Evolution and the Nervous System

Evolution
Evolution works by trial and error. It has no goal, but it functions to keep life adapting to a constantly-changing environment. Organisms that are able to survive and pass on genes influence the development of future organisms. Organisms that are killed off, and dont reproduce, have their DNA eliminated from the gene pool. Whatever works is kept until it eventually fails. Whatever doesnt work is gotten rid of.

Evolution
Gene mutations occur randomly.
One of the four base pairs is altered. There are ~ 3.2 billion base pairs in the human genome. There are ~ 25,000 genes in the human genome. Nothing is perfect, and errors will happen.

These affect either the structure of essential proteins, or the timing and expression of specific genes.
Many of these mutations will have a lethal effect. A large number will have a non-lethal, but negative effect. Many will have no effect, or a negligible effect. A small percentage will have a beneficial effect.

Evolution
Evolution works with what it s got, so this is another factor making it an inherently conservative process.
Drastic changes in structure/function can occur, but these are probably extremely rare events. A large number of genes is shared by large numbers of species.
But evolution may shape the timing and the frequency of their expression.

We Belong to The Order Primates

The primates include the following: Prosimians such as lemurs and tarsiers
Small brains, reliance on scent, nocturnal

Anthropoids
New World Monkeys Old World Monkeys Hominids
Great apes Humans
Including Neanderthals and related extinct species

Other Primate Species

Macaque
Chimpanzee

Gorilla Orangutan

Evolution
Survival of the fittest (probability of survival and capacity to pass on genes) Species are adapted to specific niches (polar bears, Arctic plants, desert toads, extremophiles) Some live in a wide range of environments (mosquitoes, humans) Darwin: preservation of favourable individual differences and variations, and the destruction of those which are injurious

Four Conditions for Natural Selection

The individuals must be capable of reproducing. The offspring must inherit characteristics of their parents. There must be variation in individual traits (characters) among members of the population. There is variation in the fitness of individual organisms.

Variability: Intelligence
By definition, half the population is below average. Height range: ~ 3 feet to ~ 8 feet tall Weight range: ~ 40 pounds to ~ 1000 pounds Normal distribution Mean IQ: 100 84th percentile: 115 16th percentile: 85 98th percentile: 130 2nd percentile: 70

More on Evolution
Most mutations either have no effect, or a deleterious one. Some mutations provide a survival advantage in current environment. Mutations may be problematic in other environments, however (e.g., sickle cell). Evolutionary adaptations arent necessarily efficient. Spandrels may produce unintended traits that have no apparent effect on survival.

Human Tails

Chimpanzees Have Cultures

Variation among geographically distinct groups Gombe Stream (Tanzania) chimps use sticks to fish for termites, other chimps do not. Ivory Coast chimpanzees use stone hammers to break nuts, but in Gabon they do not. Mother chimps have been observed teaching their offspring to use certain types of tools. Chimpanzees use a variety of medicinal plants that are effective for intestinal parasites, headaches, and schistosomiasis.

Language and Nonhuman Primates

Washoe, taught ASL by the Gardners, taught her son Loulis to sign. Chimps can combine words to make new words. Savage-Rumbaugh taught Austin & Sherman to solve problems that required sign language communication in planning (e.g., tool choice). Koko can express her emotions, and could refer to anger she experienced three days earlier. Koko engages in fantasy play in private. Foutss chimps paint pictures, and title them.

Overlap of Extinct Human Species

Neanderthal
Slightly shorter than homo sapiens Longer arms, considerably taller Almost exclusively carnivorous Very little difference in brain volume from homo sapiens

Homo Neanderthalensis

Language and Neanderthals

Neanderthals and modern humans co-existed for tens of thousands of years. Last Neanderthals appear to have died out near Gibraltar around 28,000 years ago. The Neanderthal genome has been sequenced, and some comparisons with modern humans made. The FOXP2 gene, important for language, is very similar in Neanderthals and modern humans FOXP2 is conserved across a wide range of species

Tactical Deception and Lying

Chimps with knowledge of a stash of bananas pretended not to know what was going on. Luit and Nikkie in dominance struggle, and Luit hid his anxious facial expression with his hand. Yeroen, following a dominance struggle with Nikkie, would limp when Nikkie could see him, but not otherwise. Koko lightly bit someone and when asked about it, replied no teeth. When told that was not true, she then signed bad again Koko bad again.

Reflective Self-Awareness
Gallups mirror self-recognition (1970) Chimpanzees Koko (gorilla), beginning at about age 3 1/2
Picking at teeth, grooming, making faces, dress-up Interested in her tongue and things she cant see

Orangutans Monkeys show no mirror self-recognition Non-primate species include dolphins, whales, and elephants

Theory of Mind
The capacity to assess what s going on in another animals mind. Humans have it, but it s subject to distortions, and appears defective in autism. Chimpanzees appear to have it, and can use it to guess at what other chimps can see from a totally different visual perspective.

Evolution of the Brain

Jellyfish have an undifferentiated, distributed network of neurons that control movement. Worms have the simplest central nervous system.
Their spinal cord, without the brain, is capable of such behavior as feeding, mating, and locomotion.

Vertebrates (animals with a spine) have more complex nervous systems, and the brain plays a major role in behavior.

U of Wisconsin and Michigan State University; http://brainmuseum.org/index.html

Summary
A wide range of abilities can be seen across evolution. Communication is found among many (if not most) animal species, but language seems to be present only in apes and humans, with speech and complex language only in humans. Natural variation is very important. Hence, some learning disabilities may be normal variants (e.g., dyslexia, ADHD). What works is whatever gives animals a survival advantage.