6

energy transformation, boundary, intensity, inverse square law, superposition, interference, phase, constructive interference, destructive interference, fixed boundary, free boundary, wave front, ray, reflection, refraction, absorption, law of reflection, incidence, normal

How waves behave

Energy is conserved
Now that we have a general idea of what a wave is and its basic characteristics, we need to look at wave behaviour in more detail and define different ways of representing wave behaviour using various graphical methods. We start with the fundamental principle of energy conservation. This supports the entire discipline of physics (and was discussed earlier in Section 4.4). The amount of energy in the universe is fixed, so energy can be neither created nor destroyed. However, energy may change from one form into another (energy transformation). Waves are carriers of energy, and so they must be taken into account when applying the principle of energy conservation to systems in which waves are present.

6.1 Energy and waves

Let us consider a sound wave produced by a speaker in a science laboratory. The speaker cone vibrates, pushing the air particles around it. The sound waves propagate outwards in three dimensions from the speaker. They travel through the air and eventually strike the walls, floor, windows and ceiling of the laboratory. Let us look at this process from the point of view of energy. The energy used to power the speaker is electrical energy, which is transformed into kinetic energy as the speaker diaphragm wobbles back and forth. The kinetic energy is transferred into the air particles in the room as the sound wave travels away from the speaker. The energy spreads out into an increasing volume of space as the wave propagates outwards from the speaker. Some energy is converted into heat in the speaker and the air. When the sound wave reaches a boundary, such as the surface of a wall, some of the wave energy bounces back (is reflected), part of it passes through (is transmitted) into the new medium and some of the energy is lost as heat in the new medium (absorbed).

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loud

music

Figure 6.1.1 Your parents can also enjoy the music you play in your bedroom. Some sound energy
is reflected and some is absorbed; however, unfortunately for your parents, some sound energy is transmitted through the walls and door.

If you stand next to the speaker, the sound is loud; as you move away, the volume decreases. Outside the room, you can still hear the sound but it is much softer and probably muffled (Figure 6.1.1). This is because the energy that reaches your ears decreases as you move away from the source of the sound wave. There are three main reasons for this decrease in energy with distance. The first reason is that some of the original kinetic energy from the speaker diaphragm is converted into other forms of energy by the media it travels through. Some is dissipated (absorbed) as heat by the air molecules and the materials that make up the floor, walls and ceiling. The second reason is that not all of the sound wave makes it out of the room as some of it is reflected back inside. The third reason is the inverse square law, which is discussed below. So as a wave travels from its oscillating source, the energy carried by the wave decreases; however, as the energy of the system must be conserved, we can account for the apparently missing energy by considering the absorption and reflection of energy at boundaries. Mathematically this can be represented as follows: Ewave = Etransmitted + Ereflected + Eabsorbed The energy of a wave is proportional to the waves amplitude squared. In sound waves, the amplitude is related to the volume (loudness) of the sound; in light waves, it is related to the brightness of the light. Ewave amplitude2
Explain that the relationship between the intensity of EM radiation and distance from a source is an example of the inverse square law: I 1 d2 .

But even if the wave were to travel through a perfect medium, which doesnt absorb and dissipate the wave energy as heat, the sound volume (or even light brightness) decreases as you move away from the source. The rate of energy transfer by a source of waves through a given area is called the waves intensity. Intensity is measured in watts per square metre (W m2). The rate of energy transfer is called power, so wave intensity can be described using the following equation: Intensity =
energy time area

or

Intensity =

power area

or

I=

P A
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The energy density, and so the intensity, of a wave will decrease as you move away from the source. Exactly how the intensity varies can be complicated by many factors. The source, like a speaker, may mainly transmit the wave in one direction and obstacles in the waves path may cause reflections and absorptions of the wave energy. However, in the simplest case in which we assume that the wave is transmitted uniformly in all directions with the mechanical energy conserved as it spreads and we can ignore reflections and absorption, we can use the inverse square law to describe the variation of intensity with distance. In this ideal case, all of the energy emitted by the source must pass through the surface of a sphere with radius d metres (Figure 6.1.2). The area of this sphere will be 4d 2, and the intensity of the wave at a point d metres from the source is given by the equation: I=
P 4 d 2

d1

d2

Figure 6.1.2 Energy produced by the speaker passes first through the surface of a sphere of radius d1,
and then that same energy passes through the surface of the larger sphere of radius d2.

The equation below tells us that the intensity of a uniformly transmitted wave with no mechanical energy loss decreases with the square of the distance d from the source. I
1 d2

Activity Manual, Page 48

PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES Activity 6.1

In most cases, mechanical waves such as sound waves and water waves cannot be accurately modelled using the inverse square law because energy is dissipated as heat by the particles in the medium that the wave travels through. However, electromagnetic (EM) waves do not require a medium to propagate and in air there are practically no energy losses, so the inverse square law will predict intensity levels for EM waves with high accuracy. For this reason, astrophysicists use the inverse square law to compare and identify stars as there is little or no energy loss in the vacuum of space.

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THE WORLD COMMUNICATES Worked example QUESTION

The Sun produces EM waves that propagate through space to the Earth. The Sun has a power output of 3.86 1026 W. a Calculate the intensity of the Sun as seen from Earth. (d = 149 597 900 km) b How does this compare with the intensity of the Sun seen from Jupiter, approximately 5 times the distance away?

SOLUTION
a Calculate the intensity, given that P = 3.86 1026 W and d = 149 597 900 km. Convert all units into SI units: d = 149 597 900 1000 m. I= P 3.86 1026 W = = 1372.5 W m2 4d 2 4 (149 597 900 1000)2 m2

The intensity at the Earth is 1370 W m2 (to 3 significant figures). b Assume the distance from the Sun to the Earth is d metres. Then the distance from 1 1 1 , the Sun to Jupiter is 5d metres. Therefore IEarth 2 and IJupiter 2 d 25 d2 (5 d ) 1 so the intensity at Jupiter will be or 4% the intensity at Earth. 25

Figure 6.1.3 Sunset on Mars. Mars is

3 times further from the Sun than the Earth, so the setting 2 4 2 Sun appears of the size on Earth and its intensity is that received on Earth. 9 3

CHECKPOINT 6.1
1 2 Outline five different energy transformations that can occur as light waves propagate from a source in a science laboratory. If the distance from a light source is tripled, what happens to the intensity of light as viewed from each point?

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6.2 Superposition
Describe the principle of superposition.

THOMAS YOUNG

homas Young is considered to be the father of physical optics for his championing of the wave theory of light and his explanation of superposition. He was also a talented linguist, learning Persian, Arabic and Turkish. He used these skills to translate some Egyptian hieroglyphics using the Rosetta Stone (Figure 6.2.2).

Figure 6.2.1 Thomas Young

Figure 6.2.2 The Rosetta Stone

Figure 6.2.5 Imaginary superposition of

two tennis balls 100

The concept of a wave was introduced in Chapter 5 as a vibration that transfers energy from one place to another. The simplest mathematical representation of waves are sine waves ( y = sin x), and more complicated waves can be thought of as combinations of different sine waves. This mathematical representation is very convenient and useful for physicists in modelling and predicting wave behaviour. The ability to add different sine waves together to model any complex wave situation arises because of a fundamental property of wavessuperposition. Superposition is one important property that distinguishes wave behaviour from particle behaviour. Superposition is the amazing ability of two or more waves to combine at the same point in space at the same time. Or to put it another way, the net disturbance at any point in a medium is simply the sum of the separate waves present. The superposition principle, which is a fundamental characteristic of waves, was proposed by English physicist Thomas Young (17731829) in the early nineteenth century (Figure 6.2.1). This is simple to say and may not seem earth shattering, but consider what would happen if we were to attempt superposition with particles instead of waves. Consider two tennis ballsit is not physically possible for both tennis balls to exist in exactly the same place at Figure 6.2.3 Two tennis balls unsuccessfully exactly the same time (Figure 6.2.3). Try try to occupy the same point in space at the same time. it for yourself. Now take two wavessay, crossed beams of light from two torches (Figure 6.2.4). These waves can exist in exactly the same place at exactly the same time and when they do, they combine (or superimpose) to make a more complex wave. When the waves move past this meeting point, they emerge as the original uncombined light beams. Figure 6.2.4 Light from two torches combine The powerful significance of this when they occupy the same property of waves may escape you as it is point in space at the same time. difficult to conceptualise waves when we are so accustomed to a particle world. Just imagine for a moment that the tennis balls in our previous example could superimpose like waves, what would this look like? The incoming tennis balls would meet and combine into a larger, probably oddly shaped tennis ball. Then after the meeting place they would emerge as single tennis balls again, indistinguishable from the original incoming balls (Figure 6.2.5). There is also a more mathematical interpretation of the principle of superposition, which is discussed in Section 6.4. The term interference is used to describe the change in waves that occurs as a result of superposition. The size and shape of the superimposed waves depend on the amplitude, wavelength and frequency of the original waves. It also depends on an additional wave propertyphase.

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CHECKPOINT 6.2
1 2 Define the concept of superposition. Identify two properties common to both particles and waves.

Amplitude of the particle

6.3 Phase
Phase is the key to understanding how waves superimpose and interact with media and boundaries. Waves displace the particles of the media they travel through. Let us consider one particle in the medium. Sometimes the particle is displaced a maximum positive amount (crest) from its original position, sometimes it is displaced a maximum negative amount (trough) and sometimes it is in its original position (equilibrium). This means a particle is displaced by the wave in a regular cycle: crest equilibrium trough equilibrium crest and so on. The phase of a wave can be thought of as a label for the part of the cycle that the particle is undergoing at a given time. Since we are using a sine function such as y = sin (x) to represent our wave, the simplest way to label which part of the cycle the oscillating particle is in is to state the value in brackets (x) (mathematically speaking, the argument). Since the sine function comes traditionally from trigonometry, this value (the phase) is normally given in angle units, such as radians or degrees; however, the phase is not really an angle, just a mathematical label (Figure 6.3.1). The idea of phase is easier to grasp when we think of the phase of two waves relative to each other. If two waves cause a particle to be displaced the same direction at the same time, they have a phase difference of 0 and are said to be in phase. If the phase difference is 180 or radians, the waves are said to be exactly out of phase (Figure 6.3.2).

P 0 0 45
2

3 2

2P Radians

90 135 180 225 270 315 360 Degrees

Phase (in degrees and radians)

Figure 6.3.1 The particle at point P has a

phase of 45 or radians. 4

PHASE AND THE WAVE EQUATION

e have been using a very simple equation, y = sin (x), to describe wave behaviour. A more powerful and useful description requires a function that relates horizontal displacement (x), vertical displacement (y) and time (t), and contains all the important properties of that wave: y = A sin( 2 x 2ft )

Waves in phase

Waves exactly 180 out of phase

Waves out of phase by approximately 90

Figure 6.3.2 Waves in and out of phase

where A is the wave amplitude, is the wavelength and f is the frequency. When using this equation to describe a wave, the phase () of an individual wave is the argument of the sine function: = 2 x 2ft

CHECKPOINT 6.3
1 Draw a diagram of two waves that have equal amplitude and frequency but are out of phase by 270 or

3 radians. 2

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6.4 The superposition of waves

Here is a more mathematical interpretation of the superposition principle. It says that when two waves cross the same part of space at the same time, the resulting wave is simply the mathematical sum of the two original waves. We can use a graphical method for superimposing two waves in sine form. We plot the waves on the same axes, accurately recording the amplitude, frequency and phase. Then moving from right to left, at every value of x we simply add the corresponding heightsthe y valuesof the two sine waves. When adding the heights, remember that the y values above the axis are positive and those below the axis are negative (Figure 6.4.1).
1.5

1.0

0.5 Amplitude (m) w1 0 w2 0 90 180 270 360 ws

w1 w2 ws

0.5

1.0

1.5 Phase ()

Figure 6.4.1 Two sinusoidal waves (w1 and w2) with different amplitudes and frequencies travel
Constructive interference w1 w2 ws

from left to right. The waves superimpose to give the resultant wave ws.

This procedure can be carried out for any two waves. However, two special cases emerge when superimposing waves of the same frequency and amplitude If we superimpose two such waves that are in phase, we see (Figure 6.4.2). a resulting maximum disturbance in the medium; to be exact, the resulting wave will have double the amplitude of either of the original waves. This is called If we superimpose two waves that are exactly constructive interference. 180 out of phase, we see a resulting zero disturbance in the medium. The waves cancel each other out completely, the resulting amplitude is zero and so no oscillation of the medium is observed. This is called destructive interference.

Destructive interference

Figure 6.4.2 Two identical sinusoidal waves

(w1 and w2) travel from left to right. They superimpose to give the resultant wave ws. Constructive interference occurs when the phase difference is 0 (0 radians), and destructive interference occurs at 180 ( radians). 102

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Adding two waves together using a graphical method is relatively straightforward, but adding three or more waves together in this way becomes extremely time-consuming. A mathematical technique called Fourier analysis and synthesis allows multiple waves to be added quickly and easily. For example, electronic music and voice recognition software use Fourier analysis and synthesis to add and subtract sound waves to create and recognise a wide variety of sounds (See Physics Feature Beautiful mathematics and electronic music on page 104). When waves reflect from a boundary between two media, the phase of the reflected wave depends on the nature of that boundary. There are two types: fixed boundaries or free boundaries (Figure 6.4.3). A fixed boundary has particles that are unable to oscillate, an example of which would be a rope tied securely to a wall. If you wiggle the free end of the rope, a transverse wave will travel down the rope towards the fixed boundary at the wall. The wave will then be reflected from that boundary. The reflected wave will be exactly out of phase with the original wave. This is because the rope is tied at the wall and must always have a displacement y = 0 at that point. While they overlap, the original wave and its reflection can be thought of as two interfering waves. Any overlapping waves must superimpose to give zero displacement at the wall. This can only occur when the original and reflected waves are exactly out of phase (phase difference of 180). In a free boundary the particles in the adjacent media are free to move, so waves transmitted through or reflected from free boundaries have the same phase as the original wave.
a b

DESTRUCTIVE CAN BE USEFUL

n some factories where loud, repetitive noise is a problem, workers can wear special headphones that sample the surrounding noise and then replay into the workers ears a copy of this noise with exactly the same amplitude but exactly 180 out of phase with it. The result is destructive interference, which means no noise reaches the workers ears. This is called anti-phase noise reduction. However, since this effect doesnt work very well with nonrepetitive noise such as human speech, the workers are still able to hear co-workers talking.

Reflection from a fixed boundary

Reflection from a free boundary

Figure 6.4.3 (a) Waves are reflected from a fixed boundary exactly out of phase; (b) a free
boundary reflects the wave in phase.

Activity Manual, Page 53

PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES Activity 6.2

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How Ho w wa wave waves ves ve s beha be have ha ve behave

PHYSICS FEATURE
BEAUTIFUL MATHEMATICS AND ELECTRONIC MUSIC
he French mathematician Jean Baptiste Joseph, Baron de Fourier (17681830) devised a beautiful mathematical technique for synthesising a waveform of any shape imaginable. His theory states that any wave with a spatial frequency of f can be synthesised by a sum of harmonic waves with frequencies f, 2f, 3f, 4f and so forth. Any wave can be thought of as a result of the addition of overlapping sine and cosine waves. Consider the example shown in Figure 6.4.4. The waveform in Figure 6.4.4a is the result of combining the six sine waves in Figure 6.4.4b. These six sine waves with different frequencies are called the harmonics. The frequency of the resultant wave has the same frequency as the first harmonic (f1). The harmonics can be illustrated using a spectrum graph like Figure 6.4.3c. This plots the amplitude of the harmonic versus the frequency. Electronically synthesised music utilises the mathematics of Fourier. An audio engineer programming an electronic synthesiser keyboard, for example, would use a signal generator to produce the harmonic sine waves. By manipulating the amplitudes, frequencies and phases of these sine waves, the desired sound can be selected. Similarly, a natural sound can be copied and electronically reproduced. The waveform of the natural sound is analysed to determine its harmonics, which can then be easily reproduced using a signal generator and synthesised when required.
a

Harmonics f1

f2

f3 f4 f5 f6

c
Amplitude

f1

f2

f3

f4

f5

f6

Frequency

Figure 6.4.4 (a) The synthesised waveform; (b) the six component
harmonics of (a); (c) a spectrum graph of the harmonics

CHECKPOINT 6.4
1 What phase difference is required for two waves to destructively interfere?

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6.5 Diagrams used to describe waves

In addition to the equations and graphs we have been using to describe wave behaviour, it is common to use two additional diagramswave fronts and raysto illustrate wave behaviour in media and at boundaries between media. Waves originate from an oscillating source. We imagine for simplicity that the source is tiny, called a point source. In Figure 6.5.1, transverse waves move out in two dimensions from the oscillation caused by a tiny vibrating source. If we draw a line joining the peak of each of these transverse waves, we have constructed a A wave front is therefore an imaginary line that joins points of wave front. equal phase. The concentric circular lines (ripples) that you see on the disturbed surface of a pond are wave fronts. For waves that propagate in three dimensions, the wave front would be a spherical surface joining points of equal phase. The distance between two adjacent wave fronts is one wavelength. Wave fronts that are closer to a source appear more curved. As the wave travels a large distance from the source, the wave fronts appear as parallel lines (called plane waves). A wave of a fixed frequency travelling through a uniform medium will have wave fronts of equal spacing. The greater the frequency, the closer the spacing of the wave fronts. Superposition is illustrated by overlapping wave fronts (Figure 6.5.2). Where the wave fronts overlap, we have two waves combining with the same phase. At this point there would be constructive interference.

Waves are emitted in all directions from the light source.

An imaginary line drawn that joins points of equal phase is called a wave front.

Figure 6.5.1 Constructing wave fronts for

transverse waves

ray

wave fronts

Figure 6.5.3 A ray is drawn perpendicular to Figure 6.5.2 Overlapping ripples from two disturbances on a water surface. The ripples are wave
fronts, and superposition of the two waves occurs where two wave fronts overlap. the wave front and shows the direction of wave propagation.

An imaginary line drawn perpendicular to a wave front in the direction of propagation is called a ray (Figure 6.5.3). The ray is simply a line that points in the direction that the wave front is moving. Rays are commonly used to show the path of light through an optical system. Unlike wave fronts, rays do not give any information about the wavelength or frequency of the wave.

Activity Manual, Page 59

PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES Activity 6.3

CHECKPOINT 6.5
1 2 Define the terms wave front and ray. How does a wave front diagram give information about the wave frequency or wavelength?

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6.6 Wave reflection and refraction

At the beginning of the chapter, we discussed the energy of a wave and what happens at the interface between two media (a boundary). When a wave encounters a boundary three things happen (Figure 6.6.1): 1 Part of the wave energy bounces off the interface and travels back into the original mediaknown as reflection. 2 Part of the wave energy continues into the new mediaknown as transmission or refraction. 3 Part of the wave energy is transferred to particles in the media as heat known as absorption.
incident reflected

refracted

Figure 6.6.1 Parallel light wave fronts incident on a surface (such as a piece of glass). Some of
the light is reflected from the surface and some is refracted.

REFLECTING HISTORY
he law of reflection was first described by the Greek mathematician Euclid in the book Catoptrics, dated approximately 200 BC. Catoptrics is an ancient Greek term that means reflection. The first written description of a reflective surface, a womans looking glass, appears in Exodus 38 : 8, dated approximately 1200 BC.

Figure 6.6.2 An early depiction of a reflective

surface in art. This stone relief is from the sarcophagus of Queen Kawit and shows her holding a mirror, dated approximately 2061 BC.

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Reflection
The behaviour of reflected waves is described by the law of reflection. This law states that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. The angle of incidence (i ) is the angle made by the incoming (incident) wave front and the boundary. The angle of reflection (r ) is the angle made by the outgoing (reflected) wave front and the boundary (Figure 6.6.3). Therefore: i = r If a wave is normally incident on a boundary, then i = r = 0 and the wave reflects back on itself.
a Incident wave front just reaching mirror c

Describe and apply the law of reflection and explain the effect of reflection from a plane surface.

i A b

mirror surface B d

r A

mirror surface B

Reflected wave front just leaving mirror

r A

mirror surface B

r A

mirror surface B

Figure 6.6.3 The incoming (incident) wave front makes an angle of i with the reflective surface.
The reflected wave front makes an angle of r with the mirror. The law of reflection says i = r.

Wave front diagrams can quickly become cluttered, so it is usual to represent the same concept concisely using rays (Figure 6.6.4). A large number of wave fronts are replaced by an incident and reflected ray. The angles of incidence and reflection are measured relative to the normal, which is a line drawn perpendicular to the boundary.
normal incident ray N i reflected ray

Figure 6.6.4 Reflection of a wave using a ray diagram. The incident and reflected rays make an
angle of i and r respectively, relative to the normal (N ).

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Refraction
Explain that refraction is related to the velocities of a wave in different media and outline how this may result in the bending of a wave front.

Imagine that a surf lifesaver is running up the hard sand near the water and is then continuing on into the soft sand. As the medium changes from hard sand to soft sand, the surf lifesaver slows down as it is harder to run in soft sand. In the same way the speed of a wave changes as it moves from one medium into another. If the wave encounters the boundary at an angle (i 0), the wave fronts bend as they cross the boundary. This bending of waves across boundaries is called refraction. (See Figures 6.6.5 and 6.6.6.)
a b r i vi r vr i i vi i = 0 vr

medium 1

medium 2

medium 1

medium 2

Figure 6.6.6 The wave slows down as it enters the second medium and so the wave fronts become Figure 6.6.5 The bending caused by
refraction is clearly evident if you look at a pencil (or straw) partially submerged in a glass of water. The speed of the light wave slows as it passes from air to water. more closely spaced. (a) The wave front is normally incident on the boundary (i = 0). (b) The wave front encounters the boundary at an angle (i 0).

The bending is also evident when the waves path is represented by rays, as shown in Figure 6.6.7. The incident ray travelling through medium 1 makes an angle i (angle of incidence) with the normal, and the refracted ray through medium 2 makes an angle of r (angle of refraction) with the normal. If the wave slows down on entering the new medium, the ray bends towards the normal (i > r). If the wave speeds up the opposite occurs: the ray bends away from the normal (i < r ).
incident wave fronts and ray normal

angle of incidence i

medium 1 medium 2

angle of refraction r

refracted wave fronts and ray

Figure 6.6.7 The refracted ray bends towards the normal as the wave slows down on entering
medium 2.

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The degree to which a wave is refracted depends on the properties of the media. The physical state, density, crystal structure and temperature of a substance will affect the speed of the wave through that substance. The speed of light waves is changed by the refractive index (n) of a substance, while the acoustic impedance (Z ) of a substance changes the speed of sound waves.

TRY THIS!
MARCHING TO ILLUSTRATE REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

Link arms with some friends to form a wave front. March in time at the same speed. Reflect yourselves from a flat surface, such as a wall. As each person concrete reaches the wall, march backwards at the same speed. Try this first with the wave front parallel to the wall grass wall and then at an angle. Then reflect yourself from a curved Figure 6.6.8 (a) Students are reflected from the wall by marching backwards. (b) Students surface, like a curved gutter or are refracted across the boundary by changing marching speed. garden bed edge. You will see the wave front shape change. To refract, the marching speed needs to change as you change medium. Try marching from concrete onto grass. As the medium changes, halve your speed. The wave front will bend if you approach the boundary at an angle.

CHECKPOINT 6.6
1 2 Describe the law of reflection. Define the concept of refraction.

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PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES
CHAPTER 6
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.

ACTIVITY 6.1: MODELLING THE INVERSE SQUARE LAW

Plan, choose equipment or resources for and perform a first-hand investigation, and gather information to model the inverse square law for light intensity and distance from a source.

Use a light probe attached to a data logger or hand-held meter to measure light intensity at different distances from a source. Equipment list: a bright light source (lamp), light-sensitive probe or meter, data logger, computer, tape measure.
to computer light sensor light source

metre ruler photocell

Figure 6.7.1 Experimental set-up for measuring light intensity at different distances

Discussion questions 1 Describe the relationship between light intensity and distance using the data collected in this investigation. How does it compare with the inverse square law? 2 Identify a possible source of experimental error in this investigation. What strategies could you use to reduce the impact of the experimental error?

ACTIVITY 6.2: SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES

Perform a first-hand investigation, gather, process and present information using a CRO or computer to demonstrate the principle of superposition for two waves travelling in the same medium.

Use a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) or computer program to observe the superposition of pulses and waves. Equipment list: cathode ray oscilloscope, 2 signal generators, graph paper, computer.
256 Hz

cathode ray oscilloscope (or computer)

signal generator

256 Hz

signal generator

Figure 6.7.2 An oscilloscope connected to two signal generators

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Discussion questions 1 Explain the importance of phase difference to the superposition of two waves with the same frequency and amplitude. 2 Describe the characteristics of the resultant wave when two waves of different frequencies are superimposed.

ACTIVITY 6.3: WAVE FRONTS AND RAYS

Use a light box and a variety of reflective surfaces to observe the reflection of light. Draw accurate ray and wave front diagrams to show light reflection from plane, concave and convex surfaces. Equipment list: transformer, light box, plane mirror, concave mirror, convex mirror, pencil, ruler, blank paper, protractor.
Perform first-hand investigations and gather information to observe the path of light rays and construct diagrams indicating both the direction of travel of the light rays and a wave front.

light box

Present information using ray diagrams to show the path of waves reflected from: plane surfaces concave surfaces convex surfaces.
plane mirror

convave and convex mirrors

Figure 6.7.3 A light box and reflective surfaces

Discussion questions 1 Explain how the shape of the reflective surface changes the shape of the reflected wave front. Refer specifically to the law of reflection. 2 Describe the parts and function of the light box and explain how it approximates a source a large distance away.

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Chapter summary
Waves are out of phase if the phase difference is 180 or radians. The superposition of two waves in phase results in constructive interference. The superposition of two waves out of phase results in destructive interference. A wave front is an imaginary line joining points of equal phase. Wave fronts close to a source appear curved; at large distances, they are parallel (called plane waves). The distance between two adjacent wave fronts is one wavelength. A ray is an imaginary line drawn perpendicular (at 90) to a wave front. The ray points in the direction of propagation. The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection (i = r ). A wave changes speed as it moves from one medium to another. This is called refraction. Refraction causes wave fronts and rays to bend as they cross the boundary from one medium to another. The degree to which a wave is refracted depends on the properties of the media.

Energy is conserved in all systems. Ewave = Etransmitted + Ereflected + Eabsorbed The energy of a wave is proportional to the amplitude squared. Intensity is defined as the rate of energy transfer through a given area. It is measured in watts per square metre (W m2). The intensity of a wave decreases with the square of the 1 distance from the source I . d2 Superposition is a property that distinguishes waves from particles. The net disturbance at any point in the medium is the sum of separate waves present. The superimposed (or net) wave depends on the amplitude, wavelength, frequency and phase of the original waves. Phase is the point in the cycle that an oscillating particle is up to at a given time. Phase is a dimensionless quantity given as an angle in degrees or radians. Waves are in phase if the phase difference is 0 or 0 radians.

Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
Create a visual summary for the concepts in this chapter using a mind map. 1 2 3 4 5 Copy the table containing words, diagrams and equations. Cut along the dotted lines so that you have 21 separate boxes. Group related boxes together. Stick the groups of boxes onto a sheet of blank paper. Connect boxes with labelled links to form a mind map.
Phase Ray Reflection Refraction Superposition Wave Wave front Wavelength I 1 d2

Amplitude Constructive interference Destructive interference Distance Energy Frequency Intensity

i = r

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REVIEWING
1
An aquarium has a light on top of the tank, as shown in Figure 6.7.4. Draw and label the diagram to illustrate what happens to the energy of the light waves as they propagate into the tank.
light

air pump

fish tank

Figure 6.7.4 An aquarium

The amplitude of a wave is doubled. Are the following statements true or false? a The wave frequency also doubles. b The wave period also halves. c The wave energy also quadruples. d The wave speed also doubles. Complete the table to show the relationship between intensity and distance.

DISTANCE INTENSITY

d I

2d

3d

4d

5d

1 d 4

1 d 2

1 2

Complete the table to show the relationship between degrees and radians.

DEGREES RADIANS
0

30 4 3

90

180

270 2

Draw the rays corresponding to the wave front diagrams. a b

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How Ho w wa wave waves ves ve s beha be have ha ve behave

Draw the wave fronts corresponding to the ray diagrams. a b

Draw the wave fronts and rays as the wave is reflected from the boundary.

35 incident ray

mirror

Draw the wave fronts and rays as the wave slows down on entering the new medium.

medium 1 normal

medium 2

Samuel draws a ray diagram of a light beam reflecting from a plane surface. Use Samuels diagram to determine the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection.

normal 65 mirror

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SOLVING PROBLEMS
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A pulse is produced in a string of initial amplitude 35 cm. After the pulse has travelled 1 m, its amplitude is 7 cm. a Calculate the percentage of the original energy carried by the pulse 1 m from the source. b Calculate the percentage of the original energy that has been lost. Can you account for the missing energy? Helen purchases two light bulbs with power ratings of 40 W and 80 W. How far must she stand from the 80 W bulb so that it appears to have the same intensity as the 40 W bulb? Star A is twice as far away as Star B, but they generate the same light intensity. Which star appears brighter and by what factor? Stars C and D are both at a distance of 15 parsecs from Earth, but star C is nine times brighter than D in the night sky. At what distance would star C have to be in order to appear to be the same brightness as D? A scuba divers underwater microphone detects a whale call 50 m away with an intensity of 0.47 mW m2. Another scuba diver is 1 km away at another dive site. What will be the intensity at that distance? Ignore absorption losses. Use graph paper to accurately reproduce these waves. Use the graphical method to superimpose the waves and find the net disturbance. a
1.5 1.0 0.5 0 0.5 1.0

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12 13

14

15

b
1.5 1.0 0.5 0 0.5 1.0

Present graphical information, solve problems and analyse information involving superposition of waves.

c
1.5 1.0 0.5 0 0.5 1.0

d
1.5 1.0 0.5 0 0.5 1.0

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