (0.01F) 6+4(0.01)
= 647.59Hz

130

Tabular Form:
S.NO
Theoretical
Frequency(Hz)
Practical
Frequency(Hz)
% Error
1 647.59 639.23 1.2

Model Graph:

Result:
The frequency of RC Phase Shift Oscillator is determined.

Inference:
It is observed that the RC phase shift oscillator produces low frequency oscillations at
audio frequencies.

1. Define oscillator
A. The electronic circuit which produces the out put with out applying in put Ac
2. What is BARKHAUSEN CRITERION?
A. IABI=1 and Phase shift=0 or 360 degrees.

131

15. CURRENT SERIES FEED BACK AMPLIFIER
Aim:
To find the gain of the Current Series feed back amplifier with & without
feedback.

Apparatus Required:

Theory:

In Current series feedback amplifier, a feedback voltage is developed which is
proportional to the output current. This is called current feedback even though it is a
voltage that subtracts from the input voltage. One of the most common methods of
applying the current series feedback is to place R
E
between the emitter lead of a
common emitter amplifier and ground.

When R
E
is properly bypassed with a large capacitor C
E
, the output voltage is V
0
and
the voltage gain without feedback is A. Resistor R
E
provides d.c bias stabilization, but
no AC feedback. When the capacitor C
C
is removed, an a.c voltage will be developed
across R
E
due to the emitter current flowing through it and this current is
approximately equal to output collector current. This voltage drop across R
E
will
serve to decrease the input voltage between base and emitter, so that the output
S. No Name of the
1 Transistor BC 107 I
cmax
=100mA
P
D
=300mw
V
ceo
=45V
V
beo
=50V
1
2 Resistor 470,4.7k,10K Power rating=0.5W
Carbon type
1
2
3 Capacitors 0.1F, 1F Electrolytic type,
Voltage rating=0.6V
1
4 Function generator 0 -1MHZ 1
132
voltage will decrease to V
0
I.
The gain of amplifier with negative feedback is now A
F.
With current series feed back both input and output resistances increases.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig A: Current Series Feed Back Amplifier

Procedure:

1. Make sure that the switch S is closed.
2. Apply a sine wave of 40mv peak to peak amplitude at 1 kHz from signal
generator to the input of amplifier circuit.
3. Measure the output amplitude V
O
(p-p) and Calculate the gain of amplifier
without feedback by using A =V
O
/V
S.

4. Provide the current series feed back by open the switch S and repeat steps 2
and 3 to find the gain with feed back A
F
= V
O
/ V
S

5. Calculate the feedback factor using the formula A
F
= A / 1+A
6. calculate theoretically value from = R
E
/ (R
E
+R)

133
Observations:
Input voltage V
I
= 40 mV.

Model Graph:

Output Voltage ,V
o
( V)
Gain =20 Log(V
O
/ V
I
)
(dB) Frequency
(Hz) With out
Feedback
With
Feedback
With out
Feedback
With
Feedback
1K 0.6 0.36 15 9
134

Precautions:
given transistor.

Result:
The theoretical and practical values of Gain, feed back factor of current series
feedback amplifier was determined.

Inference:

It is observed that the gain of the amplifier reduces with feed back and the band
width increases by the same amount.

1. What is the difference between voltage series & current series feedback
amplifiers?
A. The output impedance of current series feedback amplifier is high when compared
with voltage series feedback amplifiers.

2. What is the other name of current series feedback amplifier?
A. The other name of current series feedback amplifier is Series derived series fed
feedback amplifier.

135
16. VOLTAGE SERIES FEED BACK AMPLIFIER

Aim:
To find the gain of the Voltage Series feed back amplifier with &
without feedback.

Apparatus Required:

Theory:
The other name of voltage series feedback amplifier is shunt derived series fed
feedback amplifier. The fraction of output voltage is applied in series with input
voltage through feedback circuit. Feedback circuit shunt the output but in series with
input. So the output impedance is decreased while input impedance is increased.
The input & output impedance of an ideal voltage series feedback amplifier is infinite
& zero respectively. The resistor R
E
& capacitor C
E
are used to provide necessary
biasing for the amplifier with voltage series feed back gain of the amplifier decreases.

S. No Name of the
Component/Equipment
1 Transistor( BC 107) I
cmax
=100mA
P
D
=300mw
V
ceo
=45V
V
beo
=50V
2
2 Resistors(100K,47K,
68K,10K,4.7K)
Power rating=0.5w
Carbon type
1
2
5
3 Capacitors(0.1F,100F) Electrolytic type,
4
1
4 Function generator 0 -1MHZ 1
136

Circuit Diagram:

Fig A: Voltage Series Feed Back Amplifier

Procedure:
1. Make sure that the switch S is opened.
2. Apply a sine wave of 40mv peak to peak amplitude at 1 kHz from signal
generator to the input of amplifier circuit.
3. Measure the output amplitude V
O
(p-p) and Calculate the gain of amplifier
without feedback by using A =V
O
/V
S.

4. Provide the voltage series feed back by closing the switch S and repeat steps
2 and 3 to find the gain with feed back using A
F
= V
O
/ V
S

5. Calculate the feedback factor using A
F
= A / 1+A
6. calculate theoretically value from = R
E
/ (R
E
+R)

137

Frequency Response:
Input ac voltage V
S
= 40 mV peak-peak

Output Voltage V
0
(V)
Gain =20 log
10
(V
O
/ V
S
)
(dB) Frequency
(Hz) With out
Feedback
With
Feedback
With out
Feedback
With
Feedback
1K 0.48 0.32 12 8

Model Graph:

138

Precautions:
given transistor.

Result:
The theoretical and practical values of Gain with and without feed back and the
Factor () of voltage series feedback amplifier are determined.

Inference:
It is observed that the gain of the amplifier reduces with feed back and the band
width increases by the same amount.

1. Why Feed back used in amplifiers?
A. To improve the amplifier characteristics with required manner.

2. List various advantages of negative feedback
A. a) stabilizes the gain.
b) Increases bandwidth, input impedance.
c) Reduces output impedance, noise & distortions.

139
17. HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
Aim:
To design a Hartley oscillator and to measure the frequency of oscillations.

Apparatus Required:
S.No Name of the
Component/Equipment
1. Hartley Oscillator Circuit Board ___ 1
2. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 20MHz 1
3. Decade Inductance Boxes ___ 2

Theory:
In the Hartley oscillator shown in Fig A. Z
1
, and Z
2
are inductors and Z
3
is an
capacitor. The resistors R and R
2
and R
E
provide the necessary DC bias to the
transistor. C
E
is a bypass capacitor C
C1
and C
C2
are coupling capacitors. The
feedback network consisting of inductors L
1
and L
2
, Capacitor C determine the
frequency of the oscillator.
When the supply voltage +V
cc
is switched ON, a transient current is produced in the
tank circuit, and consequently damped harmonic oscillations are setup in the circuit.
The current in tank circuit produces AC voltages across L
1
and L
2
. As terminal 3 is
earthed, it will be at zero potential.
If terminal is at positive potential with respect to 3 at any instant, then terminal 2 will
be at negative potential with respect to 3 at the same instant. Thus the phase
difference between the terminals 1 and 2 is always 180
0
. In the CE mode, the
transistor provides the phase difference of 180
0
between the input and output.
Therefore the total phase shift is 360
0
. The frequency of oscillations is
f = 1/2LC where L= L
1
+

L
2.

140
Circuit Diagram:-

Fig A: Hartley oscillator

Procedure:

1. Switch on the power supply by inserting the power card in AC mains.
2. Connect one pair of inductors as L
1
and L
2
as shown in the dotted lines of
Fig A.
3. Observe the output of the oscillator on a CRO, adjust the potentiometer R
E
on
the front panel until we get an undistorted output. Note down the repetition
period (T) of observed signal. Compute f
O
= 1/T (R
E
can adjust the gain of the
amplifier).
4. Calculate the theoretical frequency of the circuit using the formulae.
5. Repeat the steps 2 to 4 for the second pair of inductors L
1
and L
2
.Tabulate
the results as below.

141
Tabular Form:

Frequency , f
o
(KHz)
S.No

Condition

Practical

Theoretical
% Error
1

L
1
= L
2
= 100mH
3.246
3.558 8.7
2 L
1
= L
2
= 50mH 4.98 5.032 1

Model Graph:

Fig B: Frequency of oscillations
Precautions:
2. Readings should be taken without parallax error.

Result:
The frequency of Hartley oscillator is practically observed.

Inference:
It is observed that the Hartley oscillator is used to generate high frequency of
oscillations at radio frequencies.

142

1. Define oscillator?
A. The electronic device which produces the output with out giving any AC input
signal is called oscillator.
2. What are the conditions to obtain sustained oscillations?
A. The loop gain must be greater than or equal to one, Phase shift around the entire
network must be 0 or 360 degrees.
3. Classify oscillators depending on Frequency range?
A. Audio frequency, Radio frequency, and intermediate frequency.
4. Which type of Feedback is employed in oscillator?
A. Positive feedback.

143

18. COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
Aim:
To measure the frequency of the Colpitts Oscillator

Apparatus Required:
S. No Name of the
Component/Equipment
1. Colpitts Oscillator Circuit
Board
___ 1
2. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 20 MHz 1

Theory:
In the Colpitts oscillator shown in fig 1, Z
1
, and Z
2
are capacitors and Z
3
is an
inductor. The resistors R and R
2
and R
E
provide the necessary DC bias to the
transistor. C
E
is a bypass capacitor C
C1
and C
C2
are coupling capacitors. The
feedback network consisting of capacitors C
1
and C
2
, inductor L determine the
frequency of the oscillator.

When the supply voltage +V
cc
is switched ON, a transient current is produced in the
tank circuit, and consequently damped harmonic oscillations are setup in the circuit.
The current in tank circuit produces AC voltages across C
1
and C
2
. As terminal 3 is
earthed, it will be at zero potential.
If terminal is at positive potential with respect to 3 at any instant, then terminal 2 will
be at negative potential with respect to 3 at the same instant. Thus the phase
difference between the terminals 1 and 2 is always 180
0
. In the CE mode, the
transistor provides the phase difference of 180
0
between the input and output.
Therefore the total phase shift is 360
0
. The frequency of oscillations is
f = 1/2LC where 1/C = 1/C
1
+ 1/C
2
.

144

Circuit Diagram:

Fig A: Colpitts Oscillator

Procedure:
1. Switch on the power supply by inserting the power card in AC mains
2. Connect one pair of capacitors as C
1
and C
2
as shown in the dotted lines of
Fig A.
3. Observe the output of the oscillator on a CRO. Adjust the potentiometer R
E

on the front panel until we get an undistorted output. Note down the repetition
period (T) of observed signal. Compute f
O
= 1/T (R
E
can adjust the gain of
amplifier).
4. Calculate the theoretical frequency of the circuit using formulae.
5. Repeat the step 2 and 4 for the second pair of capacitors C
1
and C
2
. Tabulate
the results as below.

145

Tabular Form:
S.No Condition
Theoretical
Frequency (KHz)
Practical
frequency(KHz)
%Error

1

C
1
=C
2
=0.01F

22.507

22.727

0.97

2

C
1
=C
2
=0.1F

7.117

7.23

1.5

Model Graph:

Precautions:
2. Readings should be taken without parallax error.

Result:
The frequency of Colpitts Oscillators is practically determined.

Inference:
It is observed that the colpitts oscillator is used to generate high frequency of
oscillations at radio frequencies.
146

1. Define oscillator
A. An electronic circuit that produces output with out any input signal.
2. What is BARKHAUSEN CRITERION?
A. IABI=1 and Phase shift=0 or 360 degrees
3. Classify oscillators depending on Frequency range
A. High frequency, Low frequency, Intermediate frequency.
4. Which type of Feedback is employed in oscillator?
A. Positive.

147

19. SCR CHARACTERISTICS

Aim:
a) To obtain the forward characteristics of SCR.
b) To identify the break over voltage at different gate voltages.

Apparatus Required:
S.No
Name of the
Equipment/Component
1 SCR(TYN 604)
I
H
(max.)=4A
P (max.)=10W
V
H
(max.)=5V
1
2 Variable resistor 0-10K 1
3 Resistor - 1K
Power rating=0.5w
Carbon type
1
5 Ammeters 0-25mA 2
6 Digital multimeter 4 digit 1

Theory:
SCR acts as a switch when it is forward bias. When the gate is kept open I
G
= 0 and
the operation of SCR is similar to PNPN diode. When I
G
< 0 the break over voltage
required to allow the current through SCR is large. When I
G
> 0 less amount of break
over voltage is sufficient. With very large positive gate currents break over may occur
at a very low voltage such that the characteristic of SCR is similar to ordinary PN
diode. As the voltage at which SCR is switched ON can be controlled by varying gate
current. Once the SCR is turned ON, the gate losses control and cannot be used to
switch the device OFF. One way to turn the device OFF is by lowering the anode
current below the holding current by reducing the supply voltage below the holding
voltage, keeping the gate open. At this point even if the gate signal is removed the
device keeps ON conducting, till the current level is maintained to a minimum level of
holding current.

148

Circuit Diagram:

Fig A: SCR Characteristics

Procedure:
2. Initially some gate current is applied by varying the V
2
.
3. Voltage V
1
is slowly varied and different reading of ammeter (I
A
) and voltmeter
(V
AK
) are taken.
4. The voltage at which the SCR is triggered and heavy current flows is noted as
V
BO
, forward breakdown voltage.
5. Now apply the gate current more than I
G
.
6. Steps 3 & 4 are repeated and note down corresponding currents and voltages.
7. Draw the graph between V
AK
and I
A
at different gate currents.

149

Tabular form:

I
G1
= 3mA I
G
> I
G1

S.No
Applied
Voltage
V
1
(V)
V
AK
(V)
I
A

(mA)
V
AK
(V)
I
A
(mA)
1 0 0 0 0 0
2 1 1 1 1 1
3 2 2 1 2 1
4 3 3 1 3 1
5 4 4 1 4 1
6 5 5 1 1 4
7 6 6 1 1 6
8 7 1 6 1 8
9 8 1 12 1 10
10 9 1 14 1 14
11 10 1 16 1 16
12 11 1 20 1 18
13 12 1 22 1 20
14 13 1 24 1 22

Model Graph:

150
Result:
The VI-characteristics of SCR are observed and Break over Voltage at different gate
currents is noted.

Inference:
It is observed that as applied gate current increases, the forward break over voltage
reduces & the device conducts early.

Questions:
1. What are the advantages of Thyristor Family?
A. Low power dissipation.
2. Define the following terms
a) Holding current.
b) Forward break over voltage.
A. The minimum current at which SCR turns from OFF state to ON state is called
holding current.
The maximum forward voltage at which the current through SCR increases and
voltage across SCR drops is called forward break over voltage.
3. What are the different operating regions of SCR?
A. Forward breakdown region, Reverse breakdown region, and Forward conduction
region.
4. List the applications of SCR?
A. High power applications, switching applications, and controlled device.

PN - Junction Diode Characteristics: S.No Name of The Equipment/ Component Specifications Quantity

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