Functions of Nonverbal Communication in Teaching and Learning a Foreign Language Author(s): Linda Quinn Allen Source: The French

Review, Vol. 72, No. 3 (Feb., 1999), pp. 469-480 Published by: American Association of Teachers of French Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/398116 Accessed: 03/12/2008 05:54
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THE FRENCH REVIEW, Vol. 72, No. 3, February 1999

Printed in U.S.A.

Functions of Nonverbal Communication in Teaching and Learning A Foreign Language

by LindaQuinnAllen

LANGUAGE CURRENT FOREIGN (FL) methodology

maintains that language

is communication. Canale's definition of communication, "the exchange and negotiation of information between at least two individuals through the use of verbal and nonverbal symbols . . ." (4), illustrates the fact that communication is plurimodal. Experts in nonverbal communication estimate that at least 65% of the meaning in any social situation is conveyed nonverbally (Burgoon, Buller, and Woodall 4). In classroom settings, it is estimated that 82% of all teachers' communications are nonverbal (Kellogg and Lawson 2). Wylie ("Language") stresses the important interrelationship of the nonverbal and the verbal in learning to communicate in a FL. The real question ... concerns communication. We all but isolate language and assume it is an independent entity to be defined, taught, and learned by itself. But language is only one element in the whole phenomenon of communication, and it can most effectively be taught and learned in this greater context ... We communicate with every means at our disposal, so the whole body, not just the parts that produce speech, must be trained to communicate in a foreign culture. (777-78) Pennycook (269), Mehrabian (159), and Raffler-Engel ("Linguistic" 231) suggest that the constant interplay between verbal and nonverbal modes of communication must be considered in order to fully understand language acquisition. Kirch (423) points out that since nonverbal and verbal communication are complementary constituents of the whole process of interaction, knowledge of nonverbals can help students reach a fuller stage of FL communication. Results of a study by Moskowitz indicate that outstanding FL teachers use more nonverbals than do typical FL teachers. Given the significance of nonverbal communication in human interaction and its importance in language acquisition, can it be assumed that the nonverbal plays a role in FL classroom communication? What specific functions does the nonverbal play in teaching and learning a FL? This paper presents a synthesis of the literature on the use of nonverbal communication in teaching and learning a FL in a classroom setting. The 469

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paper contains six sections. The first two sections, nonverbals in language encoding and decoding, describe the functions of nonverbals in producing and understanding messages in nonclassroom communication and compare them to those used to produce and comprehend a FL in the classroom. The third section of the paper addresses the role of nonverbals in definitions of communicative competence. Section four describes instructional models in which the nonverbal is integral. The fifth section presents ways in which nonverbals can be used as teaching strategies and in classroom management. The final section discusses the importance of the nonverbal as part of the FL culture. Nonverbalsin LanguageEncoding In day to day nonclassroom communication, people rely on nonverbals both to produce (encode) and to understand (decode) communicative messages. Burgoon, Buller, and Woodall (461) identify two ways in which nonverbals are involved in language encoding: 1) to mark units in which utterances are produced, and 2) to help the speaker activate and recall words, thoughts, images, and ideas that become part of the utterance. Utterances are naturally segmented into discernible units or phonemic clauses (Burgoon, Buller and Woodall 462) by the voice qualities of pitch, rhythm, loudness, intonation, accentuation, syllabication, and the pause. Brown ("Listening" 42) points out that the body movements of speakers of English are synchronized with phonemic clauses. Pronunciation of stressed syllables coincide with matching body movements to the extent that even without hearing the words, an observer can actually see when the speaker is pronouncing stressed syllables by watching the corresponding body movements. Erikson and Shultz (75) claim that the synchronization is so regular it can be reliably measured with a metronome. Kendon (85) suggests that languages other than English exhibit similar body movement / speech rhythm correspondance. Combining body movements with instruction in the intonation patterns of the FL facilitates learners' acquisition of the pitch and rhythm of the language (Antes 444; Raffler-Engel "Kinesics" 230). This combination or autosynchronization(Calbris 170) helps learners know where to segment sentences into phonemic clauses, thus enhancing language encoding. Allen and Valette (62) suggest using hand and arm motions in teaching the continuing intonation pattern of French. Thus, with the sentence, Je vais en ville avec Pierre,the arm moves up through the word ville and down through Pierre. Berkowitz (312) illustrates the influence of body movements (macromotricity) upon speech articulation (micromotricity) by pointing out that a French person uses circular hand movements while speaking. Berkowitz applies this observation in teaching French by asking her students to simultaneously make circular hand motions while reading lines from the textbook. The macromotricity relieves students' self-con-

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sciousness about how they sound, thus creating a warmer, more intimate classroom environment. The second way in which nonverbals are used in language encoding is by helping speakers get their thoughts out smoothly. Illustrators, "movements which are intimately tied to the content and / or flow of speech" (Ekman 98), what Riseborough calls gestural onomatopoeia(173), are especially useful for this purpose. Ekman (98) has identified eight types of illustrators, (batons, underliners, ideographs, kinetographs, pictographs, rhythmics, spatials, and deictics) which serve five functions. 1) To indicate the intention to continue speaking while looking for a particular word, the speaker may either make movements as if trying to pluck the word out of the air or snap the fingers. 2) As a sort of self-primer the speaker may wave an arm in the air or snap the fingers. 3) To explain something that is difficult to put into words such as giving directions, explaining how to take something apart, or defining concepts such as zigzag. 4) To punctuate speech or to add emphasis. 5) To indicate enthusiasm or disinterest. Anecdotal support for the use of nonverbals as an aid to producing a FL in a classroom setting can be found in Morgan (37) who describes two first graders, Jeremy and Elizabeth, in a French immersion program in a public elementary school in the northeastern United States. Jeremy, in trying to express the word mange (eat) brings his hand to his mouth several times as if eating before producing the word. Elizabeth flaps her arms repeatedly before recalling the word vole (fly). Galloway, in the only empirical study, to my knowledge, on FL students' language encoding, videotaped ten second semester university level students of Spanish speaking for a maximum of three and one half minutes on a randomly-drawn question. Only a few students used nonverbals, and the only report of illustrators was that two of the listeners were annoyed by a student's constant use of his hands. However, it is interesting to note that the observed student-used nonverbals of smiling and moving closer to the listeners were reciprocated by the listeners. In addition, the native Spanish listeners participating in the study suggested that nonverbal communication such as facial expressions, hand and body movements, and distance adjustments should be encouraged in the classroom since these nonverbals would be perceived as an increased desire to communicate. Nonverbals in LanguageDecoding People rely on nonverbals not only to encode language but also to decode or comprehend messages. Nonverbals contribute to the comprehension of messages in three ways: 1) heightening attention, 2) providing additional context, and 3) facilitating recall. Comprehension can occur in either a bottom-up or a top-down fashion.

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In a bottom-up approach attention is focused on the message itself in an attempt to extract and identify individual features into a pattern. Gestures may contribute in at least three ways to a bottom-up approach in the early stages of information processing by: 1) providing movement, 2) making the message more vivid, and 3) providing imagery value (Roloff and Berger 14). There is some indication in the literature on FL education that nonverbals contribute to greater attention. Green (64) and Saitz (37) suggest that presenting dialogues with appropriate foreign culture gestures heightens students' attention. Nonverbals enhance comprehension by providing additional contextual information. According to Ortony, "The process of comprehension involves activating concepts related to those of the input and the context and engaging in inferences based primarily on those concepts" (59). As information is being processed in a bottom-up approach, a top-down approach simultaneously initiates a search for correlations between the new information and information stored as mental representations (concepts) in memory. Nonverbals in the FL classroom can facilitate comprehension by activating concepts already stored as mental representations in the students' memories. Allen and Valette (152) suggest using gestures to convey the meanings of specific words such as descriptive adjectives, prepositions of place, and action verbs. For example, when students hear grand and see the teacher using an accompanying gesture which illustrates the adjective, the gesture may activate the concept of tall and students can infer from the gesture that grand means tall. Wong-Fillmore determined that language learning is facilitated when students are provided with nonverbals and maintains that teachers should use whatever works-pictures, demonstrations, gestures, enactment, pantomime, or chalkboard drawings-to assist their students to infer what the teacher is saying. Beattie illustrates how nonverbals can be used to enhance comprehension of the FL. Imagine a teacher using a picture of a horse eating an apple. There may be a wide range of things the learner can say about such a picture-the horse's colour, its size compared with its rider, the reason for its having received the apple, etc. By pointing to the horse's mouth attention is limited to the apple; chomping movements of the teacher's jaws may direct learners toward verbs for eating, biting, chewing, etc.; raised eyebrows and an intent gaze (as well as intonation) suggest that Quefait le cheval? requires an answer rather than a generalised description of the overall scene, etc. The teacher's non-verbal behavior will not actually produce the correct reply but it will reduce the range of potentially acceptable replies and thus provide support for the learner. Intelligent guessing is one of the central stategies for successful language learning. (176) FL teachers can help their students make intelligent guesses about the message by providing context which limits the number of interpretations

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that could be made. Morgan (37), Long (37), and Richardson (29) emphasize that beginning learners especially rely on nonverbal context to comprehend the verbal. Nonverbal material can supplement, reinforce, or modify the communicative message. Thus, as Kellerman (245) points out, students who are limited to audio-tapes in listening comprehension exercises miss out on the nonverbal cues that facilitate comprehension. The third way nonverbals contribute to comprehension is by facilitating recall. Elaborating to-be-remembered information by 1) presenting it in a more descriptive context, 2) enhancing the semantic involvement during the encoding process, or 3) providing redundancy, leads to a more durable memory trace (Craik and Tulving 284). Rogers (60) provides evidence that nonverbals serve these functions. Woodall and Folger and Riseborough determined that gestures, as part of contextual conditions, are effective retrieval cues for linguistic information. Allen found that when students learn culturally appropriate French gestures along with corresponding French expressions, they remember more of the French expressions than students who do not learn the gestures. Ward and Raffler-Engel compared recall of a dialogue under two conditions and found that students recalled more dialogue lines when the instructor exhibited nonverbal behavior conducive to learning. Anecdotal support to the notion that nonverbals presented concurrently with linguistic material can later be used to recall the linguistic information is provided by Carels who makes use of pantomime in presenting and recalling fables and by Green (64) who suggests using previously introduced gestures to cue students in their recall of dialogues. Nonverbals in Definitions of CommunicativeCompetence Hymes' definition of communicative competence includes the nonverbals: 1) haptics-permissible physical contact between speakers, 2) proxemics-space requirements, 3) kinesics-hand gestures, facial responses etc., and 4) nonverbal cues used to manage conversations. Brown ("Principles") emphasizes the need to include nonverbals in the definition of communicative competence: We cannot underestimate the importance of nonverbal communication in second language learning and in conversational analysis. Communicative competence includes nonverbal competence-knowledge of all the varying nonverbal semantics of the second culture, and an ability both to send and receive nonverbal signals unambiguously. (212) Three of the four competencies which make up Canale and Swain's framework specifically refer to knowledge and use of nonverbals. Grammatical competence is concerned not only with the rules of grammar but also knowledge of the paralinguistic and kinesic features of the language such as intonation, facial expression, and gestures. Sociolinguistic competence includes appropriate use of nonverbal signals such as eye con-

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tact, respect for personal space, clothing and ornamentation, how and where people touch others, and gestures. Strategic competence includes nonverbal strategies which are used when communication breaks down or to enhance the effectiveness of communication. Savignon states, "A gesture may serve as a coping strategy by either filling in for a word or expression or sustaining rapport throughout a momentary silence" (44). Mime is included among the communication strategies suggested by Tarone (286). For example, when a student of English as a second language faced a breakdown in communication because he was unable to recall the word applause,he replaced the word by clapping his hands to illustrate the idea he wished to communicate. Nonverbals in InstructionalModels Gestures play an important role in several instructional models including the audio-motor unit (Kalivoda, Morain, and Elkins) and the series method developed by Gouin in 1880 (Brown "Principles" 34-35). Their underlying concept is that simple actions associated with language will facilitate retention. Savignon's Theatre Arts component (207) involves pantomime. The comprehension approach (Winitz xiii) makes liberal use of gestures. New vocabulary in the direct method (Hadley 92) is presented by paraphrases, by miming the action, or by manipulating objects. In the early stages of the silent way (Stevick 220), hand gestures are used to indicate where further work is needed and to elicit desired responses. Lozanov's suggestology (Asher 189) is largely dependent upon the teacher's nonverbal behavior. Total Physical Response (TPR) synchronizes the language with body movements (Asher, Kusudo and de la Torre). Teachers' nonverbal behavior is important in the natural approach (Terrell 214). The Capretz Method (Capretz, Abetti, and German) emphasizes the fact that communication involves more than words and attempts to initiate learners of French in the nonverbal communication in which people engage every day. In the FrenchBody (Antes 446) is an interactive computer-video program designed by Carolyn Fidelman. Learners of French actively participate in the nonverbal behavior typical of the French culture. Nonverbalsas TeachingStrategiesand in ClassroomManagement Literature in FL education provides many examples in which nonverbals are used as effective teaching strategies and in classroom management. Nonverbals may be used to: 1) vary the tempo, 2) control participation, 3) signal changes, 4) indicate who is to respond, 5) cue choral response, 6) mark beginnings and ends of lessons, and 7) give students an idea of what to expect. Walz (959) and Barnett (174) suggest that teachers develop a standard set of hand or arm gestures. For example,

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the teacher's swinging the arm upward could cue the students to form a question while swinging the arm downward requests a response. Other signals may indicate when students should listen, repeat, answer or to speak louder. Schachter has devised a set of hand signals used to indicate certain types of errors. An error in tense, aspect, or voice is signalled by a basketball "T" time out signal. The signal for an agreement error is the letter "A" formed by the forefingers and the middle fingers. The "V" for victory signal indicates an error in pluralization. When students see a reversed "P" signal, they know they have made a preposition error. To indicate an error in word order, the teacher forms an "O" with the fingers of both hands. A crossing of the index fingers in an "X" indicates an error with articles. Richardson (27) and Beattie (176) suggest using nonverbals to promote dialogue. The teacher can point or establish eye-contact to pair students for group work, be silent to encourage reluctant students to participate, and smile and nod to encourage and support students. Dolle and Williams (147) maintain that the teacher's nonverbals stimulate classroom interaction. Ward and Raffler-Engel found kinesic synchrony between the students and the teacher. When the instructor acts disinterested, unenthusiastic, or bored, the students act the same way. But when the instructor is lively and enthusiastic, the students are lively and enthusiastic too. According to Seaver (25), when teachers mime, especially when they assume another persona, the students perceive the new persona as nonthreatening and feel less stressful. Nonverbals help teachers to provide intake, "that subset of linguistic input that helps the acquirer acquire language" (Krashen 10). Intake is supplied through teacher-talk, the language that accompanies classroom activities, and may be verbal or nonverbal. FL teachers use simplified input as a natural part of trying to make themselves understood. Hatch (66) includes the use of gestures in her identification of the five general areas in which input is simplified. Nonverbalsas Part of the FL Culture The notion that nonverbals are part of the culture and should be taught as such is supported in the literature. Nostrand's (277) Emergent Model includes paralanguage and kinesics. Lafayette's (49) set of thirteen goal statements includes the goal that students be able to use appropriate common gestures. According to Brown ("Principles"), "The expression of culture is so bound up in nonverbal communication that the barriers to culture learning are more nonverbal than verbal" (209). Kirch (416) points out that culturally inappropriate body language manifests a foreign accent as much as inadequate phonological knowledge. RafflerEngel ("Kinesics") states, "If bilingualism is the goal of FL teaching, the

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student should be made truly bilingual, which implies that he should also become bi-kinesic" (230). Much of the discussion on nonverbals in the teaching of a FL refers to emblems (Antes; Brunet; Richardson; Gannon; Beattie; and Brault). Emblems are, "Symbolic actions where the movement has a very specific verbal meaning, known to most members of a sub-culture or culture, and typically are employed with the intention of sending a message" (Ekman 89). They are used to replace a word, phrase, or expression, or to repeat or qualify the verbal message. Emblems usually involve the hands and/ or the arms, but head movements, facial movements, shifts in posture and leg movements may sometimes be involved. Some emblems are iconic, that is, look like what they signify, and thus can be recognized when displayed out of context. Common North American emblems include the hitchhiker's thumb, the time-out "T," and the peace sign. Common French emblems include sweeping the hand over the head to indicate "J'en ai ras le bol," pulling an imaginary hair out of the palm of the hand to indicate "Il a un poil dans le main," and pulling the skin down under the eye to indicate "Jene crois pas un seul mot." Since the use and meaning of specific emblems can vary among different cultures, misunderstanding or failure to communicate may occur when nonmembers of a culture try to use or interpret emblems according to the meaning assigned to the emblems in their own culture. Saitz refers to emblems which are the same in form but different in meaning in two cultures as ambiguous gestures (34). Teachers wishing to include gestures as part of the culture may consult Allen, Calbris, Calbris and Montredon, Oates and Oukada, Wylie ("Beaux"), and Brault for examples of French emblems. Language is communication. FL educators must be concerned with the whole phenomenon of communication. According to Nuessel: "A full appreciation and complete understanding of another language requires the student to become aware and attentive to all the channels of communication available for encoding and decoding linguistic information. FL fluency demands competency in nonverbal language" (1019). This paper has presented the functions and purposes of nonverbals in the FL classroom. It has been somewhat of an historical presentation in that the references date from 1963 to 1996. During these thirty-three years, FL educators have been investigating the role of nonverbals in language encoding and decoding, defining the role of nonverbals in communicative competence, and creating instructional models in which the nonverbal is integral. Teachers of FLs have found ways to use nonverbals as effective teaching strategies and in classroom management and have explored ways in which to include the nonverbal in presenting the target culture. There remains, however, much work to be accomplished in identifying and implementing the important roles nonverbals have in the FL class-

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room. Attention should be given to three areas. First, even though researchers in the communicative approach to teaching FLs recognize the important role the teacher's contextual nonverbal communication plays in facilitating comprehension of the FL, no empirical studies have yet been conducted to identify and categorize the various nonverbal strategies FL teachers typically use to convey meaning in their day-to-day instruction. Qualitative research in which teachers are videotaped and their nonverbal behavior studied would help to identify nonverbals which facilitate FL acquisition. Secondly, teachers must be made aware of their own nonverbal behavior and learn to use that behavior more effectively. Finally, the importance of the nonverbal in communication and training in the effective use of nonverbal behavior should be included in the FL methods course for prospective teachers. Future teachers, as well as current teachers, would do well to consider that, "Most people could learn to communicate in a foreign culture more enjoyably, more effectively, and more convincingly, if, to the degree that it is possible, their whole body were trained to act as a unit in adopting new patterns of behavior" (Wylie "Language" 779).
UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI, ST. LOUIS

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