Arka Breakbulk Shipments

LARSEN & TOUBRO
MBA SUMMER
INTERNSHIP REPORT
[ANALYSIS OF BREAK BULK SHIPMENTS]
ARKAPRAVA GHOSH
PGDIB 02
2009
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Analysis of break bulk shipments
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The training in break bulk shipments I undertook in Larsen & Toubro at Powai works
(Mumbai) was a unique experience for me. The theoretical knowledge coupled with
practical knowledge gave me an excellent opportunity to understand the nuances of
management.
It gives me immense pleasure to express my profound gratitude towards,
• Mr. G. Kannan-Head, Logistics Management Centre
• Mr. Jay Desai- assistant manager , Logistics management centre
• Mr. J Subramanium –assistant manager , Logistics management centre
• Mr . M.B Tikle – logistics executive
• Mr. Sanjeev Ahuja – AGM logistics
• Mr . Swapnil Nikharge – Assistant manager , logistics management center
• Ms. Viveka Joshi
for providing and facilitating an opportunity in the form of this project, mentoring and
motivating me throughout the project.
I would express heartfelt thanks to Mr. M. Nachimuthu-Head Welding Department, for
his valuable guidance and encouragement extended during the entire course of the
summer training. In the end, I would like to thank all those people who are left
unmentioned here but have contribution to my successful training in the company.
I would also like to thank the Globsyn Business school CRP cell for giving me an
excellent opportunity to go to L&T and experience the work culture in Mumbai. I am
grateful to Mr. Bikramjit Sen and Mr. Krishnendu Ghosh , my mentors for providing me
with guidance, help and support.
Lastly I would also like to thank my parents and friends for being by my side during the
whole training and providing me with constant encouragement.
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Larson & Toubro - An Introduction

Larson & toubro is a techonology, Engineering , Construction and
manufacturing company. It is one of the largest and most respected
companies in India’s private sector.
Seven decades of strong , customer focused approach and the

continuous quest for world class quality have enabled it to attain and
sustain leadership in all its major lines of business.
The company’s businesses are supported by a wide marketing and
distribution network , and have established a reputation for strong
customer support.
L&T has the following operating divisions :-
• Engineering and construction projects (E&C)
• Heavy engineering(HED)
• Engineering construction and contracts(ECC)
• Electrical and electronic(EBG)
• Machinery and industrial products(MIPD)
• IT and engineering services
• Logistics management centre(LMC)
My training was mainly in the logistics department regarding breakbulk

shipments.
The operation workflow of the same is further discussed in the form of a

flowchart :-
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ARKAPRAVA GHOSH
GLOBSYN BUSINESS SCHOOL
KOLKATA
RECEIVE ENQUIRY FROM PURCHASE ORDER BEING SENT

BUYERS TO THE BUYERS AFTER BEING
VERIFIED BY THE OPERATIONS
DEPARTMENT
FROM THE RECEIVED

QUOTATIONS, THE QUOTES
ARE TAKEN AND
QUOTATION STATEMENT IS
PREPARED. REQUEST FOR QUOTATIONS SENT TO
5-8 FREIGHT FORWARDERS IN A
ALL QUOTES ARE STANDARD FORMAT
COMPARED AND
NEGOTIATED WITH THE
FREIGHT FORWARDERS
TALK WITH THE BUYERS TO NOMINATE FREIGHT FORWARDERS ALONG

AND FINALISE THE FREIGHT WITH THEIR CONCERNED FOREIGN
FORWARDER COUNTERPART START PLANNING
FOR THE FREIGHT FOREWARDING
LMC DECIDES ON THE FREIGHT
FORWRDER
LMC MONITORS THE WHOLE FREIGHT

BUYERS INFORMED FROM TIME FORWARDING PROCESS TILL IT
TO TIME ON THE STATUS OF ARRIVES AT THE PORT AND LOADS
THEIR SHIPMENTS MIT BASED ON THE INCO TERMS
STATED
ALL REQUIRED
DOCUMENTATION SENT TO THE
BUYER FOR PROCESSING OF
PAYMENT
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. THE INDIAN SHIPBUILDING INDUSTRY……………..................9

1.1 advantages india vs global
2. BREAK BULK CARGO : AN INTRODUCTION………………….14
2.1 break bulk cargo handling
2.2 Loading and discharging operations
3. APPLICATION OF PORTER’S FIVE FORCES……………………24
TO A BREAK BULK TERMINAL
3.1 Break bulk vs container terminals
4. FREIGHT STRUCTURE……………………………………………29
4.1 Liner shipping and Tramp shipping-an overview
4.2 Liner shipping in detail
4.3 Sea freight calculations
5. TIME FUNCTION ANALYSIS OF A BREAK BULK TERMINAL…. 39
OPERATIONS
6. REDUCING DWELL TIME AND INCREASING EFFICIENCY AT
PORTS..43
6.1 Indian vs Rotterdam ports-a comparison
6.2 Benefits of IWT
7. APPROACH FOLLOWED FOR A BREAK BULK SHIPMENT……..51
7.1 The Cargo
7.2 Sea Route Planning
7.3 Carrier selection
7.4 Port selection
7.5 Transport route survey to the port
7.6 Loading operations
7.7 Terms of Payment
8. INDIAN PROJECT CARGO MARKET……………………….58
8.1 An overview
8.2 Problems faced for ODC shipments in India
9. FREIGHT RATE DECISION MODEL………………………….74
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10. RECESSION AND BREAK BULK……………………………..79

10.1Effect of recession on the break bulk industry
10.2Effect on the Shipping Lines
10.3Proposed solution
11. BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………...86
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ANALYSIS OF BREAK BULK SHIPMENTS
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CHAPTER 1
INDIAN SHIPBUILDING INDUSTRY
India's Shipbuilding Industry has been recognised by the Government of India as one of the
strategic industries to be developed to meet the country's Defence requirements and shipping
tonnage under the national merchant fleet. The existing Indian shipping fleet is however, small
compared to other countries with large registries and tax havens. Ninety per cent of all
India-owned ships are foreign built, and shipyards in India use mostly imported equipment.
Overall, there are 28 large, medium and small shipyards, many of them combining ship repair
services. Major shipyards are in the public sector. Further, over 40% of the Indian shipping fleet
is over 20 years old and would be due for replacement over the first half of the next decade. The
general cargo, bulk carriers and other miscellaneous class of ships are the ones that would
come up for replacement on a priority basis.
India's share in international shipbuilding is currently quite low and there are very few private
sector shipyards. India currently accounts for slightly over 1% of the worldwide shipbuilding
order book. However, more than half of the order books of Indian shipyards pertain to exports.
The Indian shipbuilding industry structure can be divided into three distinct segments:
Public sector shipyards: The public sector shipyards build merchant class ships. These
include Hindustan Shipyard, Cochin Shipyard, Hoogly Dock & Port Engineers and Central
Inland Water Transportation.
Defence shipyards: There are three naval shipyards under the purview of the Ministry of
Defence (MoD), which include Mazgaon Dock, Goa Shipyard and Garden Reach Shipbuilders
& Engineers.
Private shipyards: India has two mid-sized private shipyards namely ABG Shipyard and
Bharati Shipyard.
Besides, a number of smaller shipyards and repair yards manufacture smaller barges, tugs,
patrol ships, fishing ships. Some of the new entrants in the business of shipbuilding include
Pipavav Shipyard, Larsen & Toubro, Shipping Corporation of India, Reliance Group, Ruia
Group,
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Pipavav Shipyard, Larsen & Toubro, Shipping Corporation of India, Reliance Group,
Ruia Group, Adani Group, Tutocorin Port Trust, Tata Group, Mercator Lines and Dolphin
Offshore. Entry of these players would lead to growth of shipbuilding industry in India.
ADVANTGES INDIA VS GLOBAL
India enjoys cost advantages…
India has abundance of qualified manpower availability, which is cheaper than largest
hubs for shipbuilding in the world, Korea and Japan. China is another country where
labour cost is lower than Korea and Japan. Labour cost, as a percentage of total cost of
building a ship, is approximately 21-23% in Europe and Japan, whereas it is 19% in
Korea. The Indian shipyards enjoy an edge over their global counterparts where pricing
of the ships is concerned as they incur costs as low 8-10% to build a ship.
The Indian shipyards enjoy an edge over their global counterparts where pricing of the
ships is concerned
…possesses requisite talent

India has well qualified manpower in heavy engineering including maritime engineering,
naval architecture, port management and other ancillary education. Indian professionals
also have a good command over spoken and written English compared to their
counterparts in the other Asian countries, particularly China and Singapore. Good
communication skills facilitate the Indian professionals in maintaining good relations
with their existing clients as well as in generating repeat business.
Indian shipbuilders ensure quality and faster delivery of vessels
The quality of ships delivered by the Indian shipbuilders is also at par with the ships built
by the Korean shipyards. Pertinently, the Indian shipyards are also able to execute the
orders and deliver the ships faster than their Korean and Japanese counterparts, as they
are setting up new capacities. Thus, the ship buyer stands to benefit buying a vessel from
an Indian shipyard as he is ensured of faster of delivery of similar quality ships and at a
cheaper price. Indian shipbuilders, Bharati Shipyard and ABG Shipyard in particular,
enjoy an absolute advantage where bagging of orders from the global ship buyers is
concerned and are well placed to maintain their orders book position/backlog going
ahead.
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Earlier timeslots available which can be sold at a premium

The Indian companies are currently in the process of ramping up their shipbuilding
capacity. India has a long coastline with several locations for setting up large shipyards
advantageously. When these capacities get commissioned, these companies would be in a
position to give earlier delivery slots to the ship buyers.
Currently, most of the viable shipyards across the world are fully booked for the next
few years. Hence, early delivery slots of ships would command a premium to later
deliveries.
Good communication skills facilitate the Indian professionals in maintaining good
relations with their existing clients .Early delivery slots of ships would command a
premium
LABOUR RATES IN ASIAN COUNTRIES:-
Promotion of Domestic shipping routes to spur additional demand for ships

The Government of India is also in the process of implementing a Maritime Policy, which
would lead to several new ports and shipyards coming up across the coastline. This would
also lead to development of domestic water (coastal) transport system in the country,
which would in turn lead to demand for additional vessels.
Capability to manufacture Off-shore rigs, a technological breakthrough
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The Indian shipyards are also foraying into the manufacture of off-shore rigs, success of
which would place them among the elite list of yards having the capability to
manufacture offshore rigs.
Currently, there are only 9-10 yards in the world which manufacture off-shore rigs.
Among the Indian players, Bharati Shipyard is already in the process of manufacturing an
off-shore rig for Great Offshore, which is expected to be delivered by the end of FY2009
or beginning of FY2010.
Meanwhile ABG Shipyard is in negotiation with Essar Shipping for procuring a contract
to manufacture two off-shore rigs. We believe that further orders would start flowing in to
manufacture off-shore rigs once the current orders have been executed and the buyers,
particularly when the overseas players, are assured that the Indian shipyards have the
capability to manufacture sophisticated off-shore rigs.
Indian Shipping fleet small and due for Replacement
India's current shipping fleet is small compared to other countries and tax havens, which
have large registries. However, over 40% of the Indian shipping fleet is over 20 years old
and would be due for replacement over the first half of the next decade. The general
cargo, bulk carriers and other miscellaneous class of ships are due for replacement on a
priority basis. The Indian shipyards have the capability to manufacture most of these
ships and the players expect a large part of the replacement demand to be diverted to the
Indian shipyards.
Approximately, 63.5% of the Indian shipping fleet constitutes Oil tankers while Bulk
carriers make up 26.0%. Total size of the Indian merchant fleet was approximately
14.2mn dead weight ton (DWT) at the beginning of FY2007. The replacement market
would translate into 6.1mn DWT over the next decade on a conservative basis.
Currently, there are only 9-10 yards in the world which manufacture off-shore rigs
Over 40% of the Indian shipping fleet is more than 20 years old and would be due
for replacement
Age distribution of the Indian Merchant fleet (% of DWT, 2007)
Type 0-4 5-9 yrs 10-14 15-19 20+ Averag
yrs yrs yrs yrs e age
Bulk 1.6 7.9 15.2 5.3 70 19.8
carriers
Containersh 0 0 52 25.1 23 15.9
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ips
General 5.9 12.6 18.8 17.1 45.7 16.9
cargo
Oil tankers 31.6 8.4 15.6 15.5 28.9 12.5
Other types 3.3 5.8 1.1 26.3 63.5 20
All 20.5 8 14.7 14 42.8 15.2
Export led demand

Majority of the orders with the Indian shipyards pertain to exports. For example, 65% of
Bharati Shipyard's order book and 85% of ABG Shipyard's order book constitutes
exports. The Indian shipyards have carved a niche for themselves in the manufacture of
Off-shore Support Vessels (OSV) and Platform Support Vessels (PSV) and majority of
their order book pertains to this class of vessels.
GROWTH OF INDIAN FLEET:-
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CHAPTER 2
2.1 BREAK BULK CARGO HANDLING :-

"Break-bulk" cargo handling is the method employed since the earliest days of shipping.
A bulk of cargo is broken down into groups that can be handled by the equipment
available. Break bulk cargo is cargo that may be affixed to a pallet. Palletized cargo is
organized in such a way as to facilitate the loading into the ship by crane or derrick. The
ship may carry some bulk cargo, some break bulk and some containers.
For deep draft trades, domestic and international, dry bulk goods use bulk ships.
In this kind of system the high-value cargo was packaged in cases or pallets for shipment
and loaded and unloaded on a piece-by-piece or pallet-by-pallet basis.
In the shipping industry, profit is made by keeping the ships on the move without
significant delays in docking time for loading and unloading of goods which are being
transported. When a ship comes to port, depending on the harbor, pilot tugs or the like
may be employed to bring the ship to dock. Once docked, it is relatively impractical and
inefficient to move the ship until it is ready to depart for its next destination.
The four largest segments in the shipping industry are tankers, which carry such
cargo as crude oil and petroleum products; bulk carriers, which carry iron ore, coal and
grain; containerships, which carry only containers; and gas tankers, which carry mostly
liquefied petroleum gas (“LPG”) and liquefied natural gas (“LNG”). According to the
latest available figures, total annual world seaborne trade in 2007 almost reached
8.0 billion metric tonnes, of which dry bulk cargoes accounted for 3.0 billion metric
tonnes. The following table illustrates the evolution of the various categories of cargoes
that comprise world seaborne trade.
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World Seaborne Trade
1997 2002 2007

Million tonnes
Crude oil 1,554 1,667 1,986

Oil products 505 543 771
Break Bulk 2031 7441 9995
Dry Bulk 741 811 1,029
Container 470 718 1,246
L LNG 119 150 210
Ttotal 5,419 6,208 7,973
Conventional ships have on-board crane systems to assist in the loading and unloading of
cargo. Due to the limited reach of such crane systems, after a ship is docked, there is a
relatively fixed embarkation/debarkation area on the dock defined by the reach of the
ship's crane.
The shipping of break bulk goods such as cocoa beans from third world nations to the
United States provides an example of the conventional shipping process. The cocoa beans
are grown abroad, harvested and packed into 150 pound sacks. The sacks are transported
to the dock area where they are placed on pallets having lifting slings attached,
commonly referred to as a sling and/or sling load of cocoa beans.
The slings of cargo are arranged in groups adjacent to each other, the number of slings
per group preferably equalling the capacity of the on-board crane which the ship
employs.
Typically, for a ship with a large capacity crane, only one or two groups of slings can be
positioned on the dock in the embarkation area for the ship. As the ship's crane lifts the
first group of slings and transfers the group into the ship's cargo hold, more slings of
cocoa beans are assembled in the space vacated by the first group. The loading process
continues until a desired number of sling groups are aboard the ship. As the groups of
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slings are placed in the hold of the ship, the groupings of slings remain intact to facilitate
off-loading without any unnecessary handling.
Break bulk ships are mainly classified into 3 ship types:-

Handy (15-49,999dwt),
Panamax (50-79,999dwt)
Capesize (80,000+)
Maritime
cargo
General cargo Bulk cargo
Break Neo bulk containers Liquid bulk Dry bulk

bulk
Marine terminals can be

categorized into five fundamental terminal types (refer to Figure 2). These
terminal types are described as follows:
1) Break bulk cargo; includes palletized, bagged and loose-stowed cargo.

2) Neo bulk cargo; generally steel, lumber and autos.
3) Containerized cargo; includes containers and ro-ro truck trailers.
4) Liquid bulk cargo; includes crude petroleum, petroleum products and
chemicals.
5) Dry bulk cargo; generally consists of grain or coal, includes other dry
cargo.
2.2 OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR BREAK BULK AND HEAVY LIFT

CARGOES:-
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The objective of this section is to provide an overall picture of an industry sector which is
an essential part of cargo handling and general shipping practice. It does not have such a
high profile as the container or Ro-Ro movement, but it is, nevertheless, an indispensable
arm to the practice of shipping.
HATCHWORK-
Weather deck hatch covers

Steel weather deck hatch covers now dominate virtually all sectors of general, bulk and
container shipping. Conventional wooden hatch covers have been eclipsed by the steel
designs which are much stronger as well as being
easier and quicker to operate
Better watertight integrity is achieved and they are labour saving, in that one man could
open five hatches in the time it would take to strip a single conventional wooden hatch.
The disadvantages are that they are initially more expensive to install, and carry a
requirement for more levels of skilled maintenance.
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Folding hydraulic operated, steel hatch covers, seen in the vertical

open position.
Folding (hydraulic operated) hatch covers

The more modern method of operating steel hatch covers is by hydraulics, opening the
sections in folding pairs.
-:LOADING AND DISCHARGING HEAVY LIFTS:-
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• Prior to commencing the lift, the derrick and associated lifting gear needs to be
prepared. Where a load is outside the SWL of a ship’s gear, either a floating crane
or a specialized heavy-lift vessel would be employed.
• Preparation time for the derrick can vary depending on the type, but a period of up
to 2 h would not be unusual. Man-management of the rigging crew and advance
planning with regard to the number of lifts and in what order they are to be made,
in relation to the port of discharge and order of reception of cargo parcels, would
be the expected norm.
• Stability detail
It must be anticipated that the vessel will go to an angle of heel when making the
lift with the derrick extended. This angle of heel should be calculated and the loss
of metacentric height (‘GM’) ascertained prior to commencing the lift. Clearly,
any loss of positive stability should be kept to a minimum .
• Operation
Adequate manpower should be available in the form of competent winch drivers
and the supervising controller. Winches should be set into double gear for slow
operation and steadying lines of appropriate size should be secured to points on
the load to allow position adjustments to be made.
• Slinging arrangements
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Use of heavy duty lifting beams. Two Huisman shipboard cranes (each at 275-tonne
SWL) hoist the new ferry load Fiorello, by means of two heavy duty lifting beams .
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JUMBO DERRICKS
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Tandem lifting
It is not unusual these days to encounter specialized vessels, fitted with heavy lift, dual
capacity speed cranes. Such ships have the ability to work conventional loads but have
the flexibility to load containers or project heavy-lift cargoes.
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Heavy-lift floating crane

When the load is too great to be handled by the ship’s own lifting gear, the floating crane
option is usually the next immediate choice. Most major ports around the world have this
facility as an alternative option for heavy specialist work. The type of activity is two-fold,
because, if loaded by this means at the port of departure, the same load must be
discharged at its destination by similar or equivalent methods.
The construction of these conventional cranes is such that the crane is mounted on a
pontoon barge with open deck space to accommodate the cargo parcel.
Having gained now enough knowledge about break bulk shipments let us now try to
measure what forces affect the break bulk industry?
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CHAPTER 3
3.1 APPLICATION OF PORTER’S FIVE FORCES TO A BREAKBULK

TERMINAL
The above chart offers an overview of the forces that affect the industry.
The effect that each force has on the industry is discussed below.
THREAT OF NEW ENTRANTS:-
The threat of entry in a break bulk terminal industry is low due to a number of factors.
1. First of all , starting a terminal is difficult. There are many hurdles and barriers to
clear even before a company can begin to design a terminal. A new entrant usually
occurs because existing terminals cannot meet the demands required of them.
• CAPITAL INTENSIVE INDUSTRY:
All terminals are large heavy industrial sites , requiring a large amount of capital
to build, the largest among them being the equipment infrastructure costs.
• TIME INTENSIVE INDUSTRY:
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Few companies in the world design and manufacture machines capable of lifting
millions of tons, and they can take a year or more to assemble which occurs on
location.
• Owning or leasing land in a port is very expensive due to its geographical

limitations.
2. EXPERIENCE MATTERS:
Another barrier to entry is the learning curve associated with the industry.
Maximizing efficiencies out of the equipment takes time. Experience is gained by
running the equipments, making mistakes and learning from them. It can take
years for operational personnel to maximize efficiencies out of machinery and for
the maintenance personnel to learn proper routines for maintenance of these
complex machines.
3. Lack of space also creates a barrier to entry in the industry. The existing
infrastructure ensures that ports exist only in a few highly industrialized areas. A
new competitor must buy large parcels of land in these areas to build a terminal.
4. Even after investing in a terminal; it should have a required partnership with inter
modal transportation facilities to enable product to arrive and leave the site.
5. Government policies can be a deterrent to new entrants. Port authorities are

mostly governmental agencies that administer the working of the ports. Any new
entrant must satisfy the terms and conditions associated with the government
mostly relating to environmental concerns, pollution, and safety of the workers.
Satisfying these conditions and getting a government approval can take a huge
amount of time.
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6. Another important factor is that other terminals are facing an unprecedented

growth. Container traffic has risen on an average of 10% over the years and is
expected to grow. The huge profits and surge in demand distracts investors and
creates difficulty in raising necessary funds to open and operate a bulk terminal.
BARGAINING POWER OF THE CUSTOMERS:
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Customers have a moderate amount of power in the breakbulk industry.

Customers are defined as parties that are invoiced by the terminals for the services
performed. They may be either buyer or supplier of the commodity.
• Factors which increase customer power:-
1. CHOICE OF MULTIPLE TERMINALS
Customer power increases in the scenario that they have choices of

multiple terminals to ship their products. This allows them to play the
terminals against each other in contract negotiations.
2. Existing break bulk terminals have an advantage in the sense that they are
integrated with various buyers , suppliers in the form of long term
contracts etc...
• Factors which decrease customer power:-
1. There are a few terminals within geography available to the shippers. The
transportation cost and limited number of terminals lessen the power of
the customer.
2. Customers need to keep the product moving. They don’t have the time to
wait for better terms to have the product shipped. A disruption in supply
waiting for better terms can be very costly for their manufacturing
processes. Also, once a manufacturing process starts it is very costly to
stop.
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3. Terminals mostly enter into a long time contract with the logistics
companies. Customers not owning terminals have to go through logistics
companies to ship their products and agree to their terms and conditions as
per their contract.
BARGAINING POWER OF THE SUPPLIERS:-

The power that suppliers exert on the industry is high. Terminals must focus on labour
and specially equipment suppliers which are very few in number.
1. The most important factor is organized labour which mainly exists in the form of
unions. These unions are mainly involved in loading, unloading to and from these
vessels and storage of the cargo in the warehouses. The union has the capability to
shut down activity in the entire terminal. Therefore, they must be handled with
care.
2. Equipment suppliers provide homogenous and specialized products to terminals

for their day to day operations. While terminals form a major customer base; they
are not the only customers. Equipment suppliers can stand losing out a terminal.
THREAT OF SUBSTITUTE PRODUCTS AND SERVICES:-

The threat of substitutes as a replacement for break bulk terminals is very low . currently
there is not much evidence that substitutes exist.
Air transport can come close to as a substitute but it is only valid when high value
delivery and / or immediate delivery is required.
RIVALRY AMONG EXISTING COMPETITORS:-

There is a moderate to high degree of rivalry among the existing competitors.
All terminals offer homogenous services i.e. the operation procedures are the same
everywhere . the main distinguishing factors are:
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• Price
• Port infrastructure in the form of Heavy equipments, loading capacities etc.
• Berth depth
• Space can also be a major factor. It can give terminals the advantage to take on
cheaply more products.
• The relationship that a terminal with labour union. A poor relationship can make a
terminal non – productive.
3.2
Break-bulk terminals Container terminals

Small terminal surface Large terminal surface
Less transshipment possible More transshipment
Limited mechanization and automation Advanced mechanization and automation
Improvisation in terminal operations Organization and planning
Conventional break-bulk terminals are mainly focused on direct transshipment from the
deepsea vessel to inland transport modes. Direct transshipment is associated with very
short dwell times (the average time the cargo remains stacked on the terminal and during
which it waits for some activity to occur), requiring only a small temporary storage area
on the terminal. Transshipment is very labor intensive with operations managed on an ad-
hoc basis. It is common due to the lengthy loading or unloading process to have goods
move directly from the land mode (trucks or rail) to the ship or vice-versa and ships
staying at berth for several days.
The introduction of container vessels meant larger cargo volumes per port call and shorter
handling times per ton. Both factors made direct transshipment no longer feasible as this
would require a large amount of trucks, barges and trains to be in place during the
vessel’s short port stay. Due to congestion, capacity and availability of inland
transportation containerization contributed to a modal separation on terminals and the
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setting of a significant buffer in the form of large stockage areas. Each transport mode
received a specific area on the terminal, so that operations on vessels, barges, trucks and
trains could not obstruct one another. This modal separation in space was a requirement
for setting up a system of indirect transshipment whereby each transport mode follows its
own time schedule and operational throughput, implying a modal separation in time.
Under the indirect transshipment system, the terminal stacking area functions as a buffer
and temporary storage area between the deepsea operations and the land transport
operations that take place later in the process. As a consequence, and in spite of higher
turnover levels, the space consumed by container terminals increased substantially. In
turn, these space requirements changed the geography of ports and the migration of
terminals to new peripheral sites.
But the break bulk still rule the over dimensional cargo department where containers are
not possible and feasible
CHAPTER 4
FREIGHT STRUCTURE:-
4.1 Definition:-
“The price paid to a ship owner for the transportation of goods or merchandise by
sea from one specific port to another. The word "freight" is also used to denote
goods, which are in the process of being transported from one place to another. The
cost to transport supplies, materials, or equipment via a commercial carrier; also
may include packing, crating, and handling costs”
 Freight rates quoted – either per ton of 2240 lb (weight) or on 40 ft (cubic
measurement) per ton - whichever produce greater revenue
 With spread of metric system - many freight rates - quoted per 1000 kg or m3
(35.3 ft)
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4.2 TYPES OF SEA FREIGHT RATES:-

 Advance freight - Payable in advance, before delivery of goods - used in liner
cargo trade and tramping
 Lump sum freight - Payable for use of whole or portion of a ship.
 Dead freight- damage claim for breach of contract by the charterer to furnish a
full cargo to a ship
 Back freight – Goods on arrival are refused then the freight charged for the return
of the goods constitutes back freight.
 Pro-rata freight – circumstances make it impossible to continue the voyage

further - accept delivery at an intermediate port
 Ad valorem freight: - Arises when cargo is assessed for rate purposes on a

percentage of its value
The ocean transport industry provides a wide range of shipping services which may be
broadly split into
two main categories:
• Tramp shipping
• Liner shipping
There are six distinct markets which are served, namely

1. the dry bulk trades
2. the oil and refined products trades
3. the gas and chemical trades
4. the general cargo trades
5. the container trades
6. the reefer (i.e., refrigerated cargo) trades
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Liner vessels are those which call regularly on specific ports under fixed schedules,
and cater to the transport requirements of the public at large without discrimination
(known as common carriers), charging fares/ freights which are already fixed and
specified for the reference/ guidance of the public.
Tramping vessels on the other hand, operate without any regular ports of call nor
schedules, providing transport services only on the basis of negotiations. The
environment in which tramp shipping takes place is close to the model of perfect
competition, and pricing is fully governed by the law of supply and demand.
Ships are chartered under different terms and conditions, including

• single voyage or consecutive voyage charters
• contracts of affreightment, period
• time charter,
• trip charter,
• Bare boat charter.
The composition of the charter rates under each of the above arrangements is
depicted in the table below.
Voyage Affreightm. Time/trip Bareboat

Capital Costs x x x x
Operating Costs x x x
Voyage Costs x x
Cargo Handling Costs x
The major elements which influence the fixing of a specific rate are:
(a) Ship specification
(b) Trade and route
(c) General market conditions
(d) Terms of charter party, i.e., distribution of costs between ship owner and charterer
(e) Duration of charter
(f) The urgency of the charter
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(g) The convenience of the charter to the ship owner
Typical monthly charter rates (US$/DWT) at the beginning of 1990 were:

bulk carriers (time charter):
25,000 DWT - 10.15;
60,000 DWT - 6.35;
120,000 DWT - 4.70;
Tankers (time charter):
30,000 DWT - 9.70;
80,000 DWT - 5.35;
250,000 DWT - 2.00;
Page 32 of 89
Page 33 of 89
4.3 LINER SHIPPING

Liner shipping takes place in an environment which is totally different from tramp
shipping in that liner services are provided on the basis of fixed schedules and itineraries.
Until recently, the liner shipping sector was largely oligopolistic in that these services
were controlled by cartels, called shipping conferences.
A conference exists for each major trade route, and it is the conferences that draw up
tariffs, scheduling freight rates at which goods will be transported.
Conventional breakbulk (general cargo) liner tariff rates are assessed on :

• cargo weight
or
• measurement
or
• value.
Goods measuring
< 40 cu.ft. per 1,000 kg are charged on a cargo weight basis
>40 cu ft measured by the measurement tariff scale.
If goods are of very high value, they are charged irrespective of weight and
measurement on an ad valorem basis.
Listing of some of the fees and surcharges that you might see in a quotation from
a forwarder or customs broker or ocean carrier:
• Currency Adjustment Factor,
• Bunker Adjustment Factor,
Page 34 of 89
• Origin and Destination Terminal Handling Charges,

• Peak Season Surcharge,
• Automated Manifest Security Surcharge,
• Congestion Surcharge,
• Bill of Lading Issuance Fees,
• Detention/Demurrage Fees, and
• Others, as applicable.
4.4:SEA FREIGHT CALCULATIONS:
Introduction
Seafreight calculations can broadly be divided into two main components: breakbulk and
containerised. In this section we deal with only break bulk cargo calculations.
Break bulk cargo calculations
Break bulk cargo, is cargo that is unitised, palletised or strapped. This cargo is measured
along the greatest length, width and height of the entire shipment. The cargo is also
weighed. Shipping lines quote break bulk cargo per "freight ton", which is either 1 metric
ton or 1 cubic metre, which ever yields the greatest revenue.
Example:
A case has a gross mass of 2 Mt.
The dimensions of the cargo are:
2.5 X 1 X 2 meters
The tariff rate quoted by the shipping line is: USD 110.00 weight or measure (freight ton)
Step 1
Multiply the meters 2.5 X 1 X 2 = 5 meters
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Step 2
Calculate the freight with the greater amount either the mass or the dimension. 5 X USD
110.00 = USD 550.00
Freight would be paid on the measurement and not the weight. All shipping lines carrying
cargo in a break-bulk form insist on payment based on a minimum freight charge which
is equivalent to one freight ton, one cubic metre or one metric ton.
SURCHARGES:-
From time to time, abnormal or exceptional costs arise in respect of which no provision
has been made in the tariffs. For example a shipping line cannot predict the movement of
the US Dollar or the sudden increase of the international oil price. These increases have
to be taken into account by the shipping line in order to ensure that the shipping line
continues to operate at a profit. These increases are called surcharges.
All shipping lines accordingly retain the right to impose an adjustment factor upon their
rates taking into account these fluctuations. All surcharges are expressed as a percentage
of the basic freight rate. Surcharges are regularly reviewed in the light of unforeseen
circumstances, which may arise and bring cause for a surcharge increase.
Bunker Adjustment Factor (BAF)
"Bunkers" is the generic name given to fuels and lubricants that provide energy to power
ships. The cost of bunker oil fluctuates continually and with comparatively little warning.
Example:
Freight rate: Port Elizabeth to Singapore
Suppose,
Freight rate: US Dollar: 1 250.00 per tone + BAF 5.2%
US Dollar 1 250.00 X 5.2% = US Dollar 65.00
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Add the two amounts together

Freight rate: U S Dollar 1 315.00
Currency Adjustment Factor (CAF)
The currency adjustment factor is a mechanism for taking into account fluctuations in
exchange rates, these fluctuations occur when expenses are paid in one currency and
monies earned in another by a shipping company. The currency adjustment factor is a
mechanism for taking into account these exchange rate fluctuations. It is always
expressed as a percentage of the basic freight and is subject to regular review.
Example:
Freight rate: US Dollar: 1 250.00 per tone + CAF 6.3%
War Surcharge
The outbreak of hostilities between nations can have a serious effect upon carriers
servicing international trade even though they may sail under a neutral flag. Carriers
sailing within the vicinity of a war zone may impose a war surcharge on freight to
compensate for the higher risks involved and the higher levels of insurance premium,
which they may be obliged to pay.
Example:
Freight rate: US Dollar: 1 250.00 per tone + WAR 5%
US Dollar 1 250.00 X 5% = US Dollar 62.50
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All of the above surcharges may be applied to a single freight rate.
Example:
Freight rate: US Dollar: 1 250.00 per 6-M container
+ BAF 5.2%
+ CAF 6.3%
+ WAR 5%
Total amount of surcharge 16.5%
(add to freight rate)
US Dollar 1 456.25
Port Congestion Surcharge
Congestion in a port for a period of time can involve considerable idle time for vessels
serving that port. When a ship lies idle, this creates a huge amount of loss for the ship's
owner. Shipping lines therefore have the right to impose a surcharge on the freight to
recover revenue lost. Another factor which influences port congestion surcharge would be
labour disputes. Port congestion surcharges are calculated as a percentage of the freight
rate as expressed in the previous examples.
Page 38 of 89
CHAPTER 5
OPERATIONAL ANALYSIS OF BREAK BULK TERMINALS
5.1 The operations that mainly take place in a break bulk terminal are:-
Ship to Storage Documentation

storage to and customs Gate passing time
Rail/truc examination
The methodology:-
What we are going to do here is consider a certain element of each operation as the
measure of productivity of that procedure . then all the individual productivities are
compared together and potential bottlenecks are identified.
Procedure:-
1.SHIP TO STORAGE
After the vessel arrives i.e. the vessel arrival notice has been given how long does it
take for the cargo to be moved to the storage area?
The main elements to be considered are ;
• Hatch time: due to uneven distribution of cargo among hatches some cargo
might be heavily loaded while others might be not.
• Pre berthing time :- the waiting time for the vessel before the cranes are ready
to unload the cargo.
• Availability of cranes
• Resource allocation:-the number of cranes to be allocated to the hatches
The main element that has been considered here for our analysis is the pre berthing time.
The pre berthing time for Mumbai port has been found out to be 17.28 hours.
Factors contributing to PBT are mainly due to port account factors and non port account
factors.
Factors contributing to Port Account:
1. Non- availability of working berth as the berth is occupied by another working vessel
2. Lack of availability of cranes
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3. Non- availability of berth as all other berth are fully occupied

4. Discharging/loading in midstream due to non-availability of berth
Factors contributing to Non-Port Account:
1. Documents not ready
2. Cargo not ready
3. Lack of storage space in shed/tanks (not/poor clearance)
4. Waiting for barges
5. Mid-stream discharge to meet draft requirement
1. STORAGE TO RAIL / TRUCK
This factor mainly gauges the waiting time of the cargo on the port before it loaded on to
some truck / rail and discharged to its destination. This waiting time is also known as the
dwelling time of the port.
The dwelling factor for break bulk cargo in the Mumbai port has found out to be 7
days.
2. DOCUMENTATION AND THE INSPECTION TIME:-
Request for berthing of vessel

• Agencies Involved – Shipping Agent, Port.
• Documents Required – Berthing application, Payment
receipt for berth hire and stevedoring , Certified hazardous
cargo list.
Time Taken- 30 min
Berthing of vessel
• Agencies Involved – Shipping Agent, Port, PHO, Police, Immigration,
Customs, Rammaging (for narcotics).
• Documents Required- ISPS declaration, copy of P&I cover, Application

to DC, Details about crew, boarding set consisting ship & crew details,
PHO form.
Time Taken- 1 to 3 hrs.
Discharging of cargo and movement to storage

Submission of Advance
• Agencies list,–IGM
Involved and advance
Shipping Agent, payment
Customs,ofPort,
container
Port’srelated
charges at Port
CUSTOMS INSPECTION
Transporters.
• Agencies Involvedrequired:
• Documents – Shipping
billAgent, Port.,
of lading Page 40 of 89
• Documents Required-
invoice copy yard Planning form, Tally sheet.
• Documents Required - Hard copy of IGM, Port Payment Receipts.
Time Taken-
Time20 taken
min. – 1.5 -2 hrs
Time Taken- 30 min
TOTAL
TIME TAKEN:- 5.4 TO 6 HOURS
3. GATE PASSING OPERATIONS:-
The main elements to be considered here are:

• Presentation of the correct clearance documents
• Traffic congestion at the gate
Since no quantifiable data was found for gate congestion therefore the average time taken
for clearance of documents of the gate was taken into consideration.
Movement from CY to Out Gate / ICD, Out Gate Operations
• Agencies Involved –Port, Shipping Agent, Port’s Transporters.
• Documents Required- Advance list, Gate Pass,
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Time Taken- 30 min
Summarizing ,
PARAMETER SHIP TO STORAGE TO DOCUMENTATION GATE
STORAGE RAIL/TRUCK PASSING
TIME
HOURS 17.28 7 DAYS 5.4 TO 6 HRS 0.5 HOURS
Thus from the above table we see that most of the time is taken during storage
operations leading to low efficiencies of ports
0PARAMETERS SANGHAI HOUSTON ANTWERP MUMBAI
Overall cargo 561000000 225000000 182896788 5024000
traffic
CRANES Four 50 Two 40.6 30 dock Two 30
metric ton metric ton cranes with metric ton
cranes container lifting cranes
Mobile cranes capacity
cranes upto Mobile upto 100 Mobile truck
400 tonnes truck cranes tonnes cranes with
Other heavy upto 3 floating SWL of 250
cranes 300tons craneswith tons
available on >500 tonnes lifting
special available on capacity
arrangement special upto 800
arrangement tonnes
No of berths 140
Draft (Avg. depth 7 mts (too 14 mts 15 mts 10.5 mts
of harbor) less...at least
14 mts
required for
deep water
port)
Average 0.5 days 0.5 days 0.7 days 7.96 days
turnaround time
of ships
Crane 36 moves per 26 moves 36 moves 17.75 moves
productivity hour per hour per hour per hour
Total quay length 11,754 mts 845 metres 1250 mts 600 mts can
can accommodate
accommodate maximum
41 vessels nine vessels
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CHAPTER 6
:REDUCING DWELL TIME AND INCREASING EFFICIENCY AT PORTS:
Definition of Dwell Time

The duration for which an entity stays in the port for service is called dwell
time of the entity. In the port parlance, the entities are mainly the vessel and cargo /
containers.
Vessel related dwell time
From the time a vessel reports at anchorage to the time it is cast-off
from the berth, is the Turn Round Time for the vessel.
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Dwell time of a vessel/shipment broadly reflects the efficiency of the port.

AVERAGE DWELL TIME FOR INDIAN PORTS (IN DAYS):-
PORTS BREAKBULK IMPORT BREAKBULK EXPORTS
KANDLA 7 7
HALDIA 5 6
KPT 5 6
MUMBAI 7 7
AVERAGE 6 DAYS 6.5 DAYS
Including warehousing , the average dwell time at major Indian ports are:
Import:- 9.87 + 6 = 15.87 days
Export:-10.6 + 6.5 = 17.1 days
It is observed that the port’s role in the entire logistics chain is barest minimum to
provide the infrastructure facilities for handling of vessels, containers and other
cargo. A detailed time study of the actual time taken by the port authority for handling
import and export cargo in the breakbulk terminal was carried out. It revealed
that the total time taken by the port authority, cumulatively, is 3-4 hrs for import
and 3-4 hrs for export.
Thus it can be observed that the rest of the time the cargo/vessel dwells in the port is on
the account of other stakeholders like shipping agents, customs, Clearing agents /
transporters etc who have to play their respective roles in preparing & furnishing the
requisite information to the port authority, arrange for funds for making payment of port
charges, arranging for transport etc.
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Vessel reporting
Pre berthing detention
(A)
Vessel readiness for

berthing
Transit time
Vessel berthing
Non working time (C1)
Operations commenced
Working time (D) + non working time (C2)
Operations completed
Non working time
(C3)
Vessel sailing from berth
TOTAL TURNAROUND TIME = A

+B+C(C1+C2+C3) +D
PORTS PRE TRANSIT NON WORKING TRT IN

BERTHING TIME (B) WORKING TIME DAYS
TIME (A) TIME (C)
KANDLA 1.65 0.083 0.40 2.26 4.39
HALDIA 2.16 0.083 0.79 0.97 4.00
KPT 0.40 0.083 1.17 2.46 4.12
MUMBAI 1.00 0.083 0.70 2.31 4.09
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6.1 Comparison of Indian port with Rotterdam port in terms of port efficiency
parameters:-
Parameters Indian port Rotterdam port
Evacuation / Aggregation Cargo is predominantly by Most of the bulk cargo and
of cargo road and rail only. the
containers movement
through
barges accounts for 50-60%
transportation because of
excellent
inland water networking.
Level of Mechanization The extent of mechanization The level of mechanization
is less in Indian Major Ports is very
high with the latest
technologies
applied in all spheres
Location of Port based Most of the manufacturing Most of the manufacturing
Industries firms are located away from units are
the ports located within the Port,
thereby the evacuation is
very fast
Availability of storage Land is very scarce in Ports. As so much of land is
space Hence, evacuation has to available at
take place. the Rotterdam Port, the
more
number of days the cargo
lies inside
the Terminal, the revenue is
high to
the Terminal Operator
Information Exchange EDI implementation is EDI networking is
partial. complete and total and
Too many human interfaces hence, there
and manual exchange of is no physical movement
documents. paper
from any place. Human
intervention
is almost nil. All payments
are also
done electronically.
NO. of quay cranes in MBPT the total no of the total quay length is
quay cranes is 8 nos. with a 11,654 mts covering a total
quay length of 600 mts of 4 terminals with a
Page 46 of 89
covering a total of three capacity of 131 quay

terminals cranes.
Summarizing the factors that contribute to the reduced efficiency at Indian ports
are:-
• Inadequate port capacity: the growth in cargo has been phenomenal while
concurrent growth in capacity has not been able to keep pace with it.
• Inadequate navigational aids and facilities: Certain Ports like Mumbai are already
equipped with Vessel Traffic Management System (VTMS), whereas most of the
other Ports are not equipped
with such facilities.
• channel width restrictions leading to unidirectional vessel movements causing

waiting of vessels for service
• insufficient cargo handling equipments/machinery
• shortage of storage space on the ports:- As a consequence, cargo

aggregation/evacuation is seriously affected. The lack of storage space affects the
discharge / loading rate of the vessel.
• Low IT application in case of documentation
MEASURES THAT CAN BE TAKEN TO INCREASE EFFICIENCY AT PORTS:-

• Up gradation of machinery and cargo handling equipment and appointing a
qualified workforce for handling and maintenance purposes.
• Development of inland water transportation facilities for smooth aggregation and

evacuation of cargo.
• Application of IT extensively in the documentation department.
Page 47 of 89
The concept of IWT is of greatest concern amongst the above three. Let us now
elaborate more on that.
6.2 BENEFITS OF INLAND WATER TRANSPORTATION:-

For increasing efficiency at the ports and reducing the turnaround time , a measure for
implementing inland water transportation was suggested. Now we will check the viability
of that.
Water based transport is effective as generally speaking, operating costs of fuel are low
and environmental pollution is lower than for corresponding volumes of movement by
road, rail or air. A major advantage is that the main infrastructure – the waterway – is
often naturally available, which then has to be “trained”, maintained and upgraded.
Transport over waterways is especially effective when the source and/or destination are
waterfront locations.
Out of 14500 kms of navigable waterways IWT consists of only 2716 kms consisting of
three national waterways in total. This shows what a huge potential is lying untapped
within our country.
DISTANCE (Kms)
1 National Waterway 1
(Allahabad -Haldia
stretch of Ganga 1620
-Bhagirathi-Hooghly
river system)
2 National Waterway 2 891
(Sadiya-Dhubri
Page 48 of 89
stretch of
Brahmaputra river
system)
3 National Waterway 3
(Kollam-Kottapuram
stretch of
West Coast Canal
205
along with
Champakara Canal
and Udyog-
Mandal Canal)
Total 2716
Operational feasibility of IWT:-
IWT is a capital intensive industry, even for operators, as significant investment is

required in vessels, for a start. Investments required to provide and maintain the
waterway and terminals are of an even higher scale and can be maintained by government
agencies and few other customers like refineries and steel plants.
Operating costs can be categorized as below:-

• Vehicle costs
• Fuel costs
• Crew costs
• Maintenance costs
• Loading Unloading costs
-:INCOME AND OPERATIONAL COSTS FOR:-

Barge Size Tons 750 1000
Draft Meters 2.5-2.6 2.8
INCOME FROM IWT/ANNUM

Effective Loading Tons 750 1000
Trips number/annum 200 180
Throughput per barge Tons/annum 150000 180000
Rate Rs/ton 50.5 50.5
Total Rs lakhs 75.75 90.90
OPERATING COSTS/ANNUM
Page 49 of 89
FUEL COSTS
HSD litres/trip 400 500
HSD Rate Rs/litre 24.4 24.4
Lube litres/trip 8 10
Lube Rate Rs/litre 70 70
HSD Cost Rs lakhs 19.52 21.96
Lube Cost Rs lakhs 1.12 1.26
Crew size Number 12 14
WAGE COSTS Rs lakhs 13.30 14.55
ANNUAL REPAIRS Rs lakhs 12.00 15.00
RUNNING
REPAIRS AND
CONSUMABLES Rs lakhs 3.00 4.00
INSURANCE Rs lakhs 1.60 2.00
TAXES AND PORT

CHARGES Rs lakhs 2.00 3.00
ADMINISTRATION
COSTS Rs lakhs 3.00 4.00
TOTAL Rs lakhs 55.54 65.77
FREIGHT RATE COMPARISON OF IWT AND ROADWAYS
DISTANCE ROAD IWT
300-350 1.49 0.68
350-400 1.37 0.66
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400-450 1.35 0.64
450-500 1.23 0.63
Above 500 0.94 0.63
Thus we can see that the IWT transportation is much cheaper mode of transportation.
But there are certain problems and issues in IWT:

• There are 14 500 km of potentially navigable Inland Waterways, but the modal
share of IWT in organized sector is 0.24%
• Till date, there is not a single full-fledged IWT port
• The fleet strength in IWT sector is 430 (number) only,of which more than 50% is
obsolete and non-operational
• Infrastructural facilities , night navigational facilities and intermodal linkages are
grossly inadequate.
• Investment in IWT modes is grossly inadequate. While investment for
development and maintainance of roads is around 5 crore /km ; for IWT it is only
around 0.11 crore per km which is inadequate.
Page 51 of 89
MOVEMENT OF CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT ON BARGE ON RIVER GANGA
MOVEMENT OF ODC ON BARGE ON RIVER GANGA
Page 52 of 89
CHAPTER 7
APPROACH TOWARDS BREAK BULK SHIPMENTS

ELEMENTS TO BE CONSIDERED INTO CONSIDERATION:
The most important things to be taken into consideration are

• The packing list which would contain details of the cargo handled. Its weight and
dimensions, the packaging specifications etc…
• The time period basically refers to the The time between the cargo readiness date
and the cargo demand date i.e when the cargo is to be shipped?
The answer to the question will be vital in deciding the mode of transport to be ,
the carrier line and in turn on those factors the total cost of movement would
depend
Page 53 of 89
• The INCO terms i.e. based on what terms the transportation would take place ?
this will basically distribute the risks , responsibility and freight costs among the
buyer and the supplier.
The factors are now broken down and then discussed in detail:
7.1THE CARGO:-
What is the cargo to be transported?
Is it ODC , is the material hazardous ?
What would be the ideal transportation mode for transportation of the material?
For all these questions, you need to know the cargo. What is the cargo composed of?
What all special documentation would be required for transportation of the cargo?
All these feasibility factors are to be taken into consideration before shipment of the
cargol?
DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHT OF THE CARGO:-
This is required for the deciding on the mode of transport. Freight rates are also
dependent on a weight/volume measure. The
PACKAGING OF THE CARGO: ODC load mainly remains unpacked . Wooden saddles
are first placed on the hydraulic trailer in a manner that is load is evenly distributed over
the axles of a hydraulic trailer . Mostly in India , road transport is used for transporting
the material from the manufacturing facility to the port.
7.2.SEA ROUTE PLANNING:

The sea route is mainly planned out by the shipping lines themselves taking into
consideration:
• Demand and supply
• Weather consideration
• Calls made to ports with adequate infrastructure facilities
• Width of the gate
Page 54 of 89
• Availability of berthing space , route congestion:-

This is an important factor to be taken into consideration . for e.g. in some places like
Italy permission for taking a vessel through that route is available only on weekdays.
Obstructions faced during the sea route like natural calamities are taken care of by the
captain of the ship.
7.3.CARRIER SELECTION:
All enquiries were floated on liner terms, since liner services have a regular schedule
regardless of cargo demand .
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE CARRIER SELECTION

The deciding criterion for mode/carrier selection is based on the selection of either the
lowest total transport cost or the shortest transit time for the cargo. The peculiar nature of
each transport mode, namely; rail, sea, road and air, will definitely earn their own places
when shippers need to make a decision on their shipments. The nature of the cargo will
also affect the choice of carrier/mode when they are transported in break bulk.
Demand for freight movement is mainly driven by the derived demand from the shippers.
Unless there is a need, it is impossible for carriers to provide their service to just coincide
with need.
Freight modal choice and carrier selection depends not only on the demand for transport
but also on infrastructure and service supply characteristics. The latter will influence
quality of service provision and hence will affect other key logistics variables such as
company inventory levels and the order cycle. Therefore, mode and carrier choice will
hinge not only simply on general transportation costs but on the impact on the total
logistics costs facing the particular shipper.
What we are going to do here is examine the carrier selection process by exploring the
differences in carriers’ and shippers’ perceptions in terms of choice criteria.
Page 55 of 89
Further carrier selection criteria should be further expanded into two major groupings:
• export shipper and carrier
• import shipper and carrier
Import shippers and carrier groups are more concerned about the loss and damage and
equipment availability factors.
For the export shipper and carrier groups, the differences were found to relate to the rate
changes, service frequency, financial stability, service charges and equipment availability
factors.
MODE SELECTION PRINCIPLES:-
• Traditional mode selection has been focused simply on determining the mode
which achieves the lowest transportation cost. However, current supply chain
management concepts mean transportation involves multimodal combination and
the goal of mode selection has been stated as obtaining the cheapest option that
meets service requirements as well as production and marketing strategies.
• Freight rate, transit time, service interval, service reliability and damage & loss
are major factors in modal choice. Transport users are relatively insensitive to
small differences in cost between modes but very sensitive to large differences in
relative cost.
• Shipper’s perception of the mode of transport. An inverse relationship exists
between satisfaction and information seeking. Once the shipper is satisfied with a
model he tends to stick with that mode or carrier.
Is shipper limited to one

no carrier by contract?
Does consignee specify yes Use carrier y

the carrier?
no
Does a freight forwarder specify

the carrier?
Page 56 of 89
no
Shipper
1. Develops lists of all possible carries of which
decider is aware
2. Establishes constraints, destination and port
preferred
Chosen Carrier x able to

meet the constraints
no yes
Use carrier x
The most important factors under consideration by the shippers are:

• The ship’s capacity : whether the ship is capable enough to handle the cargo
safely
• Acceptability of the cargo by the ship :- the cargo to be delivered should be
accepted by the shipping line
• The gear handling capacity of the ship
Equipment availability and condition: ODC cargoes require certain special lifting
equipments like heavy slings and spreaders and heavy cranes with a particular
SWL . The shipping line to be selected should have these facilities in adequate
since Indian ports grossly lack in infrastructure facilities.
• Time in transit :- This is another important factor pertaining to supply and
demand . The shipping line availability should match with the readiness time of
the cargo and the demand date of the supplier
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• Port of calls :- in the liner route scheduled by them whether the shipper’s port of
destination falls in their direct liner route
• Willingness to negotiate rate changes,
• On time pick up and delivery
• Carrier response in emergencies,
• Shipment information,
• Computerised billing and tracing ability
• Willingness to improve service quality,
• Quality of despatch personnel,
• Frequency of damage,losses
• Online and e-commerce services
• Schedule reliability
.
7.4 PORT SELECTION FACTORS:-
Important considerations have to be made in this process. A poor choice of this place may
result in loading problems and, consequently, problems with the entire operation. The
depth of the place must take into account the draft of the transport ship, the draft of the
transported vessel, the height of the highest keel block and the following safety distances:
between the keel of the transport ship and the bottom; and between the sleeper and the
keel of the transported vessel – at least one meter each
DRAFT REQUIREMENTS:-
The ships carrying ODC cargoes are mainly over 45000 dwt , which require a draft of at
least 12 metres. So ODC cargoes should mainly be shipped from ports which have a draft
of at least greater than 12 metres.
INFRASTRUCTURE FACILITIES REQUIRED AT THE PORT:-
Port has got electric wharf cranes of maximum lifting capacity of 35.5 tons which is
grossly inadequate. Therefore, either the ships crane has to be used or the floating cranes
Page 58 of 89
available on lease have to be used. This will be an important factor for deciding the vessel
type, since floating cranes are generally very costly.
7.5TRANSPORT ROUTE SURVEY TO THE PORT:
A sample transport route planning is shown below highlighting all the hazards faced en
route. These plans are drawn beforehand and accordingly steps are taken to ensure safe
transportation of the cargo to the port.
THE TRANSPORTING VESSEL:-
Page 59 of 89
ON ROAD: The lifting operations on the trailers must be carried out in presence of
responsible and qualified personnel and in a proper manner with respect to
manufacturer’s manual, drawing and instructions using proper hooks , slings , spreaders
etc. while loading onto the trucks it should be kept into consideration that the C.G of the
truck and the C.G. of the load are in line with each other ; else the load may topple due to
opposite moment forces
7.6 LOADING:-
While lifting and loading it has to be kept in mind that balance of the cargo must be
maintained to avoid toppling and internal damages . sometimes internal damage and
change of alignment may be possible with no apparent external damages. In order to
avoid this , throughout the lifting a particular balance and equilibrium should be
maintained with the help of spreader beams , combo cranes etc . with proper lifting
capacity.
The following basic points are to be kept into consideration for overall load planning:-
• Obtaining vessel charecteristics:-
Type of vessel
Number of hatches
Deck cargo space
Crane SWL capacity
• Weight distribution
How the weight is to be distributed on the ship to maintain stability is determined
by:
VSF(vessel stowage factor)
The VSF, an important measurement in cargo stowage, is usually stated as the number of cubic
feet that one LTON (2,240 pounds) of particular lot of cargo will occupy when properly stowed in
the ship’s hold
• Having a proper cargo pre-stowage plan beforehand
The prestowage plan must be prepared before any cargo is loaded.
It should show cargo distributed throughout the cargo compartments in a manner which
preventsundue strain on any portion of the vessel.
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It provides a basis for scheduling the arrival of cargo shipside according to priority and
for estimating requirements for cargo-handling equipment.
7.7 TERMS OF FREIGHT PAYMENT(INCO TERMS):

• Heavy permit document required (attached)
• What inco terms to be used for transportation:-
we will gauge this issue from two points of view:

THE BUYER POINT OF VIEW:-
What terms should the buyer go for? The mainly recommended terms are
• Ex-works
• FOB
• CIF
But the question arises “doesn’t the buyer have the maximum obligation here?”. Yes true,
but the main advantageous factors are:
• The buyer has total control over the shipments, the shipping lines
used, the freight rates offered by the shipping lines , so the buyer can
avail of benefits offered occurring due to the lower freight rates and
has total track of his shipments.
• The second advantage is that a buyer will not have a cargo from a
single supplier only, there will be various other suppliers from whom
various cargoes have to be imported. If he goes for DDU, DDP etc. then
he has to pay for each shipment separately. The advantage in Ex-works
is that he has the advantage of consolidating his cargo in one ship
which will be definitely cheaper when compared to the D,C terms
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Therefore the main advantages he gets are of NEGOTIATION, CONSOLIDATION

& CONTROL
THE SELLER POINT OF VIEW:-

The Inco terms mainly used here are mainly
• CIF ,
• DDU etc.. again the question arises that why to follow these when
they have the Maximum obligation.
The advantages are:

• Value addition to the customer: delivery at the doorstep , thus
providing convenience to the customers is a reason why sellers prefer
these terms. Is it always economical to pay for the full transport? Not
always , at the beginning the companies follow this strategy and once
they gain confidence with the buyer bagging frequent orders , a mutual
relationship develops where the terms of delivery can be negotiated
then.
Page 62 of 89
CHAPTER 8
8.1 THE PROJECT CARGO MARKET IN INDIA:-
Traditionally Europe has been the main hub of the project cargo in india. New markets
like south America , china , Middle east and Japan are on the rise in this sector .
Government initiatives towards the project cargo sector in India:-

• With India’s GDP growing at healthy rate and most of the core sectors enjoying
steady growth the Indian freight logistics industry is at an inflection point and is
expected to reach a market size of over $125 million in 2010.
Page 63 of 89
• Increase in spending on Road/Rail and other infrastructure by Government is also

an impetus for growth.
• NMDP investment of $ 13 billion in next 7 years to boost Ports infrastructure.
• Additional Port handling capacity of 530MMTA in major and Minor Ports thru
Public Private Partnerships.
• Development of new Ports like Dahej, Gangavaram and Krishnapattanam etc will
also augment the Project cargo market.
Main sectors of potential cargo growth in india:-

• Power
This sector will witness an exponential growth on fast track due to the recent
signing of Indo-US, Indo-French, and other deals with Japan, Canada, Russia etc.
In order to reduce the current shortfall in generation Indian companies like

BHEL, L&T MHI, Jindal Power, GVK etc plan to add approx. 25000MW of
Thermal,10000MW of Nuclear, 6000MW of Hydal power totaling to 40000MW
by 2015 . imports in this sector will be mainly from Europe, North America,
Japan and China to Mumbai, Kandla in the west coast and Gangavaram,
Krishnapattanam, Haldia, Chennai and Vizag on the east coast of India.
• Infrastructure
Govt. of India is now investing in development of new airports and ports, new
metro projects resulting in import of aero bridges, cranes, and other equipments
from Europe and Far East which are essentially project cargoes.
Indian companies are also executing large infra structure projects in Vietnam,
Middle east, African countries which is generating large volumes of project
cargoes from East Europe , Far East etc of second hand cranes, and other ODC
cargoes etc of approx. 50000 frt in next 2 years.
Page 64 of 89
Major players – L&T , Punj Lloyd, Jaypee Group, Shapoorji Palonji, Essar,
Reliance etc
• Wind energy
In order to reduce the current shortfall in generation companies like BHEL, L&T
MHI, Jindal Power, GVK etc plans to add approx. 25000MW of
Thermal,10000MW of Nuclear, 6000MW of Hydal power totaling to 40000MW
by 2015. Plans are on anvil to commission 2 ultra mega,4mega and many new
small power plants with Kaiga and Kumbakonam capacity augmentation.
• Oil and gas
The market segment is nascent and is witnessing slow growth but will be a major
sector for contributing to generating Project cargoes in near future.
Indian companies like Reliance, L&T, Punj Lloyd etc are executing oil and gas
projects in Far East (Petronas), South America ( Petrobas) etc generating project
cargoes of ODC and heavy lifts.
• Steel
• Others (machineries etc…)
PERCENTAGE OF MAJOR PROJECT CARGOES IMPORTED AND

EXPORTED BY INDIA:-
Page 65 of 89
From the above graph we see that the imports and exports in machinery equipments like
cranes etc …are the highest which means the Government is investing more in the Indian
infrastructure in the times of recession. This is because there are numerous opportunities
in infrastructure
• Infrastructure assets are economic necessities, have highly predictable revenue streams
and require huge capital expenditures to build, they can provide excellent long-term
income with reasonably low volatility.
• User fees for businesses such as toll roads or airport parking can be raised, making the
asset class comparatively well insulated from inflation.
• Also investment in infrastructure is important since India’s GDP is growing at an

alarming rate and mostly imports and exports contribute to the growth rate in the GDP.
Page 66 of 89
GDP GROWTH RATE
GDP BREAKDOWN
Page 67 of 89
IMPORT VS EXPORT VOLUME AT MAJOR INDIAN PORTS:-
8.2 PROJECT CARGO – AN ANALYSIS OF THE HURDLES IN THE

INDIAN SUB CONTINENT
Page 68 of 89
India is investing much larger sums in upgrading its

infrastructure than has generally been realised. This wave of
spending is fuelling a rapid expansion of the country’s heavy
lift sector, but there is still demand for overseas expertise
prepared to work in this challenging market.
Across the Indian sub-continent, though on a difficult path, heavy lift and over-
dimensional cargo (ODC) transport offers attractive opportunities with unlimited
prospects. The past few years have seen an unbridled flow of new players wanting to
carve a niche for themselves in this sunrise sector. However, given the lack of uniformity
in the regulatory environment which prevails in various states, as well as the poor state of
the country’s infrastructure, it is mostly those who can think out-of-the-box and who have
expertise, dogged determination and a bit of foresight that can ultimately find their
Place .
Page 69 of 89
Infrastructural development in India is growing at a scorching pace and heavy lift cargo is
taking centre stage. There is the hectic search for oil and gas; large numbers of power
stations being set up to reduce the gap between supply and demand; refineries being
erected as well as automobile, cement, steel and fertiliser plants under construction across
the country.
THE BIGGEST HURDLE IS THE MOTOR VEHICLE ACT which does not allow
the transport of cargo exceeding 32 tonnes and does not recognise the ‘hydraulic trailer’.
As a result, an alarming amount of time is wasted by operators having to seek permission
from the relevant authorities including the PublicWorks Department, National Highways
Authority, Road Traffic Department, the Road Transport Officer, Forest Department,
Environment Department, as well as railways.
To cap this problem, most bridges across the country are not strong enough to take
the weight of many heavy lift shipments and shipping companies need to be innovative
to circumvent these.
The number of road transport companies in India numbers more than 400,000. So far
those handling project cargo and ODC of over 500 tonnes can be counted on one’s
fingers.
The main reason is :-
Most of the time project transportation includes shutdown of power and

telecommunications to allow the consignment
to pass, strengthening of bypasses and bridges, removing obstacles such as trees, wires
and other hurdles as well as the dismantling of railway crossings. In cities, many islands
at road crossings also have to be removed and rebuilt after the ODC has passed. Often
operators find that it is not practical or feasible to handle such heavy cargo considering
the constraints one has to operate within and the distress and disappointment that one has
to put up with having to deal with the bureaucracy.
Page 70 of 89
e.g getting permission from authorities in Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh poses serious
problems. If the package size exceeds the size of the trailer the fine imposed far exceeds
the transport cost.
99.99 percent of the heavy lift export cargo handled by goes by sea, it is only in
exceptional cases that the cargo is sent by air. Many in the industry indicate there is
insufficient equipment in India’s ports suitable for handling over-dimensional and heavy
lift cargo. Haldia and Chennai each have one crane of 100 tonnes capacity, while Mumbai
port has one of 60 tonnes capacity.
The infrastructure problems in the country leave a lot to be desired. Inland sites have a
problem transporting large-sized machines because of logistical problems.
There has to be a clearcut road map for transportation. In sites such as these, one needs
to make a compromise
between technology and cost. Either assemble the equipment at site or transport it .
There is a need for a standard procedure for heavy lift and ODC. Most agree that the
government is responsible for creating a nightmare for project cargo transport because
every district and state has its own procedures for ODC
cargo transportation. Billions of dollars will need to be invested in transport if the further
development of the country is to be fully realised. And, clearly, while the country’s
massive investment will provide major opportunities for project forwarders and shipping
lines, it is not going to be an easy ride.
Page 71 of 89
Page 72 of 89
CHAPTER 9
FREIGHT RATE DECISION MODEL
A shipowner does not invest on a new vessel unless they have a time charter contract in
US $/DWT which would generate a sufficient stream of money to cover his initial
investment costs and annual costs associated with operating of vessel plus a return on
investment.
The aim is to produce a justified investment for costs estimated over the ships life and
produce a charter rate which would produce a NPV equal to zero.
NPV investment = PV revenues – PV operating costs – PV capital costs
All cash flows are discounted at a rate equal to the shipowner’s opportunity capital.
ASSUMPTIONS:-
1. 80% of the purchase price of the vessel would be loaned for 8
years @8% per annum.
2. 20% will be paid by the owner on signing the contract.
3. 2 year lead time between signing of the contract and actual

delivery of the vessel.
4. Vessel to have zero residual value at the end of its life.
5. Annual operating costs to increase @ 10% per annum over the

life of the vessel.
6. Life of the vessel is fifteen years.
7. Owners opportunity cost of capital is 15% per annum
PV CALCULATIONS FOR CAPITAL COSTS:-

Assume the new shipbuilding cost to be I. Of this amount 20% or 0.2I will be paid in
cash by owner at the time the contract is signed and 80% or 0.8I to be loaned for 8
years @ 8% per annum , the principal being paid out in equal installments starting
one year after the ships delivery.
Page 73 of 89
YEAR BUILDIN O L LOAN LOAN LOAN CASH

G WNE OAN REPAY OUTSTAND INTEREST OUTFLOW
INSTALL R 20% 80% MENT ING
MENTS
0 0.2I 0.2I 0.2I
1 0.4I 0.4I 0.4I 0 0
2 0.4I 0.4I 0.8I 0.032I 0.032I
DELIV
ERY
3 0.1I 0.7I 0.064I 0.164I
4 0.1I 0.6I 0.056I 0.156I
5 0.1I 0.5I 0.048I 0.148I
6 0.1I 0.4I 0.040I 0.140I
7 0.1I 0.3I 0.032I 0.132I
8 0.1I 0.2I 0.024I 0.124I
9 0.1I 0.1I 0.016I 0.16I
10 0.1I 0.0 0.008I 0.18I
PV FACTOR DCF(cash outflow* PV factor)
Page 74 of 89
1 0.2I
0.0
0.032I
0.164I
0.156I
0.148I
0.140I
0.132I
0.124I
0.16I
0.18I
NPV
Formula for PV of annuity A for N years discounted at a rate R per annum is given by:-
Formula for a PV with a discrete cash flow:-
Formula for increasing gradient series of gradient G for N years discounted @R per
annum :-
THEREFORE,
PV capital costs =
Page 75 of 89
0.2I + 0.032I + (0.1+0.064I) +
PV CALCULATIONS FOR OPERATING COSTS :-

Operating costs of bulk carriers can be attributed to factors like;
1. The country of registry of the vessel which has an effect on the
wage system , the tax system etc…
2. Size of the crew
3. Age and general condition of vessel which lead to expenditure on

repairs and cost of insurance.
We have already assumed that operating costs keep on increasing @ 10% per annum
over the ship’s service life assumed to be 15 years.
Therefore;
PV operating costs = OC
Where OC represents operating costs of the carrier ;
R is the opportunity cost of capital;
g is the annual growth rate of the operating costs assumed to be 10% for the time
being. $/DAY
Typical operating cost table for a 45000 dwt carrier
CAPITAL COST 16560
INSURANCE 1535
REPAIRS AND MAINTAINANCE 3656
CREW 5216
FUELS AT SEA 8263
VICTUALISING 1460
Page 76 of 89
TOTAL(OC) 36690
PV CALCULATION FOR ANNUAL REVENUES:-

Annual revenues is the unknown quantity whose value we want to determine so that net
present value of our investment equals to zero.
They are usually expressed in
1. $ per payload (DWT)
2. $ per year/month/day
Operating days in this case is assumed to be 350 days per year and the annual revenues
are to be assumed constant with time over the service life of the vessel which is assumed
to be 15 years.
We can call annual revenues to be RFR the required freight rate
Therefore;
PV for annual revenues:-
RFR
NPV Investment now should be equal to zero for determining the

RFR(required freight rate).
0= PV revenues – PV capital costs – PV operating costs
0= RFR – [0.2I + 0.032I +

(0.1+0.064I) + ] - OC
On substituting R to be 15% (earlier assumed) we can determine RFR, the required

freight rate or the charter rate.
Page 77 of 89
CHAPTER 10
10.1 EFFECT OF RECESSION ON THE BREAKBULK INDUSTRY
STEEL SECTOR:
The global economic recession took a huge toll on global production of crude steel, a key
breakbulk cargo, in the month of March and the first quarter of 2009, according to the
World Steel Association, which compiles data from the 66 countries that report
production figures.
Every single country reporting data showed a drop in production in March. Only China
showed a slight increase for the first quarter. Total crude steel production in the 66
countries dropped to 92 million metric tons in March, down 23.5 percent from the same
month last year.
World steel production for those countries in the first quarter of 2009 was down 22.8
percent year over year at 264 million metric tons.
During the first three months of 2009 Asia produced 173 million metric tons of crude
steel, which was a decrease of 8.9 percent from the year-ago period. The EU produced 30
million metric tons of steel in the first quarter of 2009, down by 43.8 percent compared to
the same quarter of 2008.
North American production dropped by more than half in the first quarter, showing a 2.1
percent decline, with production at16.6 million metric tons. China showed a slight
increase of 1.4 percent while all the other major steel producing countries showed a
decrease in the first quarter of 2009.
Page 78 of 89
Crude steel production in March was down across the board for all countries reporting
their data. China’s crude steel production for March was 45.1 million metric tons, down
only 0.3 percent lower than March 2008. The U.S. produced 4.1 million metric tons of
crude steel in March, a decrease of 52.7 percent compared to the same month last year.
Other countries reported the following decreases for March compared to the same month
last year:
– Japan, 5.7 million metric tons (-46.7 percent).
– South Korea, 3.7 million metric tons (-21.2 percent).
– Germany, 2.1 million metric tons, (-49.8 percent).
– Italy, 1.7 million metric tons (-2.7 percent).
– France, 1.1 million metric tons (-36.7 percent).
– Spain,1.1 million metric tons (-41.2 percent.
– Brazil,1.7 million metric tons (-41.5 percent).
– Russia, 4.6 million metric tons (-30.9 percent).
– Ukraine, 2.4 million metric tons, (- 38.5 percent).
– Turkey, 1.8 million metric tons, (-24.5 percent).
EFFECT ON THE SHIPPING INDUSTRY:

Heavy-lift carriers are still busy transporting cargo for the global engineering projects
that have moved beyond the planning stage, but the frenzied quest for project cargo space
on ships has settled down as vessel capacity has loosened up and freight rates have
softened. This development promises to change the tenor of a shipping sector that has
experienced a severe shortage of capacity over the last five years.
The softening in demand has taken some of the upward pressure off freight rates. The
bunker adjustment factor has been reduced, but the freight rates have remained pretty
stable. In part, that’s because many liner companies are charging rates set under long-
term contracts with their regular customers.
Page 79 of 89
Vessel operators are cautious about the outlook for breakbulk and heavy-lift cargo
because there are so many unpredictable political and economic factors that can affect
their markets.
Lack of demand of heavy projects due to commodities such as copper down, nobody is
going forward with copper mining or smelting projects.
Case of the oil sands projects up in Alberta. When the price of oil tumbled, the project
companies moved swiftly to shut down everything they could.
In the period of recession, global market outlook for heavy engineering projects will
depend on what kind of stimulus package comes out in different countries
The biggest difference in the breakbulk market has come in terms of commodities and it
has hit the shipping industry to such an extent that they have to decide on their cargo mix
even on breakbulk vessels.
Another effect of recession is that major companies are holding up their projects leading
a further dilemma in the breakbulk vessel sector.
Breakbulk charter rates began rising last September and hit historic highs earlier this year.
They have declined a bit since March with the slowing of China’s economic growth rate
and have stabilized since then. A vessel that cost $6,000 a day to charter a year ago now
costs between $9,000 and $10,000 a day.
TWO PAST CASES :
1973:- The outbreak of the oil crisis led to a collapse of the tanker market overnight
because there were no oil shipments to be shipped as the Saudis had turned off the tap.
Page 80 of 89
The world economy suffered its first recession because of high oil prices. But tanker
capacity kept growing @ 20% in spite of freight costs barely able to cover the running
costs. The tanker market did not recover until the late 1980’s.
1981:- The global recession in 1981 brought down the demand for iron and coal
commodities and hence the bulk shipping market suffered.
EFFECT OF THE CRUDE OIL PRICES:

The recent drop in crude oil prices has brought down the freight rates of goods exported
from India to the US and Europe by 30 to 40 per cent. Leading shipping lines operating
between India and Europe and the US said freight rates dropped to $700 from $1,000 and
$1,600 from $1,900, respectively, for every 20-foot equivalent unit (TEU) in the past two
months.
According to representatives of shipping lines, crude prices dropped almost 60 per cent
over the past three months from the record high of $147 a barrel in July to a 17-month
low of a little below $63 per barrel.
This, in turn, has brought down the bunker adjustment factor (BAF) to 12 per cent (on the
freight) from 17 per cent.Industry representatives said the current global economic
downturn had also brought down the exports of goods by 7 per cent.
The global shipping market is sinking. This week, the Baltic Dry Index, which tracks
rates for vessels carrying bulk commodities on the world's busiest 26 routes fell to its
lowest level since July 2006. From the look of it, it is unlikely to recover any time soon.
THE BALTIC DRY INDEX

The Baltic Dry Index (BDI) is a number issued daily by the London-based Baltic
Exchange. The index provides "an assessment of the price of moving the major raw
Page 81 of 89
materials by sea. Taking in 26 shipping routes measured on a timecharter and voyage

basis, the index covers Handymax, Panamax, and Capesize bulk carriers.
Most directly, the index measures the demand for shipping capacity versus the supply of
dry bulk carriers. The demand for shipping varies with the amount of cargo that is being
traded or moved in various markets (supply and demand).
The BDI factors in the four different sizes of oceangoing dry bulk transport vessels:[3]
Ship Classification Dead Weight Tons % of World Fleet % of Dry Bulk Traffic [4]
Capesize 100,000+ 10% 62%
Panamax 60,000-80,000 19% 20%
Supramax 45,000-59,000 37% 18% w/ Handysize
Handysize 15,000-35,000 34% 18% w/ Supramax[5]
EFFECTS
The crash A sharp one as it took only afew months for the freight
rate to fall 95% as is evident from the BDI. This was
mainly triggered by global recession , slowdown in china
Page 82 of 89
coupled with lack of trade credits etc..
What happened Between 2003 and 2005 this particular sector went
before through a super boom mainly because demand for
commodities could not be satisfied.
Orderbook Order book for the capsize segment is now about 90% of
the total existing fleet. Many expect that these orders
will be cancelled.
Freight rate The freight rate has gone below $ 3000 for now and is
expected to stay at around $ 5000 which is around the
operating costs but way below the break even point.
Ship owners They have the urge to cancel new building orders and
scrap older tonnage.10 capesize vessels have been sent
for scrapping over the last two months versus almost
zero in the past few years.
RECESSION AND THE SHIPPING LINES
RICKMERS
Rickmers Linie (America) has adjusted its 2009 budget downward as revenue
expectations decline and tonnage shrinks. In spite of the grim economic climate,
Rickmers expects to get through the year without too much harm, said Jerry Nagel,
president and chief executive at Rickmers.
Top priorities in 2009 for the carrier include maintaining service levels and preparing for
scheduled deliveries of new vessels. Company executives and sales staff are planning
Page 83 of 89
multiple meetings in coming months with current and prospective customers to find out
what cargoes are out there and in which markets to position the new vessels.
Rickmers has not laid up any ships or changed any routes as a result of the recession and
has no plans to do so.
Commodities and breakbulk cargo such as steel and pipe are not moving in the same
quantities as before. The company has been able to substitute other cargoes such as
bagged fertilizer and to carry more heavy-lift cargo.
Rickmers line has also phased out a new vessel named “Rickmers Houston” from
Houston to south-east Asia thus offering additional capacity to customers and increasing
frequency of vessels from fourteen to eleven days.
BBC CHARTERING
Germany-based BBC Chartering began preparing for the global downturn in project
activity by fine-tuning its business model, according to Ove Meyer, the company’s chief
officer. The company consolidated data and information in a central location and
upgraded its technology to ensure that the information is readily available to company
and customer offices worldwide.
“It’s just a matter of increasing overall efficiency,” Meyer said. “The most money you
can lose is through ineffective internal and external information flows.”
Another key for surviving the recession is the operational flexibility provided by a fleet
of 140-plus multipurpose, heavy-lift vessels, which enables BBC to reroute ships and add
ports of call. Quality of service is a key differentiator in the heavy-lift business even in a
recession. By providing quality of service, the carrier will be well positioned for an
eventual recovery.
Page 84 of 89
Mining projects in Brazil and Argentina, a key market segment for BBC, are on a
downward trend. A severe economic downturn in the region would impact BBC in all of
its markets including Asia, which as a region has invested heavily in South American
mining projects.
One important trade segment that could remain strong through 2009 is replacement cargo
for Persian Gulf-based energy and infrastructure projects. The key is the price of oil.
“New oil projects need at least $50 per barrel for them to be profitable,” CEO Meyer
said. “If it falls below that, it’s not worth it and projects will be postponed.”
To strengthen its market position, BBC has added services and formed new alliances. The
carrier’s Gulf Line Service offers two monthly sailings from U.S. Gulf ports including
Houston and Mobile to major ports in the Persian Gulf.
Mediterranean Project Chartering, a business alliance formed in 2006 with Genoa, Italy-
based carrier Intermare serves Mediterranean breakbulk and project cargo markets.
CHIPOLBROK , SANGHAI
Chipolbrok, a Shanghai-based Chinese-Polish joint venture with U.S. offices in Houston,

operates an import liner service from the Far East and China to Houston, New Orleans
and Camden, N.J., and a westbound service from the U.S. to Asia. The carrier has a fleet
of 20 triple-decker vessels ranging from 18,000 to 30,000 deadweight tons.
Breakbulk cargoes such as minerals and steel have been hit hard by the recession. In
some cases, rates on westbound services are down by as much as 50 percent.
For the heavy-lift cargo market, the signals are mixed. It’s too early to tell whether there
will be significant declines in volume even if the recession drags on late into 2009. Most
of Chipolbrok’s project cargo is booked far in advance and moved on its liner services.
It’s the charter side that is experiencing the steepest tonnage declines in steel, minerals
and other commodities.
Page 85 of 89
The carrier is expanding its services by offering direct discharge and transshipments to
new destinations and smaller ports of call. For example, transshipments are available to
Aberdeen, Scotland, through a second carrier via Antwerp.
but we still can see that india is a rising sector for imports/exports of project cargo.hoegh
autoliners , the nowegian car carrier has added services recently to india.
10.2 GLOBAL RECESSION: THE INTERRELATION WITH TRADE

The basic elements required for a trade are:
EXPORTERS(TRADE
RAW MANUFACTUR COMPANIES)
IMPORTERS(BUYERS) LOGISTICS
The main solution from the importer end is to reduce the prices of the commodities. This
is mainly due to reduced buying power of the consumer which results in lower
consumption index. To boost trade , we need to boost consumption , which is possible the
same quality of goods at lower prices.
How is this possible?
By reducing the costs in the supply chain process.
This is also possible since:-
1. Against the background of current financial crisis, prices of raw materials have
decreased
2. Significant reduction in prices of energy products such as petroleum means lower
freight and storage cost
3.With the decreasing and stable amplitude of the financial crisis wave, rate of exchange
will tend to level off and rise.
Low price transmission can be assumed to have a larger trade volume. With increasingly
stable financial community, trade will tend to be active and large in size when consumers
have suitable savings and their purchasing power and consumption confidence index rise.
Page 86 of 89
Maybe experts and scholars then will conclude that the crisis has ended and economy
begins a recovery journey.
On the other hand if the sales volume of low priced goods soars in a country it will lead
to international trade friction. Countries will set trade barriers to hold back low-price
goods from exporters, with the purpose to protect its local industries from being hit, to
lower unemployment rate, and to avoid spread of crisis to a larger scope.
Such measures based on individualism will conversely further the depression of global
economy. The measures, aimed at protecting domestic or local companies, are not good
for recovery from a crisis. It will take longer for the economy to recover when it falls to
the bottom.
Under such an economic environment, how do companies on the trade chain face the
situation? After each crisis, there are cheap shares and assets everywhere. It is perfect
time for companies to reconstruct, merge and acquire. Those companies with abundant
cash flow will expand and develop themselves at this time through the measures
mentioned above. Exporters shall seize opportunities to cooperate with international
brand companies. Strength of low cost will play a more important role in future trade.
In view of the current financial condition, shipping companies have decided to trim their
cost bases by taking various steps, TSA Chairman Ronald D Widdows said. These
include consolidating routes and sailings, entering into vessel-sharing alliances, laying up
ships for maintenance and repairs, returning chartered ships, and adding ships to service
strings as part of slow-steaming strategies to conserve fuel.
Page 87 of 89
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
• BREAKBULK DIGEST
• HEAVY LIFT MAGAZINE (issue july 2008 to feb 2009)
• www.mit.edu
• Indian maritime landscape report(2008)-KPMG
• Cargo systems by Hans-otto Gunther
Page 88 of 89
• Drewry’s shipping statistics
Page 89 of 89

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LARSEN & TOUBRO

Larson & Toubro - An Introduction

Seven decades of strong , customer focused approach and the

• Engineering construction and contracts(ECC)

• Electrical and electronic(EBG)

• Machinery and industrial products(MIPD)

• IT and engineering services

• Logistics management centre(LMC)

My training was mainly in the logistics department regarding breakbulk

The operation workflow of the same is further discussed in the form of a

RECEIVE ENQUIRY FROM PURCHASE ORDER BEING SENT

FROM THE RECEIVED

TALK WITH THE BUYERS TO NOMINATE FREIGHT FORWARDERS ALONG

LMC MONITORS THE WHOLE FREIGHT

1. THE INDIAN SHIPBUILDING INDUSTRY……………..................9

10. RECESSION AND BREAK BULK……………………………..79

ANALYSIS OF BREAK BULK SHIPMENTS

…possesses requisite talent

Earlier timeslots available which can be sold at a premium

Promotion of Domestic shipping routes to spur additional demand for ships

Export led demand

2.1 BREAK BULK CARGO HANDLING :-

World Seaborne Trade

1997 2002 2007

Crude oil 1,554 1,667 1,986

Ttotal 5,419 6,208 7,973

Break bulk ships are mainly classified into 3 ship types:-

General cargo Bulk cargo

Break Neo bulk containers Liquid bulk Dry bulk

Marine terminals can be

1) Break bulk cargo; includes palletized, bagged and loose-stowed cargo.

2.2 OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR BREAK BULK AND HEAVY LIFT

Weather deck hatch covers

Folding hydraulic operated, steel hatch covers, seen in the vertical

Folding (hydraulic operated) hatch covers

-:LOADING AND DISCHARGING HEAVY LIFTS:-

Heavy-lift floating crane

3.1 APPLICATION OF PORTER’S FIVE FORCES TO A BREAKBULK

• CAPITAL INTENSIVE INDUSTRY:

• TIME INTENSIVE INDUSTRY:

• Owning or leasing land in a port is very expensive due to its geographical

5. Government policies can be a deterrent to new entrants. Port authorities are

6. Another important factor is that other terminals are facing an unprecedented

BARGAINING POWER OF THE CUSTOMERS:

Customers have a moderate amount of power in the breakbulk industry.

• Factors which increase customer power:-

1. CHOICE OF MULTIPLE TERMINALS

Customer power increases in the scenario that they have choices of

• Factors which decrease customer power:-

BARGAINING POWER OF THE SUPPLIERS:-

2. Equipment suppliers provide homogenous and specialized products to terminals

THREAT OF SUBSTITUTE PRODUCTS AND SERVICES:-

RIVALRY AMONG EXISTING COMPETITORS:-

• Port infrastructure in the form of Heavy equipments, loading capacities etc.

Break-bulk terminals Container terminals

Improvisation in terminal operations Organization and planning

4.2 TYPES OF SEA FREIGHT RATES:-

 Lump sum freight - Payable for use of whole or portion of a ship.

 Pro-rata freight – circumstances make it impossible to continue the voyage

 Ad valorem freight: - Arises when cargo is assessed for rate purposes on a

There are six distinct markets which are served, namely

6. the reefer (i.e., refrigerated cargo) trades