NATIONALISM AND TERRITORY Constructing Group Identity in Southeastern Europe (Groxor W. Wutre hn Be Nie ok Oc it DaasDR 38.2 wat £000 254427 ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD PUBLISHERS, INC Published i the United State f Amevce by Rowanan& Lite Publishers tne $20 Bost iy Lankare Mayan 37 ape /weneromeantld cos 2s Copse Road Comoe Hl Csfont OX2 9), England Copyright © 200 by Rowman & Lite Publishers In Al igh eseret No prof ts publeaton may be eproduce, sored in sono i yy aya ts te ia photocopying. eon or ether wldou tn pr pera a publisher, mors * eis Library Cataloguing in PublstionInoration Arable Ura of Congress Cataloging in Publication Dat White, Cong W, 1965 Nationton and testory : contacting group Meni in Southeastern urope / Googe W White cove any kscompany Suse simple ess o mais the nation-state eel iabie ‘cpa system Some of te Gui uses ttl need tbe ‘rcoed were ho ration wet defined end how sas er ‘ory wae tobe celeste Aton ge however mano ‘comuryingconeps dil not row dt ot tong dosti Instenshedaiconcept ofthe ton ytaiond ou many deat {ts tepst ram presiun lg ste Th hve nes ‘Sine emesed in theconcep nation, seving as many othe Tay concept fo a he tose el ey8 hap One Many ofthe prenationlist ideas embedded within the nation sat ideal relate tothe meaning of place ad the poltical organization of terior. ‘The nation-state eal has logical implications here, Dut the actual at tudes that nations hold toward place and terntory deviate considerably, ‘These ates are holdovers from the time tht imperialism reigned supreme but persisted into the era of nationalism and even provided a trunk onto wich the nation-state could fly raft ae. These atitdes fer around She world, resulting a many zeponal variations In gener terms the conception of territory and its politcal arrangement emerged dlifeeily in the empins af Western Europe than it i inthe empires of Cental and Eastern Europe ‘When nationalism emerged in Western Europe, it was within the con- text ofthe Enlightenment which was noteworthy forthe exiphasis i placed on rational thought and the right ofthe individ In contrast 0 ‘he imperial oder of states and ther teritories, the nationalist dealin ‘the context of Enlightenment philosophy implied a reordering of polit calcontol over teriteris to ceate numerous sal tates. Smal tri 1 fies ensure the rights ofthe individual bette than huge and sprawling empires, Te actual delineation of such territories is ierelevant Beease Individuals have rights no matte wheze they live or what thei ind idual cultural characterises may be. Tie conclusion, howeves, was rarely discussed aa serious isu for nationalist atthe Une Instead, the concep of ation was famed directly within the existing testi y ‘order that was accepted a a given: Thus empires were simply redefloed asnationstates, The French empire for example, came redefined at the French Republi, with no cll ovadrawtsboundaries as implied by the new ideology of rationalism expresso in the context of Enlightenment Piilosopiy. ‘When nationalism spread to Central and Eastern Europ, this process ‘ould not be replicated easly. First fal individual right id not have ‘strong tradition n these regions Instead, mare emphasis was placed on ‘he callcive group, which me tobe defined by common ultra cha scterites such as language and religion. This ea implied a phlosopy ‘mach diferent han that ofthe Enlightenment In fact it developed into 2 Systm that became known as Romandcphlosophy snd icaled for 3 ‘much aiferen tetova arrangement of sates than Enlightenunent ph Josophy In shor, Romanticism implied the redeawing of boundaries ‘ccorcing fo the distrbution of nations, supposedly defined hy language ‘ne religion. This sk may seem simple today becaie many national, ‘entities have evolved tothe point that they cleasy are distinguishable from one another. At the time, however, national identities based. on shared cultural charetenties was more notion than a fealty. Cult «characteristics continually charged across the landscape with few oy vase prs g utara hat could serves poli boas Teeny the Pracos of dsring pola Vous wat rt euros ane Some Cen ant Eaten Europeans, such te ti Germang rd as cold defi hel ne atonal eri these rater stern Enopeans by etn th inperhl date ay nents ate, Unoruaaycrcmsances did not low ths proc fo tae floc for mow neh repon Cite nly as thane xiang evs nto could beet ene rates Te ‘pra an hs plea oneing of elas wate mach guy fer ese pple ait ws or astern Europes Cael and ‘Eastern Eur Lexperienced the process.of redefining imperial ‘fons anon es stint tnd hot) of groups tat wre developing paso dust tit Coney ‘li Ctl asennad waned miei Ante. npeced retin vogante dep saul seucous isbn * alien to the empies in which they lived. Noll develope! a natignal cr ‘cnn tigough damien, ome dewlped sea asamness ‘eo dso atonal etn up ‘everett cul eto ih emp heh Seve 7 Fh ned for secession was becoming obvios. Yt the choice of tere fry ior auch an at as no obviow because Genel and Eastern [Emopeaa lacked thei nn imperial states reefine a tei eo ‘tira ste Ths wast pabin tat bt Waste Enpenn coun Taparuiereriadtnconfont The pianphy of omanizon howevey pried x eno for nlving hg aon anguage and ego EXnmtican emphasized “share Neto” as a uniqne Somatic People This phason istry allowed hee wine were dacloping tal consanns trench st te pts to ines of reat empresa their ancestors Thee empes were then ured oo ate ter {es culd eve he uns or moder nonstate In ater er, {Rontrst to Western Europeans who hed exsing epics hat ey Could vet nny Cesta snd Ean Busey bad madame sep {othe proce of dening ational eto mt Stopes la avid he poems ceclted thas ‘ing political boundaries according to cultural characteristics when the cul- tt anaes incon Sain Lae sotededesng te {nc tht ipl goverment ad wunputed pops en fr {longa to such dpe hat ngage ne a gos scree Seretot an aceurte masieo! an indigent or up's en} ‘talyrings phenomena suchas mona enptste caine int pure lac fom: Dango however preset te danger ha0 hap One previous ideological structures and instittons wil be mistakenly de fmphasized or even disregarded. This eror must be avoided, fr natan- alls did notarve out oa temporsland spall acum. What preseded ‘tates imperalsm, whieh had been astong fore in shaping the worl’ polal and soil landscape. Despite the sudden ar fervent ascent of ‘ationalis and its dlsdain for imperialism, th laters politcal truc- tres and institutions were nat easly swept aside. One lok at Burope’s politicl map inthe erly swensith century strats that imperialism ‘wasstila porverful force despite more than a century of nationals agi- lation againat (48 igure 11). Imperialism did collapse bt it would ‘bet gross oversimplifention to say tat national wholly upland Ie During the stugae against impels, natonaligm was tins for tmatve years. Many faces ofits ideology were not yet formulated, and historical ircumstances didnot allow to develop logialy and purely from is own premises, Elements of previous cultural and ideological ys- tems were taken up by it and enmeshed within it For instance, imper- slisn’s territorial order remained meaningfl and largely infact nthe ‘minds of people, and served as an important ink to the past, which even atlonalitts could not reject. Nationalisn did teumph, but describing ‘ts etry ae one in which depose imperialism is not accurate. A hore apt analogy would be the petrifcation process: in the end the ew ‘material of stone comes into being 35 the old wood vanishes; however, ‘iene material sin the form of theo. Sach a the case with nation: alism’strumph over imperialism. vasa new material inthe form of theca, and that form oa the terzitvial order. "The concepts presented in this bok aze nota rejection of, ra radical departure rom current ideas, Rather they grow out of and extend exis {ng concepts. What has boen lacking insta on rationalism ithe 00g rrevgrition that nations derive ther idenites oa lange degree fom Pot ticular places and teritores,and that contolof these soften essen raitanig 3 ational deny Filet give Fall eos ‘ition to this aspect of nationhood has prevented a thorough under ‘Standing ofthe nature of many territorial conflicts. To address these 2. dafcences,Chaper 2 bepinsby laying out what saleady known about forms of human ident, with greatest emphasis placed on that of the ration. From thee the place and tercitorial components oF deny are ssl The a Sat Several eto Ft thy pve ‘2oups ith the natural resources necessary fr basic human servi Eide, the ae essential fom acalfual perpective because they {enable groups to expres thelr dente in landscape. This expression plays an important role in transmitting group characteristics o in tals and to suceeding generations. Groups also must have he ably to enact laws to maintain and cultivate thelr identiies. La, however EUROPE ON THE EVE OF ‘THE FIRST WORLD WAR cae igure LL Europe on the ve of the it World Wat2 ChoperOne {az lective ony within certain geographical spaces and teretory is 2 {orm of geographical space that enables groups to fonmlate the laws and polices necessary to their identities. The sgniseance of trio ‘cored by-a phenomenon Snoven as eri which exist at all lev ls of entity but Is strongest atthe national level—not surprising, ‘considering that we live inthe nation-state er. The sigficance of place Sd teritory reflects this phenomenon, but iis a difteult ching to mes- sure and map. The chapter ends ssi ‘news fo accomplish this ask (11g Chapa takes up the historical dimensions of nationalism in an efor tolunderstand how ein places and terior comet be ignicant to ‘sticalat nations in southeastern Europe, These historical dimensions Erevial to consider because nalloalis didnot evlveindependentiy ef what came before On the contrary gre out of previous ideologies snd consequently has embedded within itmany teas from is predece: fors, parla insperaismImperaisn’spotialacangement of "loys most noteworthy because persisted ae even became integral fo sationallsy’s understanding of terstorial arrangements. Although impeialism’s view of testory became that of nationalism, that view expressed tl feet in Western Europe than in Cental and Eastern Europe In Westen Europe nationalism emerged inthe context ofthe Enlightenment te eas of whch should therefore be ehcidate. tn ri, ths band of nationalism redefined imperil terettore as naional ones X ‘This proces often was no posable in Central and Easter Europe because rary peoples of these regions spy didnot have exiting empires that oul be corer i ation lates, esate the raion den reached ‘Censl and Easter Europe during the Romastle peti, Chapter 3 pro- ‘see with the Key dea ofthat period. In short, the veneration of tory “lowed Cental and Fsstem Europeans to reoch back othe past and Teauerect the memory of previous empires, Subsequently, hough with this added sep, they abo used imperial erioiet define their national Chapters 4,5,and Gare an atemptto elucidate and spatially dein ate the ena o trator of thes ethnonational groups in southeastern Europe: the Hungarian, Romarisa, andl Serbian nations. These nations haveboun chosen ss cave tis because substata patil dijunctons ‘stor have exited between thelr mode sae trois and the fern, tones fom which hy derived mick of heir identities. The mapping Jangnage and religion doesnot adequately identity the fll extent ofthe teutorie Jo whlch these nations have strong emotional attachment. Individually, ach offers specie advantages a8 2 ase study. The Hlungarlan nation has hada weldefies err: thatas remained sl a act overthe last thousand yee. As suc, itehowshow a nation Inatacson 8 old mpenel terry asa new national oe. The Hungarian nation, hovvever shad cifically maintaining cniel of ‘ito be nga ave ey ented mi ‘The Romanian ation stands In sharp contest othe Hungarian mason because thas ad many sil ciscrerand elaively asthe basis fr a modern Romanian ‘atonal. The Romanian nation cows how a modern nation basse {le to find historical precedent to justify the unison of thee szall ‘Szovial units. The Serbian nation ithe nest complex case and in many fever had a stable territorial unt forts. The Serbian sruggle to dalineate «national tereitory and i ‘fort fo etablsh some sorta istorieal precedent for controling that ter ‘ory show how important places are nation Spread te Serbian ‘ation has focused on ethnic dstibutlns asa means of protecting nd controlling ts national testory rather than asa means of defining 8 ‘atonal terior. “The ask of delineating the Hungarian, Romanian and Sebian senses ofteritory is accomplished by the application of thee indicators site ‘deniication. landscape description, and the tenacity factor. Before attempting to portray of understand a group's sense of teitery, we must place each group ino ls proper storia context. Therefore, each chap fer begins wth bre historia overview of the group in question. Thase Overviews are then followed bythe application ofthe thee indicators ofa nation’s snseofteetry. This vevealsa coe, em-core, and periph of sgniicant places. These categories ate based onthe degeees of [impaciance ofthe places inher. All hee categories aze discussed fst relation to site identifieation and landscape description, then in ea. ton to the analy facto ‘Sense of tritory and emotional attachment o place are intel com- ponents of national identity It soften important fr nation to contro {he paces that define this deny In those cases where effective contol 'sschieved, healthy and peacefl national psychology wil emerge «es where that contal sot achieved, conflict with neighboring enc eoups and nations will prs. Therefore, knowing he place component ‘group density tells we mach about national identi and Helps us 0 ‘understand many ofthe conflicts that ais between nations 1°2 The Nation in Its Spatial Context Because nations eatin tine, they ae shaped by temporal processes and thus have temporal components Besse nations alse exist in pace they laze shape by spatal processes and tus have spat components a5 Wl While t would be ludicrous to argue that nations do not exist nether time or space the second axiom vitally ignored in most stles of rations The act recognition given to the fat that nations occupy spaces doesnot qualify as genuine ingly lt the spatial ofnasont Totaly recogrize that nations have spatial qualities is to recognize that spatial proctses and intersctonscontbute othe developent of nalinal den {tes (Deutsch 1969; Sj 1971). While general principles under spatial relationships the exaet nature and intensity of these relationships ter s2ographialy, making the character of places and tetris unigue. The Uniqueness of places and tetris in rn contributes othe uniqueness of national identities Ina broad sense, “place” and “territory” ae spatial components of salto brie hy both shape ad we shaped by ter man inhabitants. More specifically plae and terstory however, have many ltmportant nuances a wel Of theses the noon that certain ples ahd ‘eros become glean to nations, a nations develop strong emo ‘Sonal bondsto these places and territories an that nations can Become very protective of these places and territories a phenomenon known a5 tecrtrility Thus the spataityof mations ls multiplex. This chapter focuses on an svelte he spat components of nationhood in det Unfortanstely the tem nation ten x used wth lack of clit making {too dificult to discuss tin a spail context without fist eartying the concept of nation ints entirety. Therefore, this chapter begins with ome lication ofthe tm ation so that he concep of pce ane story ean be understood more easly 1516 taper Too Definitions of Nation ‘The concep of nation is poorly understood by thas who use, nc sng those in the media, government and pics and even in educate so scadaiaclaig tos who ety macnn rutin eguenty used interchangeably wih tra sora cao tnt, nd ia indication tat the concep of ations poorly eee Stood. Thi nck of understanding is even nore polgranty ios ‘whenever the tem natin is used as synonym for Horde ike cere tations an state, The mise ofthe erm tation, and sms ae ‘i occurs becuse fw objective eters under, Whe populace ception places cnsterable weight on language and region dois characteristic, sone tron corelation dost oust bees ee and/or religion and national denis around the Worlds Engl zample i the mother tngue fora numberof nations, ik ee at Engh speakers considering themsalves tobe part oft aghe elie utr the sme stuation wuss fora number of ater angen ee French, Spanish and Gnman, By the se token notallaane tes singe language. Belgas, Svs, and Americana for xample ae ye atest ‘The lack of bjctive criteria certainty has le o confusion. an con- Smuts od 0, but deena iva the concep a ain, etnng itera est bu le almost excasvly in the sulgertve rain Nose sttemps have been made o create efnton of aonb he aber into acount ts subjective qualities OF the defltions that oat ne sete by Konan Symmons Symonoleice seams tobe he ne ate excompassing and; therefore, he most crate when applied he tint of te world SymmansSymanolewice defines? nitos ce testo based community of human beng hang \ of human beings sharing distinc variant \ ofmodem cure bound together by asso sentnet oftay and ot {der marked bya clear hstorcally-rooted consciousness of hatona | COR es ontop gran pil ago erent (985,23) his definition dlustrates that nationhood is largely se-perceved Benedict Anderson poignantly iusrates he seltperclved sole sationkood withthe fer “imagined community (eee 61) Ta, rations are defined by ary numberof cultural characte The ia understanding any prticular nation’s enty fan spprecation of én set of tats and how a nation concver of them toting ation with individual cultural tale: Been tough ranch ee sina atubuts the meaning and signfcane ef indies aber, ‘ary from nation to nation. ven when nations latch onto pheseone ‘he Nations Spt Cane v sacha language nd eign lingua a eign become sigan ‘iy boca nv nasone perce te oben. Teo St moni on hme ct ata om sey mish po oftangage ae eg charset ica at sr thee nate hich hol these potnonert mening ‘ni groupe ate sia tonaone inthe sete that they foo an det vans oder clue Because eite gape on re ‘wang, slg bel ac cite ey are eee Snel wih ation Ay shi otanding nk re not atone, tle groupe dont always aes tae ‘ss (Conor 1978, Eli rps ae often once ond ded ‘yr onsidesbserves uch a academics or even nation Second nic ‘ups dan pac or ive toposes «genuine pllels-gov: = ‘Snment Therefore elise groups donot ave ther wn sae or og ie hn an or emia Conesueny whl “tna Struggle for independence” and“tontate’ re nteury conditions ‘tna the concept of ehnl group has not spawned the same ‘Corollary concepts of ethnie sggle for independence” and “ethnic (soups indeed whet a ene oup dcop he dee fo pol Eatditgovemmen, tha by dfltontecome soa esse ce op oot dei pts na gvenent hey ex as subgroups win nation Some nations sucht the Ameria ate Efsany ec rope y the sae tke, be of ec {pose such athe ews andthe Arb cam cven be found within ary iret maton Etc youpe ave Geir own Getic vara of od ture, but they alas have any ofthe cacatratie othe eation they area part ofan they share wth he ther member of the ation ‘tens of belonging the es for piel see govemnen IF aetine loop doer nor have tie same sae belonging o the ack aon het at ean wi ten ‘eli inthe ofa ear atonal concoct ang member Othe eni group. The nelone ta ala between ec rou and ‘atone ee sb! bias he dominant ata growp rte the natoral deny ina way Ha cuRACE he ent ooh of Moe “little groupe Tas stuatio,for example ocured wit te ec of ‘Weal Getty, Mowt ethic Jo within Gatnay sxepled Geran ‘ttn entity aed ot fe tat the religions ble and cata Praccerdsqulied the rom Being pat ofthe German nation. Te Riis however redeined German Wenity and conf eae. ei “porantto note a he ews didnot exe themaelve but ween foc excaded. Moreover he conti exclusion of ews ih Eurpe ed ‘Second soacmessaengany Tews Eon as Zionisen, pelefanbon 2] Seay oF hee Pepe fet ae8 ape To Te Jewish as is poignant but not unique, The redefinition of ational identities by dominant groups and the resultant exclisios of ete ‘minorities continue to serve asa important clay forthe development lee tat th language gua them emag Caneaa P ore! shat they hve red am Enpianspeke nee owever bo led tothe emergence of alla ere oe "nay Fech spealers Ther of tnalconsoarrens a aa ingto demands for politcal seltgoverament Sanya spesies within he United Sse se uying male cnn chocactersic of Ameren natentnod, Whe Sooner ae fet disgealifed fom being Amerian bec ey vey ee ak English connie evlusonstyteatnt, pace benassi |ntion stay cause Spanish spenbers to ec Amoroae erage develop a new national consciousness. ana “These te cae ste hat tae and a onal identities are not slespe unchanging givens, Both forms oF deni ae Very dynamic sae ethnic goups exiting within nang amongrations, od che lon into nations. Nations even contribute othe changing chance oe re identities because national identities are evershangng tenet Asnatona ets change, thy case evuaton of eons ein ini groupe ‘That eta groups and nations are closely related iilustrated by he interchangeable use ofthe terms without clea seennition chen tne diferences. Ironically adherence to ithe for of deny ope part of an entire population is often treated ab cacluding te oben Consesuertlyangument are, for example ato whch teense ates a tc govps orators Bienes tsp either agument, but na recognition is given the pasta oe some Jews, Scots, Catalans te, have a cosesponding sation con scious we cers have an ethic identy win anther nation Te example, individual ews witha national consciences he eae van thr own aatontate (Le, Ina), while etic Jens whe ore another natlonal identity want oben the ation state othe sper Brlatenatlonal identity fe, Jewish-Americane want te be eer American nation-state) By the same token Seats wath eater ee Selousness want an independent catch te bt etic Scots axe content fo sty within Great Brain. In ther words shee noe lation does ot Rave to be calfed ss exchaiey anetin eebee {nation Moreover, the members within «population er nes tithe netic ora national identity am ikely tobe eerste, depending one evoving polite, cones anduocal cane, that affect thern.> spon “ The Nation ee Spt Content » As ene groups develop national consciousness, they are confronted ith beng hn he sf oer natons Bee ng meer the ‘merging nations realize that fall nationhood cannot be achieved with ‘tpalitical independence a canifion which can bsachisved only with rei over terior. When he elation ccc, the srg or SnindenG Nan rane pi Ay gwen monet male “orythe Word has fll developed nation with political selfs snd teentorial sovereignty, nations svg for ian ations sl n thelr embryonic state. The wos pation fe not atc nd ies but eve {onary with ome nations being very mature snd new onesxing bor “Bet our eyes. ‘Some reserchers donot secognie that the desire for plc sl ruleaa verte sovereignty ae necessary eondtons for nationhood (Gallagher 195 717-18 Senco 197, Shae 1972.18) Thy pont {ormulsatoal states suc as Gret Brain ana Spain. These examples, weve, donot weft the aforementioned charecteistic of he frm ration bat fat conn the To spy pt out tat Sot, Wels are Engh coos within Gest Brain ad that Basques ae Catalans Ive with the spanish nthe sume tt, ito paper ove te tensions that est amen thee peoples Such cnclsion to ignores thatthe host Sscontent among thse peoples (se Scot Wels ih, Basgue, and Catalan) and the one ling pola alfa and terior 0 ect aretha ones who cll thencives nationals The tpt oe ‘GrestBitain or Spina efitaton Ukewise fas fo tak nto account that not every individual among the Scot, Welsh rsh Bagee, and Catalans hs exposed national neous, though thee peoples re collectively dubbed natn: Moreover looking tte poll map and pointing ost hat Gret Betsin and Spain ae mulinatona i tesing Iatonhood as tte concept and nl seogaaing hat an evolutionary process is unfiding ih fact, may ee a terawing ofthe pli {el map to acomimodt he tonal anprations of tse peoples, is proving tha the dei for plital sels ad eon sovereignty re neceeny conditions for saonhood. Beceem tin nd np meer He Luy-unsurpriingly they ae used interchangeably despite the important {fereoes staging he two concep On the ter haa ar Sako suse a synonym or words cha ty nan ste an tate Naton andl these other words realy fer making thee sbettation ugh inpproprine Nation ad tine poup are sgn ee basse they refer 0 pou of pple On th other and cot, aint on "ste sefer to potial ongalaed plas an tov Theefre, the peo Be-ooed concep of ation i fandamenaly diferent in easing fan the placeoted concept of ory, ain ste, ad late. Nevertheless, wah, 5 >20 hape Tao spt the obvious ad significant diferences between the two types of terms prope rooted tems are chrnically interchanged with aot torms (Connor 1973). In ther words, the teen non i eeguerly and tristan used ore os place Spain, France, Poland, and bulgaria ‘fen are cll nations when in at they ape nation-states The Spanish, the French the Plo n the Bulgarian rc nations “That people-ooted tera ke nation, are used co casuelly an ely sas synonyms for placerooted term should not be regarded te sling le igre The nual teraange of thse wore sould be ake anindiation that people and place are closely linked tha deri Is derived fom places nd, therefore, people rooted terms canbe jst fialy exchanged with placetooted terms. Altera, most peoples, ‘speily nates, ecelve Wee names frum place, hus indenting te love link. The enc, Ss, and Germans nations fo example, deve thor names rom pce (France, Switzerland, and Garmary] Mot fe Rrprae nn f pelea e “Phe inappeopriate substan of people rooted terms with placeoted tems also stems tom the ideology of nadonalism Modern natonaton { savocatss world in which the spatial extent of polis! units eater: tains ih he spatial dstrbutons of nations (Connor 1978 1-89). eat dos nor conform tts prep of maint delay because ‘many pola! units contain mullple nations (albeit wath teteon, od 1 number of nations are dstted across voor more poi wate Nevers the beet in “ene people—one state endo ny lo ssume thatthe eistnce of slate implies the existence oft people wth as (er oame: Becasse the world's poiltial map for emp, contains 2 ~ Somalia Zire anda ne nes Yigoelavi many weld au that ther area were Somalia, Zar, and Yasosavian ations, People end ples beam inked so only together ts ey xenaly bane el Frngishable ana hereor, ae sed interchangeably. Some ofthe ae ‘namples are the names of organizations such a the International “Monetary Fund, the International Court of Justice, and the Unie Nations The presance ofthe tm natn in the ames these anges, tions implies that the base bulding blocks of the ogazains se oo. ‘ls, and tht these organizations amet surve peoples, On the conan, Irombers ofthese organizations are tes, no tong, Whe ste that the member states nominally represeat nations nations without States ae not represented. Describing thee ovpaizations for what Uy {re the names shold be the “Interte Montary Pune the Tne Court fase.” andthe “United States" Goverment of malar Stas lo encourage he interchange ofthe terms anand tate Sh Substations promote th la ta he goverment sn at est serve {single nation withthe same nase. This gives leptnac) tothe ‘he Nation Spt Context a ‘emments of sates with diverse and dinate populatons, thereby help ing such governments to perpetuate themselves ‘Misapplications of plae-ooted terns an people-rooted terms only {ead to greater erors prevent situations fom bing propel under stood. For example iit were tobe reported that Hungary oocupied par ‘of Czechoslovaki, that would suggest that one places occupying another place—a physical impossibility. course, many would not interpret it this way? instead, they would soe it asthe statement was intended. Nevertheless the statement caries with it the implication that the Hlungavians took something that did aot belong to them, Consequently, smyone who heard such statement withoot knowing mach about thei Unton might be inlined to oppor the Hangaran acon. However the SHatement were made by using the tems correctly a diferent reaction ‘ight well result. Thus a statement tthe effect that Hungarian oops had occupied territories af Caachoslvakia over which the Hungarian government claimed righ dominion could wll send a cifferen mes Sage. Anyone hearing this statement who knew litle about the station ‘would likely want to knw ifthe Hungarian aims were legitimate before snaking a judgment "The inappropriate we of the terms ati and nation state actully us trates the close ink between people and place. Whise many researchers consider the lamporal development of nations, few eealize that nations evelop spall swell Nevertheless, the concept of place and teritory ‘manifest self in some form in many definitions of mation (Alter 1994, 1 Anderson 1991, 7; Stalin 1996, 18-20, van den Berghe 198, 6). Konstan Symmons Symonolewice’s definition of the modem nation, ‘which begins with he pss" base commit isis one example “The Significance of Place and Testory Place and testo ar sgicat to nations fo two major esos. Fit they contain with the heat esources hat conto ohe par tlre of human cule The exaphoss hereon quality ot eat thy, which often leas to neubstatated emeTsion aout sel ‘slfieney and ee, Quay of oatral recurs foctes moron th {pala vations within nataze and how they in tur conte tthe haying character of nan deity fom rein a repon Second, pace ‘peony ate portant rm th cult peapetve a wel. Natons ‘xpath dole the clr! anscpe of places ane eto ink dente re enforced in the member of the ation snd peste tn rom generation to generation tough he cata lndscpe Bee’ "tone derive tet ies on the atrlanltal environments, )2 caper oe ations need to have sovereign politica control over place and territory Sovereignty means the ability to enact ad enforce laws 0 protect and cultivate national identi: Because laos need tobe te to pce and ter- ‘ory tbe effective ations need pace an teitoryto ent and enfoece lave that protec thelr natural and cultural envionment [Natural Resources ‘Atone level, place ad territory are significant because they contain the pataral resources that sustain human life, We obvingsly cannot survive ‘without ai, water ant food, Because place and teeritory provide us with ‘those necessities, ou ives are connected to place and territory to sch a degree that we are dependent on tem. This dependency, however, not Timite to mere survival, for our luxuries are likewise derived from the resources of place and terior. Resources then area common dena ‘ator fr al Societies, from the most primitive tothe most extravagant Resources are not the same everywhere. Some places and territories ‘obviously contain more than others, and the kinds of resources vary a6 ‘well Human beings have been acutely aseare of the areal differences in the quality and quantity of resoures for tine immemorial, The uneven, lstrbuton ofthe earth's resources sat the source of many conflicts hat Ihave arisen between and widhls human societies, Not surprisingly, mods cemarayss ineling many geographers, have become preoccupied with the location of resources. Resource location i certainly significant, but locational analysis of resources is ofen pursued om the aston that humans, whether individ or societies, stragge for esouttes simply te improve material conditans, usualy characterized as bac human sce when not directly relate to suri “The conclusion that human beings struggle for sources out of greed has overshadowed the other significant atbuts of resources Whats forgotten is thatthe particular resourees of places and territories Fund menial skape human culture We human beings of course, have the abi ity to use esourees any way we choose, resulting in groupe with varying cultural characteristics despite sila avaisbilty of resources. Thenehore ‘he argument here snot or envizonmentaldeterministn but for carl possiblism. Nevertheless, despite the ability of haman beings to ine: eet thee natural envizonenents ditferenty they can eteate material cul fees ony from the posites that particular natural environments fer Imeach place and trtry Ths means thatthe spatial varitions that exist. Jn culture ave partially ied to the spatial variations of naturel resources So from the perspective ofnatutal resourses, the uniqueness of place and territory isan attbute of ethnic and national identities “That each place and teritory containe within it different resources is seemingly more mnportant prior to the rise of advanced technology that ‘The Nati Spt Cant a characeigs modern society: Nevertheless, whe modern technologies ‘nay allow human blag ore ee rom he etctons prevented Oy themed resus found each place ad terry he aneven ad iced dtbtion of resus in he word hae no become nga tohwman culture, Many elture dept ther ners lt the haaceritis of particle nator enionments, Divi Sopher pons ‘ut hat Jewish culture for example egy dered fom the nara “vironment ofthe Este Meatercane, He shows tht Jewish ol ‘aysare eto th seasonal shytme of te Eastern Mediterranean emt ronment rich intr eed in patil agretrl practices et, Sn iesyies Soper 967, 519-21) In oerwowd Jui a org. inated rote pac in the word i would have developed nto sone thing mc ferent than tis today Fartherore, even hough es ae font allover the worl they al hve many cll characte hat ate deaved fom he Easters Mediteranesn environment No wonder then tht modem Zones hose the Eastern Meiteraneen for amos Jewish natonstate The nant al agus oni an independent State with sovereignty ever emtory a speci tertory not rete ort ever ha fers of terry nother coutries bt rected them intavrf the testy of ancl rel (Classe 199, 1). The Ease Mediterranean selon obviouay contre fo have meaning fo nit, eventhough thet ancestors had been separated rom it for many cen tures Not fo ecopnine this meaning weirs one to sk why Zionists hose the sour poe and poliealy hostile aster Mederanan or modem fewsh ste ‘The significance of place and terstory fr the natural resources they prvi plays hey role in moder sce Tete Pench, Si rd Japanese for example, thee of he wealthiest and most echnaogialy ‘vanced nations in the word All te of thee nations have the si toimpot us about any prota they dese, sey having the ait toreshape their cuures itary way they choose. Despite ts bility how ‘vc the ntons continue ung he pod hat wee orgy devel ‘ped in that national errs In cise lone, he Frenchy the Ss, {hd the Japanese have not ven p the trian fod fe mre lob “ly constmed products lke Cocs-Cola, bamburgers and pszs, ven though Use nations ceranly ave icressed hie consumpion of ese products ttl fifi o imagine thee nations without het ade tonal foods that they devsioped in their national tertorce. Moreover, ‘ven though thee nas a nor many of tee ational fds rom other areas ofthe word more cheaply than they can rode them at home they tend not to, These nations, ae well 5 othe shows peter enc for th types of products tat have ben adionaliy gro in the ome terior: they even show abe for the ack product the theyey chapter To9 {700 at home. Not only i wine partof French cltur, the French pre ferto donk wines from France instead of buying chesper wines from oer ‘Nations often profess tha the product grown at home at superior to similar ones geown abroad, in foreign places and teritores Such beliefs «an be attbuted only to cultural particularities because they cannot be Substantated by rational scant means. Nevertheless, ations subse- ‘quently will subsidize their home producers at great economic expense to protet them from foreign competition. Such subsidies are not rational from an economne perspective, et even the wealthiest and most eap\tal- ‘st nations subsidize certain home industries, Often is dhe name of protecting jabs, but the money could be more wisely spent developing ompeiive industries. Moreover, such subsidies are directed at indus ‘es prodlcing goods in te home terior that ae fandamentlly a past ofthe national ule Emphasizing traditional foods isa concrete way of Wustrating the importance of place and testory forthe natural resources they provide (Other material tits in national cultares demonstrate inkages to the at ‘wal resources of particular places and testes. Many festivals and other Celebations ay teed tothe natural environment. Combing dit with ‘he myriad material its ofa nation, ane sees the importance of place and territory it becomes hard to imagine how the various mations af the ‘World could eas they ere hey had developed in places ater than the ‘ones where they have hada long standing relationship with the nara ‘World. Would French national Llentiy stil be what is it had devel ‘ped in the topes ein frets of South America? Would the Swi nation sill have the same character fad clevelope on an island archi Inthe South Pacific? Would Japanese culture be what iis if ithad devel- ‘oped in the deserts of North Alia? Is impossible to say exactly how ‘the identities ofthese nations would have developed if they ere been and had matured in these other natural environments. Only an environ~ ‘penal determinist would pretend to know hove Yet it clear that these rational identities would have developed differently in different nt ‘ural environments. Therefore from the perspective of natural resources Salone, becase place and terete shape the material ais of ational cal tures, they must be components of national identities as well Cultural Landscapes Place and territory are significant to human identity beyond providing the natural resources tht sustain human life and shape culture They are ‘ruc fom purely caltral perspective a wel. As Edward Reiph notes, places are The Nation et Spt Comet 3 profound centres of human experince. Theres or everyone a deep a0 ‘ation with he consciousness of the plas whore we were Bom and ree Sp. where we live som or whee we have ad prtclany ving expe hoes. Ths socio ee fo contin awil souce of Boh inva fan atl Kent and security a point of departure from which we cri ‘nt ouseies nthe wor Relph 176, 430) Place snd terry cultural phenomena are not passive, however They ‘conten the ide ofthe cultural landscape, which san important median {or human beings “to embody thes elings, ages, nd thoughts ina sible material” (Tuan 1977, 17), This means that cultural identity is ‘expressed and even invested in the landsape, making the cultural and scape a basis for common identity for members ofa greup.Ieiseven pos: sb to gain important insight into the characteristics of cultural group by examining the group's landscape. The amount of space that cultural _sr0up allocates to activites (eg, economie, polit, sca, eigieus), a5 ‘well tthe locations assigned to these atvies, reveals much about a cultural groups values and beliefs Investigations of the cultural and ‘Scape lta that “plas” not separate and detached from the imnan ndition but actualy “en onganived world of maui” (Tuas 1977179) ‘hats very mca part of human int. Reading the cultural landscape san important means of unerstand- dng the characte of nation’s deny; however, he cultural landscape Jus even greater significance: it plays key role in the development of common national consciousness among inviduals. The patclar sp ta arzangements within the cultural landscape of «natin ery dle- tate the movements and interactions of individuals, making such ‘movements and interactions urigue tthe members ofa nation, thus the basis of common identity In other ord, a Pele Taylor notes, Every social organization has its rent space so that the spatality i part af their being” (Taylor 199384). Thus, the assertion “America san suto~ mobile society” implies thatthe distinctive spatial arrangements found ‘within the Unite States hive led to soil interactions and elatonships that separate Ameriins fom other nations. Tn addition to cantebuling to thers of «national dentty with ace tain character the cultural Indsapes of nation's tertory serve to mais ‘nin the rational identity among individual members and to rans the ‘atonal ident to suceding generaons, Donald Maing iustats this aspect very well wih the following; "Every mature nation has is sym- bolic landscapes, They aze par ofthe shared set of deas and memories ‘which bind people together” (Meinig 197,160) Therefore although lan- ‘uage, religion, shared history, and even common ideology are often touted as common ingredients ora national dent), hose national chat acters mut be expressed inthe cultural landscape2% Chapter Too [Nations that base their identity ona particular language need to beable ‘to vite their languagein the cultural lanascape:on ste sgns on uild- ‘Inge on billboards, et. Nations cultivate ther languages partly through this medium. Not ta beable to do so, implying that «foreign languge ‘must be used, would be too repressive tothe nation, Natons that have theis own religious beliefs must be able to build places of worship and ‘mossing erect monuments of religious significance, and expres heir religious baits in myead subtle ways in the landscape Nats that can not express thelr eigous belles in the landscape and create landscapes to practice their ligion’s belies Hkewise are represeed. Asante of shared history and poitil ideology is also reflected and invested in the cultal landscape: Monuments are the obvious examples, but names of streets, brldings, plazas, parks, and even cles ae also an important part of nation’s cultural landscape of history and ideology. Although individu tlsleara thehstory and ideology of thelr nation when they are young, ‘he expressions of history and ideology in the landseape serve a contant reminders of specific histories and ideologies and even make historical ‘vents and figures and idologia figures and belies more concrete, Has ‘more real A ation unable to express i history and ideology i the land Scape is in danger of losing these aspots of ts identity, Terstory then, ‘witht cultural landscapes, "comes tobe viewed as the epostory of ‘Shaced collective consciousness, the place wherein memory is rooted” (Williams and Smith 183,503). Moreover, the landscape of a nation's beliefs plays an important role in inculcating the national identity Sato ‘nalvduls long after the formal escationl experience of youth. As 8 ‘constant three-cimensiona, visual reminder, the culral landscape rein forces the shared national identity within the psyche of every inivid- wal on daily bai, even transiting the nation’s characteristic from ‘generation to generation. “The significance of place an terstory silluststed every tan ad pute arse concerning the placement or treatment ofsome element in the ‘ulturt landscape, The inhabitants fa city can become incensed if a pub- le place resivesa namie or becomes the location of «monument or att work thet doesnot reflec heir identity. Likewise, he hit in identity the reconstrcton of the cultural Iandcape before the identity Shift can become complete. The word has eltnesied this process over the last few yeas a Communism was rejected in the former Soviet Union and Easter Europe. Monurnents tothe Communist ideology were 5ys- tematcally destroyed, and street names, plaza names, and even city names that reflected Communist belifs were changed immediately. ‘Alitinaly in non-Russian countees ofthe former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, the landscape was filled not only sith elements of Communism but also with reminders of foreign dmination. Vast sums "he Nation ne Spt Content Z ‘of money were spent in destroying these landscapes, and much more was Invested in building new monimens and other lent inthe landscape ‘hat reflected th new snge of national pide, om the rational economic perspective, such Behavior as, ans, "The economies of hese ‘Countries were in shambles, and huge investments Were needed to cor- ‘ect hesitation, making the nvestmenss in mortament seem fvolous. For these nations, however, the Communist landscapes did not eet ‘heir dente. For some, these landscapes were constant reminders of pst oppression, Thus Has Europeass put great effort nto destroying he Communist and other landscapes bectuse twas necesnry to eradicate ‘Communi and foreign domination trom their national dendtes, At the same ime, these peoples cpent var sums of maney constructing he landscapes a a necessary means of building new national identities. The energy thet Hast Buropenns have put into reconstructing thle cltutal landscapes illustrates ow people and place are closely inked, even inter tsi, Both Natural and Caltur Place and teetory are significant and form a part of human identity, including national identity because they provide the natural resources ‘that sustain man fle and they contain the cultaral landscapes that bot ‘express human identity and reinforce various forme of group identity ‘thin indvidnl Eventhough natural resources and cultural lndscapes are two diferent phenomena that can be discussed separately only a fine Ine separates them’ Aside from natural resources, man beings become very accustomed tothe natural landscapes of places and terltrie, each ‘with ts own seasonal hythms, climates, geomorphologies, and vegeta ion. These natural elements become engeained i the human psyche 18 tr, human beings including nations, begin to appreciate these nat- ural landscapes not jus for ther resources But for thei esthetic Beaty nd begin to incorporate this sense of aesthetic beauty into poetry ar, ‘nd erature Natural landscapes then become ch ke cultural land ‘scapesin that we as human belags become very accustomed other, and thay in tun become meaning ow to wich degre that we Begin 0 ‘densify with them. Plce then is coposed of both culturally crested and natural ements, tert snd inseperable for human dent (tices made p of expences, molly feting and undramatie repented ‘ay after day and ovr the span of years. Tr isa unigue blend of sights, ‘ound nd anes, unique harmony of tural and riche sch ‘es of unset of work and play. The feel place srs now's ‘usc an bones Tuan 1877, 18-88)28 ape Ta ‘Thebbellef that place and terstory are inextricably linked with human ‘entity is elacted in human speech in a number of ways, One ofthe ‘mast lusrative examples ofthis ink is the adage "You can take the boy ‘ut ofthe country but you cannot fake the country out ofthe Bay” This fcage, and its many variations which nate specie places and tert Ties, gives act cognition shat we as human Beings derive much of out deny from particular places. The influence that place has on our beliefs tnd personalities becomes obvious when we goto new places. We often ‘ehale avkwardly because we do not know the people or the course of events in those new places, We it into new socal groupings only when ‘we have lived in nev places long enough to have developed a fll appre- ‘aon forthe qualities af these new places, meaning that our iden have boen reshaped by these new places, "Asecond example of human spech lustatng that place and tesitory are qualities of human identity isthe frst question usualy pt to ‘Srangor "Where are yu fom?” The anew to this question ten eveals ‘more abouta person than the answer to any lher question, a multitude ‘of images and information. To sy that one i from Califor, New York, ‘or Mississippi (or Germany, Inia, ox China on another scale) reveals ‘much about one's identity. Even in places ike Northern Ieand, where religious adherence sams tobe the primary means of group identifics- tor, yourg ldren in the Protestant and Catholic ghetto also pese this ‘same question fist While the cilden ae interested in religions af tion, they determine it by identifying place of residence, On the other hand, ifthe ansverto thie question ie a place or territory outside of Nosthem lrand, then religious filation becomes unimportant, and ¥a- “untecrng one’s religious belie is treated ass non sequitur The children, refer teas about ether characteristic ofthe suanger’ place of ergin! Basie human vocabulary also reveals strong exnational bonds that re Jhumans have for particular place and terete, in tum illustrating tht -naman identity pastialy derived fom place and territory. On the pos five side we have word ke he and ls derivations, sch as homeo and homélad, In contrast tothe word house, which simply connotes Dhysieal structure, home has deeper meaning, referring to the experi- fences, memories, and people that make up such a place. Personified terme such as motherland and fatherland recognize tat places and tett- tories give us life, nsstre and provide for, and even protect, sake Ing us who we are In turn, we refer o places and tectores with out strongest words of endearment. In fact, "to defor one’s country" sone ofthe most nobl and hero sacrifices that one can make. To evade mie ary services treated with intense scom, not only by governments but by members ofthe nation who believe it necessary to risk one's He 0 protect one's county ‘The aioe et Spl Conteat » ‘On the negatvesde, we have words suchas homesites, which refers to adaep emotional longing for paces an terres fom which we are Separated. This separation often results in profound feelings of despa tnd despondency Evan thse of us who move and eventually adjust fo ‘new places and tert offen fe that there ail “no pce ke rm” Permanent separation from homeland makes one an ere which most of tus would considera dreaded fate. The trauma of separation has molded fled Utzrary weltes who have provided humanity with gent works ‘sich eloquent express the significance of plae tothe human cond ton. Ae Andrew Gut points ou In consequence ofthis separtion fon home in pact a wel tine the ‘wile carats exter i teton nt mach on ene i tory tat was the preczupatin af etna omnes of whom Yess per [aps the greatest xample) as on Ms sense of home aa unin space ot time togeter Fr the ealonal ells th son ch or Weaiy and he con struction of isn of ome amount othe same hing. (98,1). Alinaton om acral or phy ha sad afc onthe we's ‘minds wll ass chose of theme Joyce’ ie and at epee they re mae kind of para for denen wien fs canary. ued by what igh be clled the muta cone ofthe ele sd he se ey sending him to exe he pen hs ie obssivelyrebuing Mis ome Inhisart ‘the churaces ie Dubner. eappearin A Porta and Ue ‘The geography isarow and exact Wilh oye a th many ober wee ste diane of ene citer theft minstnee with hich ‘home was recorded. 198, 15) “The power of place and the preoccupation tha ele writers have ith their homelands a they temps o hold onto their denies is echoed by Jan Vlas a el With some fr. or nati, we can evoke our county's rs geogrphy Showy but coney,we can ea fs faded contour ‘Our ome ste place ron which we gua and toward which we tam to bok fom an everincesing ditance Ourhome ss pnt inte which ‘welave ost bat ean alvayeseiacover slong with eta which we woul ‘Soteven Rave ote on et Tass not nly a quetion Vidal memory but fora man’s home fie tine shaped no ony by 1s own history but ls by the Nseries of hove wh surround him, by ‘isfy and his tebe, andby the palpable istry of eed Belo ancient villages and nev cies and above al by hat changeable unfathomable, ‘tic eaeroir of atv langage "Amante vile can be nga by the water of a am, ly can teraz the ground by bombs landscape an be ended urea2» Cnt Too be by the cetve wel as the destracve acy an Bat one thing oerdines, Meneses mecing ht Son of expe ojo of oureve andthe est fhe weld. Petaps hat the el whch enh of ssa cay is ea. But fou Rel Is thre to lo pari Te onetoonlje rea protec hone within ones, ans yet real home It mea to provide refuge for ons personal ry one Tay wakes, on’ angage oe oe ation Ties alien It ven ony afew et rom is place firth, sto love lofi To cepa alen hes fo aceptanalen death thts notably deo thes fone intel Te sae tts pose only oe mean of posing gn exi- sence ma man who wana leads own fe ele a death peal gy which sme at stoying everyting that ke pas, hi ‘on his paral lege ni hs oe, and aes ore of hin ‘rerywere On the sano determi tanto ve a se a ‘Saris guint uch serene fr enn! each wor ‘Tha pth uy ead to seltecepnsuferng ad tragedy, ut wl not dest hi, Hist nd which haa ade Rim and whch allows ties own eto fend cana be wlen rom him Thi naive ln, ‘which man cannot abandon and whch even more cannot be len from Jn isnats hope, Dut tain on which each one of us can ry wher ver we maybe, whether In 7 hometown often oust ls avy eet Just as negative a elle and one of the greatest fears of individuals omlesness, form ofpaceessness. Homelessness not ony represents 12 toa los af power within society, it even represents a total loss of den ftyshomeless people are treated es they do not exist. Often such poo- ple are even stripped of the word people and simply referred to a8 the homes. Without places af thelr own, homeless people have "no place In society." “Testrialty Because human identity is derived, expressed, and even invested in place etry logy flows a we ab human beings Become very Pro tectve ofthe places and territories that define our denies. Indeed, we eed tobe able to exert some grec of politcal consol ove place and te ‘ory ifwe are to obtain and explolt natural resources and maintain the ‘tural and cultural landscapes that shape and define ou kent, Place and teltory are necessary even fr governance, which ental the ability to enact and execute laws, Because al as ave tobe ted to place snd tee The Non ns Spal Cott a "tory tobe effective and meaningful the possession of place and etitory Isrecessry for governance. This need we have tener some deg of cone feo over and to protect place an territory Is fered oa eri “eriorility exist at al levels of human entity fom that of thei ‘vidual to that of he nation, At the individual level, triton iscom- ‘monly called personal space, Personal pace includes the envelope of sir “surrounding our bodies as well asthe places tha we require for ou vat Tous activities (workplaces, ving spaces etc) Because our individual ‘entities are te tothe small spaces that we occupy while going about ‘ur daily lives, isnot suprising that we exhibits protectiveness over fur personal spaces, cautioning thers not to violate tern Ou protec liveness oflen demonstrated by nameplates, signs, and other makings that make itn to others that a particular space belongs ws ors der ‘our contol. The need for individuals to occupy and use places, often exclusively is protected by laws within socites. Trspesting assault, ‘heft and vandalism all elated to the transgression of personel space, awa teat assess crimes within societies, Even though theft and ‘vandalism soe to apply to inanimate abjcts, we a individuals el per- Serally vielated when our persnal spaces have been tenses by sch cts The importance of personal space illustrated even by sci eco- ‘omic and politcal status, those with lgh talus occupying the largest ‘spaces in the most desirable locations." ‘Tersitocality is an expression not only of individuality, but of group ‘deny a well Families, communi, ad even nations ex the need to protect the places and tetris tht they wie o define their identities, Simla to individual, social groups demonstrate their tesitorialty by posting signs and erecting boundary markers, walls, fences, ee Fraternities and sororities congregate in houses and explicitly decorate ‘am with symbols and banners to declare ther presence snd contol over «particular space, Furthermore, the spaces ut atemities and sororities ‘stablsh contol over are necessary forthe healthy functioning ofthese Scclal groups. Likewise, retired people often expres the need ocoige= fate in retirement communities where they can erect fences and gates {Tis practice preserves away of lfeby keeping cldren an others 03 Ean legal social groupings suchas gangs feel the nee to protect them selves by establishing control over space; graft marks the Limits of @ fgang’stertoy, contributing othe protection of gangby warning oth feo tay out These examples illustrate that tertriaity seated othe cncep of segregation which ala involves the contol of space, oft equiting its reorganization. What group can segregate tel or others ‘without easigning geographic space? ‘Once social groupe are abet establish cont over demarcated spaces anteriores, they are then able enact rules and enforce ther 9 pro.2 taper 0 tect and cultivate the groups identity. At higher levels of identi, cules become laws, and more formalized policing agencies are formed. At the ‘ational leven adion toa national police, military exists to protect ‘the nation’s territory’ rom wansgession. Protecting a group's tertiary land protecting a group's identity go hand in hand and ate inseparable For small socal groups that soe themselves as part ofa larger soctety, political independence snot necessary to exercise contol over tel socal paces. Onlyo small degree of autonomy is necessary to expres erto- Fally.On the other hand, nations express a terstriality that requires independent statehood by vetse ofthe face that nations have a stony, sens of self aoarenese nds desir forsee Nason can achieve sel fue only by having complete sovereign contol over a given territory. [Nations chasing atertry with oer nation inevitably wil fel that thelr rights are impinged upon by the other nations, as these other nations ‘Munpt fo enact and enforce laws within the common tertory t cut ‘ate and protect hee identities. "Tenitorialty seems fundamental to the human condition: consequent ‘many have argued that itis biological need, genetically ingrained (Ovrdrey 1996; Malmberg 1980). On the other hand, terntorlity is texpressed with considerable variation from individual t naval and Socal group to socal group, suggesting that iia cultural phenome- ‘on rater than biological one Some researchers who aliee that tt- ‘tonality isa cultural phenomenon have noted that hunter-gatherer Socletesa social form mast closely ted tothe land— demonstrate the ‘weakest forms of tertoriality(Alland 1972; Rosenberg 1990). The vary ing expresions of territoriality and the weak expressions of teritor lity demonstrated by hunter-gatherer societies certainly suggest that terntorility is more cultural than bologieal. Nevertheless, ii note- ‘worthy that social groups demonstrating seak forms of territoriality have been systematically destroyed by soclal groups expressing strong forms af tertoraity. ‘Of these latter groups, he nation has the strongest form of teritorial day. Not suprisingly we lve ina era known as the nation-state ea the ‘ame of whic indicates hat the nation and ts fem of identity bold pe ‘macy over al other socal groups and level of identity. The primacy of ‘ationhood is shown by the eats surface having been divided into tere teres nominally defined by nations. Umate sovereign atari es ‘with national governments larger politcal organizations such 28 the ‘United Nations have very litle authority without the consent of national ‘governments. Moreover almost all human beings, regardless of their ‘Social groupings, have voluntarily chosen a national identity or have had ‘one forced upon them by national government, Even though individ Slsand mot localized communities may exerdse autonomy vis-bvis the ‘he Non Ms Spl Cotent = ration, such autonomy Is posible only ith the consent of the nation, ‘The nation has the ability to compel individuals and communities, wth force if necessary, to conform tothe desires and needs ofthe nation, Individuals and communities may have rights, but these sights ean be revoked by national governments. Individuals and communities donot be the same ability in regard to the nation, Therefore, ualike nation, Individuals and communities often have to ssrifice their needs © the fatlon, compromising ad even altering their identities Because we live in the nation tate er, and nations expres a trong sence of erstovaitytentoiaty must be addressed as pat ofthe ides ofthe nation, and even incorporated within the definition ofthe term. Nevertheless as noted, ertrility isnot exclisvey expressed by the ‘ation but by other forms of human density ab well Testo hen is ‘ulelajered,exely ike the gener] concep of identity ial Every per son has nt only an individual identity ut some sense of fall con ‘munity and national deni all a the same ume. These level oferty ‘donot act independently ut interdspendely.The national ety ind fences and shapes smaller scale ders, including individual ones. At the same time, individual and familial identities shape an influence broader level of dent, such as the nation. A continua interplay of characteristics exits between the various levels of identiy, lh within {ndividls and between inaividle and tei socal groups. A coaaged chazaceristc a one level of entity necessarily reverberate: trough sll levels, requiring a reevaluation of Went at al eter Levels AB a char cers of human dent, tertocaity exists tl levels af ident and ispar of the interplay between levels of identi Ina manner of speak nga given nations sense of terstraity isthe predict of many personal ‘pcs rang and pero ps ate apd byte natn sede ‘of terior. ANation’s Teritory "National tesitorialit is more than Iargecae personal pace Individuals havean intimate knowledge of thelr personal spaces; they create them. and live within them. In contrast, naividuals, although belonging to larger socal groups, donot know every individual within thelr arge social groups and ikewise donot know the larger group tector nt ‘mately n fact, most individuals have never even visited many areas Within te ertries oftheir social groupings, especialy atthe national level. Nevertheless indeiduals a5 members of nations have tong emo- Lona atachments to their nation’s testy and even expres clear Sense ofthe ae estent of thei nation’s terstory Lacking intimate expe- lence, ane gets the sense ofthe atonal terior vate Interplay of eas aken Uaerty hear4 Chapter 0 between the various levels of identiy. Quite sip, the emergence of a national identity and the sense ofa particular national teritory come {through soca interaction. In other words, individuals depend on the ‘cca groups to define their broader levels of identity, incuding thet ‘tonalite of these broader level Teentity isa dynamic phenomenon, with mach ofthe dynamism derv~ sng fom the interplay between the various levels of dent from that of the individual to thal of the nation. The dynamic aspect of entity means ‘that national identities evolve over ime. Conceptions of national teri es aio evolve overtime In fact they evolve cancurrently because place and terror) are components of national identity. Ofcourse, evens, pol ities, and innovations are ative inthe interplay beoreen the varons lev ‘ls of Ldensity ang, therefore, influence the development of national ‘entities For example, when an innavation ike the compute is ntro= duced, people in each region wl evaluate it differently; a national con- Sensus ll be worked out, and then each regional group wil rcvaluate ‘t Tnnovations do not need to be earh-shatering in thei implications. Individually their impact may be minor, yet cumulatively they are very sigallent. Subli et continual changes i farming practices, industrial technologies, and Business methods often have a profound influence on culture overtime, Asa result of these changes, a people's understanding fle and its place inthe world changes st well Additionally, anew ‘Stimulus seldom occurs uniformly throughout anational teritory A war, for example, may result i the partial occupation a the national terior. Such an occupation has dlfering implications for those who experience ‘the accupation an fr thse who do not Again, 2 national consent hs to develop conceming the meaning af such an occupation a national con- ‘sensu in tum causes a ecvaluation a the regional an local levels ‘Because individuals develop their broader levels of identity and fers- torial though socal interaction, individuals’ sense of identty and ‘senso of tortor canbe manipulated individuals can even be inculcate ‘with particular ideas concerning their identity and tertoriaity," all ‘because individuals ofa nation lack personal kaowiedge fal tek el low members and the nation’s supposed territory. Individual, small |jroups and even governmens with agendas can take advantage of al ‘dynamis to Inject particular deas into society with the inten of shaping ‘rational dent with certain culkral characteristics anc specific sense of ertornity. For example, the Euadoran government ised postage ‘Samp with a map of Eeundor showing Ecuador's boundaries extending Seep into Peru (Glasser 199,86)" Governments in particular have the bility to make sure thatthe histories of certain places and teritories fre learned, witha preseibed emphasis placed on the value and signi ‘ance of eran plates and teritories. Governments also have the ality ‘The Nation te Spt Catt 25 to organize the cultural landacape i a particulary: The Argentine gov trnmen, for example, has erected signs witha imap ofthe Malvinas (Falklands) and slogan that cain thatthe lands ave Argentine, not rks (laser 195365, Government ls have the sbily fo promote ‘he use of particular symbols, images religions, and languages. Finally, and jst as important fo consider, goverment ean suppress ideas and Beles as wel as repress and persecute those who promote univanted {das that may cause the nation to revalint tele. ‘The contiual econciation of identies at ther various scales, coupled ‘with he broad and generalized characters of national dente, makes ‘ational identities very complex and prone to manipulation by nation ‘iss political leaders, and governments Moder nallonalit often place 4 greater emphasis on language religion, and shared history asthe pe mary elements of rational identity, even though individual and group ‘entity is intimately tied to place. For example at one ne people who lived in Prussia concdaved themselves 1 be Prosian rt and then ‘German o Polish However after thers of modem nationalism, German nationalists focused on language a the crcl, unifying factor of German denuity- In esponce, Polish nationalists cid the tame (Herb 1993, 14; Holborn 1968, 298), Prosian identity, as a common identity of those i= ing in Prussia, was evetunly shunted aide by whatit was tobe German ‘or Polish (Davies 1982, 2131-22) While language became the defining ‘haart for German and Polish mona dents andthe national ‘dentiis of many other Central and East Europeans—the meaning of place and trrtory evolved as well tthe broader levels. After al, the Germans and the Pols needed a Germany and a Poland, Simply consis ering the distribution of German speskers ad Polish speakers would nak snd will ot satis elther gaoup. The conceptions of pace and teritony ofboth of hase groups mut be considered. “Although sense of teritory sa fundamental component f gzoup iden ‘iy, the actual elation ofa groups sense of eer changes depend Ing on the emphasis placed on ater components of identi. For example, ss Prussian identity changed the concep of Prussia changed aswell The Prussian ace ia typieal example of goup identities a they evolved in Central and Faster Europe. Over the lat few centuries, imperial ie ‘logis have ben replaced by nationalist ideologies. Imperial ideologies ‘wate primary concerned with religious allan language was gener) Ally considered tobe an unimportant ive With the rise of national language became paramount. Prussian leaders and hence Prussians shuted from being the protectors and propagators of Protestantism 0 the protectors and propagators of Germanism as defined by language, The Siftin identity altered conceptions of place and tritry, When language ‘ld not matter to Pruslans, Prussia was an independent, sovereign ut26 cape To snd, mos ofall, bulwark of Protestantism. However, when language became an sue, Prussians rechanneled! thei eliious fervor and devel ‘ped the need to act and epeak as exemplary Germans and be advocates {oral of Germany: Asa result, Prussia eventually became a subunit of Germanys Germany with strong Prussian characteristic. ‘Despite changing identities for lage-scale groups (nations) andthe resulting changes in how place and territory became understood, people ‘eho lve together in pate tend to develop a common identity through their shazed experience of that pce In other words place and ternitory ‘an bea defining characteristic ofa nation ab muchas language oF rell- [Bonn fact emosional attachments to place can take precedence Over ‘ther characteristics despite any nationalist rhetoric For example, many {nfabitants of Bosna soe themselves as Dosian fis then as Croats Sob, or Muslims. Religion isnot the basis of Bosnian identity: However as Hated, national iets very complex and easily manipulted by polit: fea leaders, By emphairing certain components of group identity eich language or religion, politcal leaders are able wo redefine a situation to ‘heir advantage and fll their ambitions nthe case of Bosnia, political leaders in Serbia and Croatia have not accepted & Bosnian identity and thus have tre to prevent the et ofthe worl fom accepting oe 2 well ‘They have forced the issue of eligion in an attempt to deleptimize any senaeof Bosnian identity. When a new vetsion of group identity ice ted anew group territory i Ukewise required. Ofte, of course, and by polite! design, the new national tertory expands beyond the cur ‘se boundaries ofthe poltial tate, Political leaders then can chim rest {ution of national teetcies trough mitay force I most ase, plitcal leaders claim historical territories tat actually exited (Murphy 190) In ‘other cates, they claim “restitution” of fabricated historical tetories. Posiesion of terstories has changed continually n Cantal Europe and Easter Europe for many centuries (ee Figure 2.1) and therefore, lange scale group identities have changed as well" Consequently, modern rationalists have had to try to sew together regions that often were iso Tate fom one another even sehen in close geographical proximity) The task is monumental because many of the nations’ terstories were not focused oa the modern national core areas. Moreover, man ofthe ter tomas wore divided among and manipulated by outside empires with for ‘ga Idcologles. Even under normal circumstances, members living in ‘ferent segions have diferent ideas regarding the boundaries of the ‘ational territory The boundaries of the national territory may even Be Somewhat unclear to is members. Even s, the territory is usually dis ‘hea something whole aad inviolable, Varied historical pat and di fering regional perceptions of s nation’s members give political leaders ‘the ability to manipulstea nation's sense of identity inching of course, ‘the nator senge of place an leetory. ‘he Nations Std Comet a gue21 Map Showing he Permanence of Epon Bore Pounds 962), ‘The dynamics of social interaction, and the evolution of subjective ‘ideas and conceptions that arise fom le provide s better explanation for actual nations’ ideaties than any attempt to objectively map spa" til patterns of language, religion, or any other cultural characters Infact the emphasis placed on language, religion and many ofthe other cultural characterises that moder nations may have is anwaranted ‘when the evolution of social groups taken into account. When ntion- alism began to bea potent socio-plitcal force a mere few hunted years ago, cultural characteristics were in constant transition across the Ian ‘ape, providing no obvious meane for drrng lines on tape that ould identity nations In the case of language, what became designated as ‘ther language o a dale had more to do with conceptions that arose inthe haman mind than with linguistics. The common but mistaken Dele that those who speak the same language consider themselves to bbe one people didnot conform to zeal. In an atlempe to make reality confor to human conceptions, many mutually ineligible forms of38 caper 0 ‘communeation—vhatguists would classify as dialects within a ain- fle language-instead were treated a separate and distine languages: {he reverse was done ae wel. The cae of Serbian and Croatian ite: twats this situation very well. Serbian and Croatian often were consid- ‘ered tobe separate languages until these two peoples attempted to form ‘single Yagoslay nation. During the attempt to un, Serbo Croatian ‘vas the designated language, and the varying forms of communication ‘of thon invaved were dassifed a dlalets of the Serbo-Croatian la |guage, Because te people who spoke the varying forms of communi ation were grouped together ina single teritory, the varying forms, ‘of communication began to grow together Following the break-up of the Yagoslny state, Serbian an Croatian now ae considered tobe sp arate languages bythe people involved, despite any designation By lin [gaits (Ashe 195, 18) Moreover consciow efforts have een made by those involved to make Serbian and Croatian separate and distinet lan- guages (Woodward 1996). These actions are being taken to make lan- [Baoge conform tothe percdved numberof nations thet exist In other words, language does nt determine national identity; national identity determines langage” Tn adaition to language, religion and other cultural characteristics sre defined by human conceptions as well, making them not only nce e as national determinants but also unrellable In delineating a nation’s tesitory a sdefines it. How a nation comes to understand a Alefine ts eltrl characteristics has todo withthe interplay ofall of ‘ese characteristics with ane another outside ores often ifluene his Interplay. Until now, language and religion have been treated 38 on stants which shape other national characteristics, including a nation's ‘anderstanding and Identification with a particular teritory. Langues snd religions may be objectively described, bata nation’s understand: Ing and identification with a language or a religion ave not nearly 50 objective and concrete Such understandings and identifications are not constants but instead are shaped by understandings and conceptions of other cultural characteristics, Tertoriality ea cultural characteristic ‘and sjust a key to shape and define other cultural characteristics as itis tbe shaped by the other characteristic. In other words, estorial- ity is just as likely to shape a nation’ understanding and definition of 1 language and religion it so be shaped by the nation’ language and religion. The question then arises as fo how nations have come to ‘onceive of and define their territories, Before addressing tis question {la Chapter 3), however we mus find « means of locating the places and teritories with which nations develop strong emotional bonds and hence come to identity. Phe aoe es pl Content Py Indicators ofa Nation's Sens of Territory Although nations may express a deep emotional tachment o particular places the spatial delimitation of aratinal etary ste nation tl cor ‘xptulizesitisnotasimple matter, Competing regional identities, manip- lltve political leaders and fervent nationalist, otto mention was and ‘he migrations of people, make the sk of understanding the spatial extent ofa nation’s “place” very dtfiult. Nevertheless, some insights can De fined by looking at the spatial distrbutn of tne nor indicators (2) the sites densed by dhe location of important insstions and of is torial events; 2) the landscapes described in nationally renowned iter ‘ure poetry art ane musi: ad (3) the historical willingness to use free ‘ohold onto a particular tetory—the "enact foto ‘Sites perhaps the most tangible and easiest to identify: As mentioned carlo elements inthe landscape become symbols and as such serve as “repositories of memories” (Tuan 1974, 148) and concrete evidence and ‘wopressins of sccomplishments. Seats of government, printing centers" theaters, educational centers (schools, universes, research inst {utes and eigious centers (eg, houses of worship, monasteries, and pil srimage sites) are the most common examples. Historie sites of bates fd birthplaces are just as important, especialy ifmenument are erected to remind fature generations —ar even the current ne—of who they are Individual sites, expecially the with institutions, nat aly ean hod the cultural artifacts ofa mation but can howsethove individuals wh pee Serve, protect and cultvate those atlas a wel asthe lest tangible ch corte ofthe nation’s dent Because intttione and historic events fare inetrumental in defining a given nation’s deny and ho adopt that atonal deny then studying the locations a inattions end store ‘events isnot only valuable but necesary in understanding how and ‘where particular national identities emerge and develop." Therefore cat Ing instutions and historic sitesi an important St step In delineating 4 nation’s territory a the nation tet conosives of and tnderstands Site centifntion serves well for describing the ull landscape, but landscape deserpton the most useful for dentiying thowe elements ‘he natural landscape to which a nation becomes emotionally bonded, tna ths fall within a nation's senge oferty, Landscape dexrptions ‘piel refer to misty mountains, rolling blu ers and golden elds of prin Such references sully ae interwoven with strong elings of Feverence and sanctity Nationalist writers often put more effort into the way the peasans were begining to do so Fy then could portay Ahemseles a he tie leaders ofthe Hungarian people and thus wean the pnsanty away fom the apace to create own independent state hee they could exercise fll eovereign auton. “The station of Myer os he angunge of the Hengaians shows tat hungarian national deny emerge pir tthe widespread tse of te language: Therefor Magyar was nota national determina and a {thermore cose not lay be mapped to dl he appropeate ound aries ofthe Hungarian national state language mapping Was fol depepable thn what defined the areal extent ofthe Huraran ration State? For the Hungarians, the ansver was guite simple. Twas the Kingsom of Hungary elatvely stable sien ferme of Doundases oer the previous thousand years. OF eoure the Kingdom of Hangary was oth national sate infested by Hts very name but x dymctc one ngary’s leaders di not derive ther legitimacy from sate sneha they were Hungasan and they were not concerned shout the ral ethnic character oftheir sees ony th loyally Wines the tal ack f Magyarzation pois and that any Hungarians didnot ren bother tospeak Magyar unt the mid-nineteenth century, wel afer the ce of Romantic mationiom LJ” When Hangman atonal dent was ints infancy inthe elghtenth J century, it grated Welt ont, indeed defined tet interme othe | Atangarian Kingdons—an entity of endusing quality, The Hungarian King wasa erator coafigtation tat ha long served as ame ‘wok for understanding the word the stage on whisk parca cal, Economic, and polteal order played out l had become so hemly Jing within the mind ft natant tht asrat posable fot most of them to conceive of hives in the conte diferent ter toll ordering The meaning othe np ero onder was tote 50 deeply that the oneaicton of dei he Hungarian toni ens of dynastic imperialist understanding of tesitory was not even roy unary a he Hangar @ ize, Without qualms, the Hungarian nation defined itself in tems of Hungarian Kingdom and tok for telf the history ofthis torte yj Historic figures and events of this terol conigsration wer. cass the figures and events inthe history of the Hungarian people {hie reformulation of history and identity was confzmed not only i the tangible existence of the titory as whole bat inthe local plats 2550- ‘Gnted with ete individual fgutes and eventsthat became significant 6 the nation, ~ "The purpose ofthis chapters to map out the Hungarian Kingdom and ail the sgfcant places within that define Hungarian nation en ‘Ste identifeston nd landscape desertion are employed to bing these places to light Because dozens of places exit they are present in Fegiona groupings for the sake of clarity, and even regrouped more bron into a core, semi-core, and periphery categorization. The depth ‘of thei importance is reveled by the application of the tenacity factor, ‘whichis presented a the later pat ofeach of the broader caslieation resentation (i, dat ofthe cove, semicore, and periphery). Because ‘oder Hingarian national deny i only about two bundeed year ol, the tensity lactr i apple to only the at tro centuries. Of ours, peo ples fought over tecitorytheough history However, beonue identity sisted ina ferent context poe telat ghee century the mean Ingo place and teritory was likewise much diferent as well. It would ‘be anachronistic to apply dhe tenacity factor to such struggles a if they ‘were nationalist ones, even though Romantic nationalists doso asa mat tert hal “That the tenacty factor cannot be applied much evier then the end of the eighteenth centry does not mean that he course of events befor his {Ene ls inalgnfiant, On the contrary interme of ste idenuication and landscape description, many places highlighted are associated with fg- tues and evens of much eater periods, Ialwaye must be remembered, however, that places are brought to light not forthe significance oftheir time but for tei aiportance tothe modern Hungarian nation Infact many of the places identified became memorialized with monument Shrines and the such only since the rite of nalanslsm, some oly in {he ast ew yoars eventhough they signify an event at may have aken placea thousand years ago. Therefore al places and territories age iden {ie interme oftheir current sigficonce even though many eepreseat something much older. Bees Hungarian national dent contains within itsmany Romantic laments, history cannot be ignored. On the contrary, the Hungarian pation has developed emotion peychological bonds toa long ist of places that it nove considers tobe historically significant. An under- Standing of Hungarian hstory factates an appreciation of Hungarian7 Chop Fur sense of teitory. Therefore, while the purpose of his book snot oztll lungaran history, ts, nevertheless, necesaty to make a few notations of history, ao matter how ere and genetliaed nodes to se the fei torial component of Hungarian natonal identity ints proper context, Bilef Overview of Hungarian History 111996 he ungesan ation celebrated he lever-hundndh never ssc ofthe founding ofthe Hungarian Kinga Th anniversary was mathe bya sre of etvlsebions td other programs a Pace nd he curt gan cate ver testes he ear Te are and magne of he scans urns fh strc and hil mens of Horgan atl deny qe acy? GE esl al th placer td terior tae seat tote Hungarian nation fl bo ithin the bwndarice ote Hangaran Kingom an within ae ceven-hnr yen ine fame “hecaty year Lngo contre on the lose confederation of nomadic wars eho swept in om the cts in he ith entry. TH ‘ome oserly wee own Magers but probly ada eg, bars inthe ranks a wel ino 1972, 2) Indeed, even thongs ungaans tae teirlinenge through the Magyary ener nota toupee. ns, Avars,Khssan ho ete ne Carpathian Basin Sten get hight up andincorporte win Hengaran geelagy The Seng ofthese nomasi popes soa ther mnaeent canalidapon of Power wer the Caption Hsin we proce that ok time No age {cis ceydenhiabe ae watched moment and qe aly mest Hangar tog istry ad et conte ouning date be any diene Heres ha nen Hungarian nao bea ‘etn tf forela teend othe runes century the esa ‘Nounding date udcly bese gic. Smeg ey 96, Tithe cntuses ht followed the founding ofthe Hungarian Kingdom ln the ninth century, Hungary’s leaders consolidated this power vet their new territory and even exerted contol beyond ie boundavies. The “golden age” ofthe Hlungacan Kingdom came to an abrupt end fllow- Inga disastros defeat by Ottoman armies in 1526, Censing to exist aa single teritorial unt the cenzl part ofthe Kingdon wa integrated into ‘he Otoman Emp, the Westen and northem portions boca domain ofthe Hapsburg, and Transylvania pursued path of quastindepen ‘dence—usvally under Ottoman suerainty (ee gute). The division’ ofthe Hungaia Kingdom following the Ottoman invasion hada temen | dous impact on how Hungarian sense af estoy Inter developed in the ‘context of nationalism! The division and eccupation fod Hungarian! angery the Hangers n Jeers nines to Be othe ingest kingdom. Asa sul any of Hungary’ rst nattions wer ao tansfered to the ages ‘ofthe Kingdom. As the moder ea unfolded, many new station were founded onthe edges ofthe Kingdom's trois aswell Subsequently, these tetris became Very significant Despite such sigicance ow ver, colt emerged inthe ers of nationalism when many of the hay Sant ofthese important terol didnot develop a Hungarian national ent. ’A the eid ofthe seveneenth cntry the Otomans were driven out of the kingston wih Hapa only tethering | dom incomonaed within the Hapsburg monsechy/ Wh the rise of Hungatan tional, wich fr aie atts fs owner tence atthe end of the eighteenth century, Hungarians evenly deve pope the deste to fe thir kingdom from the Fspsbugs. Inthe ensuing decsdes a struggle fr independence began. Military campaigns in 1848-49 resued inde however onthe poll ont Hungary’ ead ers wate eventually able tpn some atenomy fr the kingdom with fhe Compromise of 1867! The compromise tured the Hapsburg “Monarchy into «deal natch, which lo became known asthe Asto™ -ungaan Empie. lunar lets continue to pres forall sovereignty but led to saint by the outbreak ofthe First World War. For Hungary’ pola ‘Soction with Aust, the Hungerians found themselves on the side ‘tthe delete atte conclasion ofthe warn terms of terry the ungorins weve del the everest punishment ofl the defeated. wor third ofthe Hungorian Kingdom was stripped away and aad fo victors, This ation deste prychologclly devastating bow tothe ange alton Inte year tat fed Hugs lesders—from commnit to fscts—~nho promised to restore the ter > strings of te kingdom, but node wa able to implement any ‘Stns intngcTe poston of Soetoro ser the ‘Stood World ha sapped even steno chang te ston Runyan the Hungarane wer feo fom Soe anata he {300 at edn poles hve faen uve tte Kingdon of angry and tl ory ema ot Hangin oa “Sey usted by the cela of even hunts eer Saryiove and anes sen of ape sd lage he Eg hn pps ey ouput he cone pees pita oe hs vind eve fay vey cre ut aft se spe forcing etn component angen ato aon,gure Hungry an th Tish Advance nthe Balkans 168, Hangar en he Hangs n ‘laces and Testis Significant to Hungarian National Identity ‘The thee indicators ofa nation’s sense of territory (ite identification, landscape description, and the tenacity factor) show that Hungarian atonal deny ited to anumber of places throughout the Carpathian ‘Basin ce Figure 2}, The varied locations ofthese significant places and the oles that they have played through history have factated the pr ‘cupllon among many Hungarians that their artery i natural, ete arsed, physiographic unt Boor discussing any ofthe individual gions land the specific paces within them, we must understand the nature of this “integrate” Hungarian tretory which Hungarians call Historie lungaryformeriy known a he Kingdom of Hungary With this foun: lation, we can then examine the component regions of Hungarian ter- tovaity by dividing them into a coeesemi-ore, and periphery. The ore Includes Transdanubia, southern Slovakia and southwestern Ruthenia, the Great Alfld, and Transylvania the semi-core encompasses Burgenland, Muravidek, and Muraktz, northera Slovakia and north astern Ruthenia, and Bacska and Binsig; the periphery consist of ‘Croats, Bosna, Bukovina, and a number of other places in East Centzal Europe and the Ballans. “Treating Hungary asa sores of discrete regions that neatly ft into a cote semicore and periphery isa dificult proposition. Over te, some regions havebeen divided polically and consequently the divided pars Ihave evlved diferent in their degree of significance. For example, Burgenland, Muravidék, and Murakoz were integrated areas of ‘Tansdansbia; Bacska and Bsnalg were part of the Great AMG and Slovakia and Ruthenia were simply considered o be Upper Hingary Defore the end ofthe First World War Separation has rested in dtfer- lng perceptions and degresof emotional ttachent Yo these newer te stories and other such teritoces that have been divided over ine, “The identification of places significant to Hungarian national identity ‘s accomplished by looking atthe locations of impertantcaltral and pol ical insutions and by examining music and at napted by naonalst ‘sentiments. in contas tthe Romanian an the Serbs, Hungarians have ‘erased greater amount of contol over their testry through history. ‘AS reult Hungarians have created a numberof cultural and poical institutions overtime; these ination include te seats of government, ‘colleges and universities, printing houses, ccesiasticl center te. The locations ofthese institutions are very impertant Specifally, the bull ings ofthese institutions stand a monsments, elements inthe landscape, that testy not only to the greatness ofthe Hungarian ration but also to the legitimacy of Hungarian national identity: fn edition to important Institutions musi and act Mlustrate Hungarian sense of testory andHangar and he ungriae * hence modem Hungavian nation ident: Therefore, music andar aze ‘examined to identify many ofthe olher kinds of place hat re important to modem Hungarian national dent Historie Hungary Peaks of high Carpathian hills “Thou dit give our sires, Sons of Bendogus rest’ “Thus thle fair hearthfires Where the waves of Tse ge, Where the Danube ge, Valiant sod of Arpad gre, ourished through the ages (Gymnas [Hungasian National Anthem] by Ferenc Kélsey; (quoted rom Kekconnel 1947, 26) (© Magyat by thy native land ith Nl heart abide! ‘ay cradle ft thy grave at at, srs hoe and Sal ide For thee the specious word affords ‘Ashomeno other epot ‘re must thou live and must di, Be weal or woe thy lot. ‘Upon this soil hy father’s blood FRlow’d to redeem thy claims, ‘Upon this ten centuries Engeave immortal names. Hore struggled Arp’ gallant crew ‘To win ou fatherland, ‘And here the yake of slavery Wis sapt by Hunyad!'s han Hire freedom’ barnes, ded with blood, ‘hone proudly from af, Hlre fl the raves of our brave Iinlong protescied war Itcannot be that alin vain “Have countess tears been shed: ‘Or ainly for the ftherand ‘Unmumbered hearts have ble6 caper Fe (© Magyar, for thy county play ‘Airman faith part ‘She gives thee stent, and if hou all ‘She hides thee inher hear. “The spacious world doth oer thee Forhome no other spo Here must thou lve and here must de, [Be el or woe thy la (Seéaat [Appel [1896] by Mihily Virdamarty ‘quoted fom The Eighty Club 1907, 12) “The ides that politcal units shouldbe coterminous wih natural regions cloalyexpresed ten the aitude that Hungarians held in regard to the Hungarian Kingdom. Hungarians believed tha thet kingdom was a ‘aturl intepeated,pisical-polial uni, and this belle was expressed often in wrtng ‘rom he endo th th centr 10190 the Carpathian Ranges, which re tan ae, wer th atl bode of Hungry fre distance ve ‘les Wh fv exepons, ale rvers tbe southern weirs ie ‘tthe Carpathian run note Danube oa, he wo rain vero he ‘Great Pan All he valleys, waterway, roads, o all lead there TAS ‘dosed teraitory bas determined the creation of fed state. The ‘Carpathian Basin war called by te Presch Geographer, Hiya “the Magyar Sytem” For thon of earth moun’ atl prodts, ber ana min nls were exchang forthe produto the Hangin Pat wheat fd Sted by geographer nce the proc ofthe diferent regina supplement neater Kanna 1971.9) ‘The matuaines ofthe Hungarian Kingeom was the main dofense that Hungarian diplomats used afer the Fast World Wa to prevent the Allied powers from dismantling thee country! The naturalness defense sls fested poignandy bya statement set tothe American Peace Delegation lin Pars by an American profesor named Archibald Coolidge while he ‘as on diplomatic mss in Hungary after de Fiat Wood War (Desi 1972, 360). Coolie wrote thatthe Hlngarians Point othe sto uy of he sate, ad say Ua cold never hae ben preserved trough ll he ups and downs of istry of « ousand years, "espe he variety of anata have lve in ts coniny Rad note nthe atte of ngs in cbr to gograpilave Hangey ne geo 7 “Ths bli i not simply derive from an understanding of laws of p= tial interaction Its roots were much deeper and clearly a product of (Organic State Theory. The Kingdom of Hungary was seen a8 ving, ‘organism, even rete by Go Hance, the various sections ofthe country are ntrdopenent Separately they cannot ens while together they fom aelesupporting organism ‘would seem that the Crestor had purporly led te ery of ungary (Le. the Kingdom of] o Be one inseparable geographical ad ‘orgie unt would eslore, appear nn le hana desea on rege to atom to cat par and ea andes this ental cation of (Goa ny 925,965) “Most ofthe best Ilusteations of the Hungarian belie in the teritorial integrity ofthe Kingdom of Hungary come from the 1920s, the period ‘immediately following the partion ofthe country sd the creation of the curent state tertory- An iredentist movement arose and adopted the slogan “No, No, Never” (Baulr 1823, 7). The slogan was typical written across maps of the Kingdom of Hungary, urualy depicted a8 being brutally nipped apact (Liesr1996a, 112), The organic unity is shown in many lutrations produced by the imedentists. A particularly noteworthy istration fs one that shows the Flungerian Kingdom 26 4 tee (Bauler 1923, 29). The rank and te branches ofthe tee a the "vers ofthe Hungarian Kingdom the Danube, Tisza, Dravs, Sava, Vg, Nyitra, Garam, Kents, Matos et. Acatorpllr symbolizing the lian isshown attacking a ower epresanting Fume; anther csterplr sym Dolizng the Serbs i shown attacking Temesve, while a thied symibol- izing Romania is shown approaching Kolozavir and Brass6; birds hovering over and alteching the top ofthe tree represent Czache and Slovaks. A numberof illustrations produced by the ivedentists also underscore the close bond that Hungarians have with thelr place. One Particularly interesting posteard shows 2 Hungarian clutching the Hungarian Kingdom clote to his chest wile he tries to fend off Fs birds of prey’ that represent Italy, Yugoslavia, Romanie, and Czechoslovaki (Bauer 1923, 34). One af the best examples ofthe close, inextricable band that people develop with place anillusteation tht “shows the territory ofthe Hungarian Kingdom being crucified on a (Christan cross (Bauler 1923, 39: Légrddy Brothers 1950, 2) ‘These examples come from the period immediately folowing the di manting ofthe Fungavan Kingdom atime of national distess. However, the power ofthe Hungarian Kingdom has not lost is potency. Since the fall of Communism Hungarians have more af an opprtanty to express ‘hamselves openly Subsequently maps and stations ofthe Kingdom have appeared all over Hungary. One workin paliculat7 Copter Fur noteworthy for its depictions Ithas fe mape an one illustration. One ‘map shows the physical features ofthe kingdom, emphasizing it naturel tunity. The other map shows the historic counts, the ones with which ungarians have identified on a more local level. Across the top 1s a8 ‘Auction with multiple figures, nthe center is an angel, posbly the archangel Gabriel hinsel, who soon as having delivered the message from God many’ centuries ago that God had designated the Hungarian Kingdom asthe right! homeland of the Hngarsans The angel shod ing the sales of ute with a small map of the Hungarian Kingdom on ‘one side an paper representing the Teaty of Tanon on the other" The {clei Upped strongly in favor ofthe Kingdom of Hungary, obviously ‘ean thatthe wil of God outweighs the desires of humans rom this overall perspective of the Hungarian Kingdom, we can now turn tos pats: ts individual places and territories. “The Core Site Ldentification and Landscape Description “The coe ages of moder Hungaian national identity is centered on fost "Tanodanubls, southern Slovakia and southvestra Ruhenl,the ‘Groot Alfa and Tranoylvania Polly and eltrally al four regions have shared inthe molding of modern Hungarian national entity, though not to the same degree. ‘Tansdembia (Dusat) “Transdanubia (Dun), the former Roman province of Pansonia ithe region that ies south and west ofthe Danube River and nocth ofthe rata River (Gee Figures 42 and 43) Transdanubla important because ‘contains many of the historic capitals of Hungary. These places teaily ‘not ony tothe long and coherent story of Huge, but alot the gre ‘est of the Hungarian people and the legitimacy of Fistor Fngary. The ‘oldest of these capitals are Sackesfehervsr ormerly Alba Rega) and "Eztergom (Ee 1968, 182), Istvan (Stephen) I made Sudkesteherve his capita, and it remained an important political center where many “Hhtngeran Kinga were crowned and buried unl the sixteenth century ‘when the Ottoman threat arore (Deresényi 196331. Itvi, however, was ‘ort in Eatergom and had hitsl crowned king there inthe year 1000. [itl remains in Sadkestchvr today, but Esztergom sll am lapor- tant city is archbishopric dates back to 1189. Although many of Hungary's great institutions were moved from the city during the ‘Ottoman pend, many of thee instutons moved ack nthe nineteenth. century. Hstergom continues to bea major religious center for Hungarians today. The great cathedral, bil between 1822 and I860 and modeled after Suin Peter's in Rome, provides a angie element in the landscape that oe] gary an he Hengarine » ‘Transdanubia pos BANUBIN mi a Ered 7 gue Tansdanaia testes tothe cultural link that Hungarians believe they have with West European cvilzation. Another earyexptal of Hungary is Vises The importance of Vigra to modem Hungarian national identity under: ‘stored by is being ene ofthe ist place tobe restored during the mod- fem restoration movement (Erde 1968, 167) It is noteworthy that the moder restoration took place in the nineteenth century, approximately coinciding with these of Romantic nationalism In other words many Historical sites ell ita disepeirbecaase they were meaningless othe people around them. With the ise of Romantic natonalist bower, the past became meaningful to people's identity, Thus restoration of land- capes of history increased a nationalism developed Indeed landscapes needed to be estore tha is landscapes of natlaalisn needed tobe re ‘ed or recexted for individual to develop a sense of Hangaian nation ‘entity. ‘Buulapest, the modern capital of Hungary understandably the best ‘ken of Hungary's The cultural econo ant pois! roles that thas played and continues to play unquestionably make the cya si nificant place. Budapest also contributes greatly tothe core satus of0 Caper Fue ‘Transdanubi. Lying on the west bank of the Danube River the ol town ‘of Buda historical served ae the politcal center of Hungary. Buda Carle Isa prominent feature in he city and contains many historical features in i andscape, Among these feature, Mays (Mathis) Charch served as the coronation chute fr many of Hungary's kings. Asan important sya bol of Hungarian power and prestige, the Matyas Church was also restored during the early restoration movement (Erde 1965, 69,167). LEacated across the river in Pest isthe Parliament building with it srandiose atchitetural design, making the structure a prominent feature {nthe citys landscape and a powerful symbol of Hungarian democratic ‘onions Impresive lz is he Baslcn oft, Stephen (Webern ad ‘Sia 1995, 188), which is also significant because contains the hand of St Stephen. A umber of bidges curren lnk Bada with Pest however, he fist one, the Chain Bridges the most noteworthy (Sea 1990, 197), When ‘twas bull thebelge was considered tobe « monumental accompli sent not justin Hungary but by world engineering standards (Edel 1965, 91) In fac, ll three elements in Biadapests iandlecape —Diada Castle the Parliament bullding, and dhe Chain Bridge —all situated along, ‘ne of Europe's gestest river anal of hich canbe viewed together, testy to the greatness ofthe Hungarian ration. Added to this, of course, {she aesthetic value of Budapest scltyscape, which ls ngeained ia the eyches of Fhungarians and canbe found nowhere else. ‘One of the most notable features in Budapest's landscape isthe ‘dennium Monument located on Heroes’ Square twas constructed in 1896 to celebrate the thousand-year anniversary of the Hungarian Kingdom, Ina semiitce on the perimeter are statues of great Hungarian leaders Statues of the great Magyar horsemen stand atthe monuments ‘enter. A column rss fom the center ofthe Magyar horsemen andl dom inates the square, On the columa isa statue ofthe archangel Gabel, who symbolizes God's blessing of the Hungarian Kingdom. The Millian “Monument isa cassic example of how the cultural landscape is used to Inculeate a posicular sense of history into the minds ofthe individual ‘embers of nation, In simple terms, the monument and all of sind ial elements continually remind individ o al he signiean ig toes, events, and struggles in Tungavian history. The monsiment, however, sot ust a reminder, but a teacher fo both parents and thet children alike. Some parents we the monument to teach thei chileren about Hungarian history, values, an beliaf: Others who do not intend {o use the monument fr such purpose find, however, that they cannot Signore the stucture. The montment i dominating feture in the y= [andscape and must be passed though even to reach the city park. When patente ther chidsen to th ity park, they Hind that dey ae queried About the meaning of the place. As parents struggle to ansiver thei chil Hangar nde Hungras st dren's questions they nd that dey ikewise give themes atefesher in Hungaian Natory ad culture” ‘Behind the Millennium Monument isthe agricultural museum, also ‘to the long and continuous history of the Hungarian people, css another important politcal ulturl center of Transdanobia. The locaton of some of Hungacy’s oldest and most influential ligious and ‘stucational institutions, Pes not only I sigaiicant to Hungarian sense (of place but contributes etl othe Core satus of Transdanabia ei T made Pés an archbishopric in 1008. The immense foursoweredcathe- dra restored between 1888 and 189, leg famous landmark (Hoot and GGenthon 1974, 20) and very such in the payehes of Hungarians. Pécs ‘nals the locaton of Hungary’ ist university founded in 1367 by Lous TT Rungaran scholars at Pécs university were the ones who expressed the belle hat the Huns and Magyars were closely related it ater turned ‘out that they were mistaken (Hank 1985, 4), While the university com tinued for some time it was closed by the Otomans during thet rule [Nevertheles, after the Ottomans were driven out of Hungary, Pécs _egained auch oF ts nence an stats and is een as one of Hongary’s reat itis. ast to the southeast of Pécs, not fr from the Danube, is Mohs. The Battle of Modes In 1526, which resulted ina great Ottoman vitory,2 Cntr Fur ‘marked the end of Hungavian supremacy in Central and southeastern Europe. Viewed as anaional tagedy and as an explanation of why the Hlungarian nation i not currently one of the great ration of the world, the battle snd the bt site receive great emphasis Hungarian history, eratuse, and poetry: Sighng | gret thee ana mourn thee thou meadow of burial, Mohs Grave of our national fe, eden’ with blood ofthe brave! (Over the battlefield musing, the serous traveler trudges, ‘Brooding on the human diswes, suck by the blindness of fate Paucing he gazes and sighs, and goes onward with eyes of defection; ‘ound that are centuries old open again in his hese. ‘There where the mise ofthe twilight ar hed on the marsh and the ive, alg tk gen tom oh srg tn loo or ‘onder fough Loui iat, sonar of ghastly lore, ‘Yonder is batle-hore plang stumbling al rma in the fen ‘Many wingin dad slowly in lustful embraces of tyrants, ‘Many ¢pesoner sank deep inthe Danube's dark stream! [Nothing was curs anymore, with our hme inthe hands the stage Only the crescent was lowe, flaunting fom tower and wall ‘Magyar yet lve; Buda stands, and the pangs ofthe past area lesson; ‘Bunning with patit zea, forwards our ison i turn, Yet de thou bloom, fed of sorrow! May peace brood at lst on thy bosom, ‘Grave of our national life, Mocs, the tomb of our past ‘rom Mohs by Karoy\ Kisaludy; quoted fom Kirkeonnel 1947, 15-19) “Many places in Transdansbiaastrate the core statu of Tranadanubia by the role that dey played uring the tvest of Ortoman poner These places testify to the vallant struggle of the Hungarians against the ‘Owomans. The also re seen as the physia!refge ofthe Hungarians Asa resulh, these places are closely associated with the survival ofthe Hiungarian people: Bud, Fehérvar (now Szshesfehérvér), SekszSed and ‘Saigetv ae were the places ofthe easiest tragges Seigetv in particular is known as one of earliest places of stiff resistance. MiklsZeinyl was able to halt the Ottoman advance in 1585 when he refed to surtender Saigetar(Ssa 1990, 94) Aller «prolonged siege, the cal was finaly Hurry and he Huger ® set afr. Zxny\ and hs toops hurled themselves atthe Ostoman forces ther than surrender. Theough the efforts of Zrinyi's grandson, who ‘heote the epic poem The DisstoratSigt, the memory of this even ei ‘ied long enough to become a national tragedy for modern Hungarians. ‘The event has subsequently been immortalized in a painting (LS2sr 19364, 69) a well-a museum inthe castle depicts the eric actions of the event BY the beginning ofthe seventcnth century the Ottaman advance had been brougit to almost a standstil asthe Hungarians were able to estab- lish a defensive lie that an from Kanizs in the southeast along ine that ran northeast tough Lake Balaton toa pint on the Danube River between Gyér and Esstergorn This line of defense was known 3 the Vegoirak or" rotierland”(Czigny 198,546. With the etablisheent of the defensive line, mary places bend the line grew in importance: Gyée, Keiszeg, Pépa, Sirvsr, Stimeg, Szombathely, Tata, Ursin Nev Zeinyi Case), Veseprém, and Zalaogerszeg. Készeg was actually the Scene fone the ealest Ottoman atacks on Hungary fia 1990 84) The repelling of the attack it seen as an heroic act (Hansk 1988, 49) Szunigothird is known fora decsive military victory over the Ottomans in 166, and Vaavér is known forthe subsequent teay thal was signed vith the Otomans in the same year (Fedei 1968, 22) Alla these geet fortreses are places that have come to lustrate an testy tothe Brest Secrces that Hungarians have made over ime in Tansdanubia to pre serve and protect Western civilization. They thus inextricably Heke ‘eansdanubia with Hungarian national identity. I edition to the places associated with the Hungarian struggles against the Ovomans places ext hat demonstrat the added burden ‘that Hungarians had in preserving ther uniqueness and right of "sel ‘etermination” in the face of other hostile forces, For example, in the [Revolution af 188, the fst atl took place at Pakoad and resulted ina vitory for the Hungarians. The battle as wll as others that took place In Transdanubla is immortalized ina numberof paintings (Deak 197, Derween pages 168 and 16), ‘Many ofthese places ast mentioned, however didnot simply serve in _amiltary capacity but were coltral centers as well Spr hasbeen the most diverse and persistent cultural center over Une, bul Veszprém and Szombathely have log been gret religous center underscore by th cat cathedrals. The Protestant clloge in Papa made the town an ed ‘tional center Many cathedrals, palaces, and museums are located in {Gyéx Gyr also contains many ofthe treasures of one of Hungary’ rest, ‘ings, King Ladils (1040-95) (Konnyu 1971, $8), Str hada pining rest a6 carly as 1537 and printed the fst book in Hungarian in 1581 (Gansk 1985, 50) All of these places contribute to the writing of aos Couper Foe Hiungaran history that shows centuries of achievement even in the face ‘ofthe Osoman menace ‘Some ofthese places have been important in modern times as well Sopron is oven as "Hungarys most loyal ty” (Lagrady Brothers 195, 10). Tis the only place in Historic Hungary where a plebiscite was held after the First World War. The city earned Ws tle when ts Inhabitants “expressed their desi to be included inthe Hungarian tte rater than De annexed to Ausra. Fert (formerly Eszternéza) i the site of the Esteshézy Palace, bul by a famous Hungarian family ofthe same name (Gates Coon 1994, 147-50, isa 199,222,296) Joseph Haya, ane of the few great European composers who lived anl worked in Hngaty, Pro duced much ot his workin this palace, Currently many concer re held therein his honor (Hank 188, 247) The concerts held is honor of Haye. ln oteshzy Palace help to extabish an aim the Hungarian bei that Hlangarians are apart of West European civilization, {Lake Balaton andthe places around it ae also Important Thang, on @ peninsula ofthe ake kaown fort abbey, the oldest in Hungary The scum in it contains the first cocument written in Hungarian (Edel 1965616). Keszthely is known fr is agecultural inttte, which dates ‘back to 1797, the fist one in Europe (Hansk 1988, 10,196), The fst int ‘ute of is kin ia Europe stservr as place that indicate to Hisngaans ‘hat they are jut as accomplished a the gue atone of Western Europe Soutiem Sloat and Southuesters Ruthenia (elit ond Karp) In Historic Hungary Slovakia and Ruthenia generally are known as Upper Hungary (Flog) Rethenis (Kartal became dflrentited as a Subregion of Upper Hungary during the me ofthe Seand World War “Although not formery divided into northern snd southern regions only ‘he southern areas ae sgeicant enough tobe considered prt of the come tecstores of Hungarian national identity see Figures 4.2 and 43) Southern Slovakia and southwest Rathenia have ore sates bechise ‘hey played decisive roles in Hungarian history. When the Ottoman, armies penetrated Hungary in the sinteenth century, most of Hungary’ {great institutions moved ino southern Slovakia. Subsequently, many Hungarians developed strong emotional attachment t ths att of the Hungarian Kingdom as southern Slovakia developed into the politica, and cultural center of Hungary during a 30-year pesiod "The ay of Pazsony (ow Bratislava; Press) ome the capital and ‘main political cente:. Although the Otomans were driven out of Hungary a the end of the seventeenth century, Pozsony remained important because the Hungarian Parliament continued to moet herent 18481 ven continued tobe the city where Hungatian Kings wete cowed. The angry and he angio 8s BI tat gure Soom Sovais and Southwest Rati university in Pozsony founded by King Matyas, was the preeminent edu ‘atonal center in Hungary for almost four hundeed years" The pees ious Hungarian Academy af Sciences was also founded in the city (Erde 1963, 70), The significance of Possony to Hungarian national identity ‘cannot be overemphasized: “Pozsony is inseparably connected withthe Hlungaran poople and Hungarian history” (Lege Brother 1530, 112." ‘Daring the same time period that Pozsony became the capital of ungery, the Hungarian church moved its center from Expergom to [Nagyszombat now Tenaya). Nyita (now Nite) became an important religious center as wel, While Nagyszombat was the main religious cen- of Hungary, other important instttions were established a wel that rate the importance of tls town, For example a university was founded in 485. The prestige of Nagyszombot’s university is undersored by it ater becoming the college of are and science athe university in Budapest (Hand 1988, 65). “The important places ust mentioned ein the western areas of south fern Slovakia. Noteworthy centers also Tie inthe easter areas aswel ‘Kass (tow Kosice) was the main regional center inthe east In addition toitsroleasan important trading center the university founded in 1678) made the town an important ecatinsl center oo, The fist Hungarian rary periodical, Magar Mascon, was published in Kassa (Bran 1950, 186), Kasai als the location of Sain Elizabeth Cathedral (Sia 199, 331), considered one of Hungary’ greatest churches and tangible e ‘dence in the landscape ofthe greatness ofthe Hungstian nation. One of “Hungacy’s popular laders whe sruggled for Hungary’ independence Ferenc Raker II—is buried inthe eathedel Ia fact, the Rakes family is from the area around Kasta, Eastern Slovakia in general i signii-5 cape For ‘anthecaseit essen athe ome of on of the nator ans, the Ras Soutrestem Ruthena cre testy of Hungarian sense of ide ty becuse played an nportant ole nthe sige for Hungarian independence, The towers of Mankdes (ow Mkatevo) and Ungvér ow shored are particu nteworthy.The cate in ese own eld ot the lange in the struggle for independence in he ate seventeenth to tery eighteenth entries (Kann and Davi 1984 179) Both owns are Solos ascites ve great Hangatan lieth Rak the Thalys, and the Ziyi (Ss 195,11) All hee of hae fares fog for Homganan independence “he cult pia eer of Slovakia were protected by a number of foruesses Ot these, Ech (nove Nowe Zaks), Roméo 097 Komienoon the Slovak side ofthe Danube), Leva (tow Levis), ad Gomes (row Gemer ae the oat nspertnt Othe fous Komi the col ete agence, Azone othe places that hed out aint Seth and Ren amis inthe Relutn of B42 Kontron is seen as a place that demonstates Hungarian bravery and valor {Légrédy Brothers 190,98). The ong emationalstachnent bat many Hangalans have to Komdrom is ilustate in mamber of pags {Dek 1979, between pages 158 and 15) H ‘As the pola cata center of the Hungarian Kingdom for ces, southern Slovakia became important to Hungarian atonal deny in Sother contest, more specifically in ius ad folk cltuce.Possory fn Nagyazombat were centers of sic (Deay 1983, 70-71) When Hungarian Romans collected folksong and noted folk custome aoa rmenne of emphasizing the uniqueness and historia continuity ofthe Hungarian nation, the wed southern Sovak ax one thet pia Sour aren (Mange 1965) Zoltan Kode Dans rom alan ee the most notable works (Konnyu 1971, 21, Gy altbough st od medival fore, remains nthe natn consciousness withthe poem ng ign Gt By old Hungarian custom afte his soya assize, He held a feast in Gm, to crown his high empris; ‘The tides of banquet ebbed and fowed fora setius gay [As loted the gold of Maros or the vintage of Tokay. (Quoted fom Kiskeonel 194711) nother words, many cultural elements of Hungarian identity are derived ftom the southern Slovakian region (Dobszay 19%, 176) Subsequently many Hungarians developed a strong emotional attachment to this ‘or, which they seas one of thee eultural hearts Hungary dhe Hungovons Great AY Nagy At) ‘What © ye wild Carpathians to me ‘Ae your omantic eres, bold with pine? ‘Yelwin my adzization, not my love; Your lot valleys ne no dreams of mine ‘Down where the pire blow ike st, ‘Heres my world ny home, my hear’ tre ane “My engl psi soars, from chains released, ‘When Ibehold the ushorizaned plan. Upwards mount in estasies of thought [Above the ert, to cloud-heights sll more nea, ‘And se, beneath, the image of the pain, From Danube on to Tira sling est ‘inkling beneath a sky mirage pontessedt Kiskunsig’s fated herds by hundrc tays Atnoon beside the wells long windlass waits ‘The double wough to which they make tet ay. ‘Stampeding herds of horses, 05 they run, ‘Thunder acoes the wind with trampling hoof, Aslusty herdamen's whoops resound again [And noisy whips cack out in sharp reprool Across the gentle bosom ofthe farm Soft broczes hold the swaying wheat ential And crown the pleasant beauty ofthe pace ‘With myead gleams of living emerse ere rom the neighboring reds, the wild ducks come Tnevening dus a resting pace to ind righten hey ie on an aeil path eed begin to utter in the wind Skil farther on, deep inthe pli, there stands ‘Aloely in, whose chimney needs eepaitr ‘Te thirsty farm-ands sometimes vist For goats milk as they journey’ to theft. ‘Beside that taverns stunted poplar grove ‘Trocaltop grows up yellow inthe sand; "Nearby, the screaming kestrel makes is hoa, Ms nest untouched by any chi hand.oe = Saree a Ey sew Pagure 45 Got A And there the feathery gases sigh unmarked, ‘The hardy thistle spreads its purple ower, ‘nd there the mot lizards turn to test By cooling stems in noon tides burning hour Fa, faraway, where heaven touches earth, Blue wee tops of dim oxchards tower higher Like some pale fo-tank, and beyond them tl village rch projects a simple pie Firat thou, AUG, fair a east tome! Here wat bom, and in my cra ay God grant may be Buried ‘neath Sod, And mincmy’mouldering crements with it clay! (Ald by Stndor Pets; quoted fom Kirkconnel! 1947, 39-40) “The Great Aol (or Plain) probably illustrates modern Hungarian ‘national dentty more than any other region in Historie Hungary (se Figures 42 and 4.5), Hungarians se themoelves as the descendants of angry and he Hungren ® nomadic people who originated in the plains of Central Eurasia, ed they ‘continue to emphasize ther nomadic past and identity today. The ances tors ofthe Hungarians were obviously atuaced tothe natural landscapes ‘ofthe Great Alfa because it would allow ther 10 continue their way of lie, ane hus preserve tei ens fiery. Today, the Great Ald rep reson the connection that modem Hungavians ave with thee ancestors nd tadional way of life. Many modern Hungarians have stranger onal bonds to this place which has shape ane continues to shape their Sense of rational dent In short, the Hungarian nation would nol be ‘what iis without the natural landacapes ofthe Great APS" ‘term often used in conjunction with the Alea is pusst, meaning steppe, desert, or wasteland. While the term pute ie used to refer #9 ‘he Alfld or place within the pst actually bas no geographies 5s, The Ald onthe fhe hand is geographically defined and has many subregions within it The Great Alfold stretches from the Danube River Inthe west and couth to the northern mountains near Miskae in the ‘north, to dhe Carpathians in Ruther in the northeast ant the Bor ‘Mountains of moser Romanian the east Noteworthy subregions ofthe Alfoi are the Kunsig and Hortobigy. The Kuni, meaning Cuma, Isehe home of dhe Cumans an eaely te that was slr to the Magyar ‘when they aerived in the Carpathian Basin. The Kunis divided into the Kiskunsdg (Litle Cumania), lying between the Danube and Tsza ‘iver, and Nagyhnség (GreateeCumania, ying cas ofthe Tira River: ‘Tne Hortobsgy lies between the Tisza River and the ety of Debrecen ‘As one of the undeveloped areas af the AlSid in medern times, the lortab, with is untouched envzonannt and tadiinal forms of ome and stock breeding. best epreens the nemadic component of Hungarian ‘ational entity ints ue Romantic fom (Burant 1990, 65; Ede 1968, 125-29). One ofthe human constructs inthe Horobsgy is every old nine- spanned bridge (Erde 1968, 127s captured na painting ted Store on the Horabiy (gr 1988, tend), Szaged, Debrecen, and Miskle have been instrumental in shaping od ‘een Hungarian national dents Serving asthe major enters of the Gest Af al tree toven contribute tothe testy’ core status. Seed i ‘an important market town and educational center. The twin-toweted Vouive Church with ts open-air theater has come to symbolize the gest ness of the town. The church sao ne ofthe few grest curl fates inthe landscape of the Grest AIO. Miskole isan important ming ce ter for modern Hungary, and itis the location of one of the fest. Huungarian-language testers (Nanak 1988, 108), Debrecen, however, i probably the greatest Hungarian city ofthe Gres Alfol. Known as "the (Calvinist Roa,” Debrecen was the center of the Calvinist movement in lungary. The Great Reformed Chee i the city testament this°° hap Four ‘movement A contr of Protestantism, Debrecen had one of Hungary’ first printing preses. With « printing press and the founding of & Protestant university, Debrecen became a major center inthe shaping of “Hungarian history and identity Debrecen’ influence increased with the subsequent founding of two more universe. Daring the se of tio Als, Debrecen played a lage roe Lajos Kossuth proclaimed the inde [pendence of Hangary from the Assan Empie inthis city and made {he capital ofa free Hungary (Desk 1979, 216). Memory ofthat event fs preserved in Debrecer’s main square, named Kossuth Square, dominated Dy a statue of Kossuth n more recent history, Debrecen became the te ‘porary capital of ant-ascst Hungary in 1044. The provisional govers- ‘et of 194 deliberately convened in the bling that was used by the ‘evolutionary government of 1849 (Dedk 1979, 216). The significance of place is demowstrated by governments choosing places of ealer evens {oj themselis other aeons, Pace then se means of legitim- Ing oncsalf or one's ston. "Anumber of important smaller towns of the Great Alo strate the core status of the teitory. Tey include places such as Ege, Kecskemct, Kiskors, Nagybinya, Nagykaroly, and Tok In edaition to castles, Eger and Toke) are famous for thelr wines. The Tokay Wines are the most ‘own internationally and mentioned mot in song and poetry? ‘The fish loves water fr its pat, No sha shape is mine! Forme te vine that warms the het ‘Bm beside Tokay’ vine, Whats water unto me? ‘Whoever drinks not wine No Magyar canbe (Grom The Wine Song: quoted fom Mitton 1915, 50) ger is naw for a famous red wine known asthe Bull's Blood (Kony 1971, 50), ternational recognition ofthese wines ea source of national ride for Hungarians ‘Kecskemét I important to Hungarian sense of territory fora couple ‘of reasons. First eserves atone of the market towns onthe Grent Aled ‘Many of the cherished agricultural products” ofthe Hungarians are col- lected and stated from here. Second, Kecskemé is important or a8 nist colony that began inthe late eighteenth century, Subsequently, he town became the locstion of one of Hungary’ first language testers ‘Kecskomet a8 also the home of dramatist |észet Katona and Zoltan ‘Kody Currently the Kodaly Seminar ished in Kecskemet (Hans 1985, 247) To no surprise, Keeskemeét and the area around its brought to ‘ational attention by descriptions in terature and poet unary nd he ung o 1 Where were you bor, shepherd ad? ‘The famous land af the Curans, Keeshemét is my county. My doar mother gave me birth there. [as ban i he lly land of Keeskemé, {had no mother, yet was raised B20 up as mushrooms in the woods. (Grom My Bell Nether Davs Not Witt Graze «qoted rom Vargyas 1989, 2851) Kishor isthe birthplace of Hungary's greatest poet, Sindor Pt. A _mustum in the town honors his Work Erde 1968, 616) Nagybinya (0% Baia Mae) became a cultural center with he founding of choo of paint ing in 186; an artist colony soon developed as Higasan artis Degen tomigzate there Even beloe the ats colony developed, Negyhinya had ‘bean a important place In the fourtenth century, Nagybanya was an iemportant gold mining own, sousce of Hungary wealth (ans 1985, 31, 16, 168), Nagykarolyi (now Cara), with ts castle, is the home of oly amy (The ighty Club 1907, 296-301). Misly Ksrly was the fire leader to establish a democracy it Hungary The birth of democracy in Hungary is associated with Karey and his estate, in addition to Debrecen, other twas in the Great Ald played roles ring the struggles to liberate Hungary and thereby have contributed to the rogion’s core status in Hungarian sense of teritory During the Revolution of 1848-49, Kossuth inspired many Hungarians se up against the Austrians ina speech he made in the town of Cope os (Conga). Cee and Kossuth are captured in a popular drawing (Deak 1979, between pages 168 and 16), The town i the leation ofthe Lajos “Kossuth Museum: Cegléa was also the ton swhere Gybrgy Die, the leader ofa pessant movement, gavea specch in 1514 and where a statue ‘orhim Was unveiled in 1908 (Hand 1988, 17). One of the final ets af the revolution took place in Arad (now in Romania), the final headqua ters forthe revolution. Thirtoen Hungarian generals were executed on (October 6, 1849, by axders of the Austrian command Baron Ludvig “Haynau, The Hungertan generals, who became known as the “Mareyes ‘of Arad, were immertalzed ina satu inte ety (Lege Brothers 190, 98), Arad subsequently was viewed as an important place of Hungacian perseverance and resitance. ‘Other paces in the Great All lastrate the attempts of Hungary's leaders to obtain Hungary's independence from the Austrian Empite Hungary's War of Independence (1704-11) led by Ferene Rakes, i marked by several declarations thot iden an important area that fx fated the struggle for Hungarian independence, or example, RAkezi blaine the lle of Prince of Hungary atthe Diet of Soéesay in 1708. ‘The Hapeburgs were dethzoned in the Diet of Ono in 1707. Ser fight2 Cape Foe ing in the Wr of Independence were fred in the Diet of Ssrompatak in 17s Sroepatak is now the locaton of the Rékeri Maseum. The war ‘ended when Hungarian forces surrendered in 171, fllowing the sgn Ing ofthe Teaty of Seatmdr, Seatmar became Sstmarnémeti but Is now known as SaturMare, Romania (Hank 1985, 78-50), Many places in the Great Alfa testify to the struggles of the Hungatans in eatin times. Mui for example, was the ste of «bate Detwoen the Hungarians and dhe Mongol in 121. The Hungarians lost the battle, but the event was forgotten, if perhaps held meaningless for ‘confures until the rise of nationaliam Infact, 4 memorial was bal on ‘healt of dhe bate in 1991, to commemorate the 75th aniversary ofthe vent (Lite 19a, 45). Because the memorial was just recently bait I ‘rae desiged according to mosern Hungarian natonal understanding of ‘he event What the bate mean othe Hngarans ofthe time i ost to ‘rten history. Ye this place obviouly significant othe Hungarian Sense of national identity, and its power Is underscored by modern Hungarians’ feeling the need to eect sucha memorial. The evely con structed cultural landscape ofthis place provides tangible evidence of, Hungarian heroism and cements thebond tat modem Hungarians have ‘with thelr ancestors Many of the places that represent Hungarian struggles are aseocated vwith the Ottoman period. Some ofthe most important strnglds that ‘eslsted the Ottomans were Eger, Gyula, end, Nagyralonta, S2oIn0k, snd Nagyvérad. Ege is particlaly known fra heroic defense against Sn Ottoman assnll in 1582 (Lazar 1996, 1552 Sse 190, 92-99), The el tance ofthis ety sa source of great pide fr modern Hungarians, A de matic statue in the center ofthe city, ust below the castle, depicts the ‘commander ofthe case lanked by Hungavian soldiers anda Hungatian ‘woman aiding the use by hurling a rock at he Tusks. Not surprisingly, [Eger is top tourst destination for Hungarians, Obviowsy, many ant ‘ee the place which represents Hungarian devotion and determination. ater in history, when Ottoman power began to wane, Raker outed the ‘Owaman army at Nagyszslont (ow Slont, Romana) in 166, Victories gaint the Ottomans were few. Yet Nagyszalonta exemplifies the ail- ity of Hungarians to overcome such a menacing enemy. Nagyszalonta i als the hometown of Jsnos Arany (1817-1882), one of the greatest “Hungarian poets ofthe nineteenth century. Arany wrote many of his. ‘works inthe town, and Sindor Pet spent ine with him there (Ede 168, 753-59. [Nagyvirad (formerly just Virad but now Oradea, Romana) is one of ‘he most significant places ofthe Great Alfold for Hungarian aetional ‘deity Called the "Lite Paris on the Kies,” the town was important as easly asthe eleventh century when King Ladi a cathedral nd Hungary othe agro %6 sade the own an important political center in the Hungarian Kingdom. Tate Ladi was buried there A statue of Ladi aswell status of ‘anyother ings stod in the town unt the Turk nally captured itn 160, When the Ouomans were diven out of Nagyvrad, the importance ‘ofthe town was confirmed by a decision to erecta new statue of Ladslas (andl 1988, 44; Legrady Brothers 1930, 109) In more recen tines, [Nagyvsead as the centr ofthe western Lterary movement, became Important cltaal center in Hungary (Erde 196,765,772, ‘raneylooni(Erdy) Auturn no longer ren the orphan’ leat, Daating in myrin cies of eight and gle. By day [roan at evening didnot est ‘And gret the morning fom the mountain's ces. Below caulron bol with mark and mist ‘Beneath thistimeless cag of amethyst; ‘While on the naked peak the sunlight throes ‘Te solern crystal splendors ofthe rose ‘A fever sis the valley fr below: ere shepherds eat thee chews, serene and sow ‘Thle quit tongues speak few but pescefl words; ‘Their quiet hands protec hee peace herds Sil upward where the snow-peaks soar, there Ry ‘The far eternal banners ofthe ky. My questing bindtike glance unsated seks ‘The lfnte honizon’s billowing peaks; Athundred, ray a thousand crests 1s, ‘And breathed thy name, my Transylvanis! (From On the Sunt by Lajos Api: ‘gooted from Kirkeonnell 197,42) ‘The emotional attachment that many Hungarians have for Tansylvanla (Grd is represented by the phrase hth,” which means two hame- Jands (Czigany 1984, 537) (See Figures 42 and 4.6) The View tht “Teanayvania he other homeland ofthe Hungarians stems in par cm the role that the terstary has played in istry. During the period of ‘Ottaman occupation, Transylvania preserved the highest degre of ine pendence of eny of the terstores af the Hungatian Kingdom. Infact, ‘Transylvania even experienced a “golden age” of its own in the sever‘gue 46 Tanaylvania, teenth century" As a resul, Teasylvania is soen a a rfuge of Hungarian culture, largely untainted by either the Otomans or the Asean. “eansyvanin's political strength in the seventeenth century reinforces ‘eas about the historical continuity of the Hungarian nation. The srg rent fs made tat Hungarian ization initally emerged inthe cent part of the Carpathian Basin, transfered self #0 Tronsylvania (and Slovakia) during the Otoman occupation, and then reestabished itself in the central part ofthe basin afterward, Such a view also lustrates the bull thatthe various tetris of the Hisngarian Kingdon work in hat- ‘mony with one anther and ae even mutually dependent on one snothe: ‘Thanks to all he political and cultural accomplishments in Tearsyvania ergy nd he argrio 95 Jn the seventeenth century, Hungarian caltare can be desribs as hav sng continous vlc throughout history. “The significance of many places within Tansyvania, and the stock ted strong emotional bands that Hungarians have develope forthe tet ‘ory, derives im pact rom many great leaders of Hungary who cane from Transylvania Indeed, itis dficul to thnk of great Hungarians without thinking of Tansyvania, The memory of hase great Hungarians Js preserved In Transylvania, where the cates, palaces, churches, un ‘vetiis, and Morais associated with them ze found, a well ss statues and other memerials that were ezected to honor thee people an their ‘Secomplisinents “The ole hat Transylvania has played in lungoian history le ils trated by the ack of clear defining of Transylvani's western boundary While @ historical Boundary in the west exist, the jurisdictions of ‘Transylvanian leaders have Auctuated greatly. For example, during ‘Tansylvaia’s golden age, Teanslvani’s leaders extended thee power te Vitod, often considered to bea great Transylvanian ot. Als, Mihaly ‘Ksely (rom Nogykseoy) called a Bansylvanian, Actually al of the ‘exit los to Romania ater the Fst World War has come tobe refered toas Transylvania, eventhough s substantial part of inching he two tovens just mentioned, was in the Great Alfa ot in other segions. The Jack ofa distinct boundary between Transylvania an the rest of Hungary reinfores the belie that Transylvania is truly Hiingaan. Many places ‘alternately refered to as either Hungarian or Transylvanian because they have boon alternately in Hungary and Transylvania In fat, because ‘Transylvania Is seen. a6 an integral part of Hungary, anything ‘Transylvanian is by definition Hungarian aswell although not neces sly vie versa Hungarian national identity sintimately tied toa numberof poi- calcultural centers within Transylvania, The most important are (Gyulafehérvar (now Alba lla; Karsbarg, or Welssenburg), Nagyenyed (now Aiud), and Marosvésszhely (now Tang Mares)", all these tovuns—the staples ofthe ancient Hungarian cvization and strongholds ‘of European civilization --.” Légrady Brothers 1930, 111). However, Besctrce (now Dist), Dera, and Nagyszeben (formerly just Szeben; ‘Sibiu; Hermannsta) ao were important fortresses that contributed 12 ‘Transylvania’ roleas the presrver and protector of Hungarian culture ‘Kolozvat (now Cli-Nepoca; Klausenburg sone ofthe mest impor tant Beyond being the majority of Transylvania, Kelozrv is thought ‘ofa the birthplace of one of Hungary’ great kings, Matyas (or Matthias (Corvinus). Testa fhe a oto he great Hungarian Gothic chars has come to symbolize the city. The Hungarian university, before being merged with the Romanian one, was one ofthe most prestigious Is96 ape our -Hungasy Th state theater and many ofthe museums and othe institu- tions ae egarded among the greatest cultura insttions produced by the Hungarian nation in modern times (Erde! 1968, 212, $85, 6, 59, 590, 618,677,679, 732, 792 808, 09-10, 919). Recent events in Kolozevr las: trate how national deny is te to the cultural landscape, Tensions have arsen at individals have tied to reshape the cultural landscape of the ‘Sty, Brcatise these actions have been inate by Romanians they will primary be dealt within Chapter 5. Neverthols, itis important to note at this point eat excavations of Daco Roman ruins in ont of the Mathias ‘Corvinus statue have let an unsightiy mes inthe main city square which Is not just coincidentally a place of distinet Hungarian character. The Hlungavians ofthe ely have reacted othe excavations asa dec font to theiridenity and have launched biter protest in response ‘When the capita of Tansylvania was notin Koloasv, was usual fn Gyulafehérvie As the home af one of Hungary’ rang families, he ‘Bethiens, the town contains the Bethlen Pace, the ueiversity that Gabor Bethln founded. As mich asthe Bethlen ae Hungavian, Gjulafehérvar ‘is ungarian, Similar, Nagyenyed (now Au), the location where Gabor Bethln moved his college, fan important place as wel, ‘Marosvasasely is the other great cultura center of Transylvania Its university represents many great achievements in Hungerian slence “Marosvésrhely als is associated with many great Hungarian leaders such asthe Telekis, General Bem, and Lajos Koaauth (Légrady Brothers 1830, 99) The Tee brary ws ane ofthe Sines bras in he Kingdom of Hungary (Ede 1868, $9) Inthe Palace of Culture is stained glass ‘vindove that depicts The Ballad of Kata Kar (Wiebenson and Sisa 1995, [between pages 112 and 113,232} Maroswésdrhely has become partclaely {important n recent times. When the Romanian government crested & “Magyar Autonemous Region after the Senond World War Marasvésithely ‘was designated the administrative center. Although the gion was even- ‘ually abolished, Marosvsathely is til the cltural and politcal center for Hungarians in medem Transylvania. When Hungarians in the "Hungarian state express concern forthe Hungarians of Taney, thy ‘generally focus on Marossartely. “The other great Hungarian town of TaneyWvania is Vajdahunyad (now Hunedoara) (Sia 1950, 85; Wiebenson and Sisa 1998, 43). The castle, one ofthe most picturesque in Transylvania is tho home of one of Hungary's ‘greatest leaders—Janos Hany A repli of the castle Was erected in the Ildle of Budapest for the Millental Celebration in 1996 (Légrddy Brothers 1930, 62-63). This replica serves as a constant reminder #9 “Hngavans just how important Vajdahunyad and Transylvania ae inthe shaping of Hungarian ident. The sigiicance of Vaahunyad Castles underscored bythe castle's being one of efit monuments in Hngaey nga nd he tengo . 7 tobe restored during the modem restoration movement (Deresyi 196, 1617, ‘Seges (now Sighigoara) became an important par of national con- selousnese with the ball that was fought against the Russians outside the town in July 1888 Of the many battles fought in the way, the one out tide of Segesvar came to he ston as the most significant because “Hungary's gests poet, Sis Pe, died during the strugule ere The temry of Peo’ heroic devotion and selt-scrfice for he Hangarian ‘ation was preserved ina manument af him erected lathe town (Lagi Brothers 188093} Brass (now Bragov; Kronstadt) is ako an important cltral center ‘of Transylvania, Interestingly it was a Saxon settlement and may of the accomplisments achieved in Brasso were actully those of Saxons "Nevertheless, Brassé cannot be overiooked when discussing the cule tural and political achievements of Transylvania. Consequently, the achievements of Brassd's Saxons have been incorporated into Hiangarian history (Erde 1968, 555, 599, 618) Ia some form or another, Any event or dasd of igiicance that tales place in Transylvania icon Sidered to be a Hungarian accomplishment because Tansylvania [sa FHlungarian territory. This type of association slustrates the important role that place plays in shaping a people's identity. Moreover, the need to inconporate the achievements of Brass's Saxons into Hungarian his- tory illustrates the overall core importance of Transylvania t0 ingarian national identity ‘The belie that Transylvania i the preserve of Hungarian culture is elated to other factors besides the exercise of politeal independence ‘When Hungarian Romantics stout to collect folk songs an recor folk customs, many of them vet to Transylvania, Because Transylvania was ‘relatively foated and on the periphery of Europe, many cltural prac- ‘ees in Traylvania remained tnchanges for eturies. Asa eal many lungarian Romantics considered Transylvania tobe representative of ‘eue Hungarian culture. However while many Lubin of Transylvania accept a Hungarian identity, many of them als think of themselves a8 Szellers(Szdkely)- The precise origin ofthe Szcklers snot known. They fare a tribe related tothe early Magyars who either traveled to the Carpathian Basin withthe Magyar or migrated there ot lng aferards, Imelther case, they became poltcallyintograted into the Hungarian Kingdom fom an early pestod (Palmer 1970, 11-12) and developed a "Hungeran identity. Neverthe, the Szelers are cistinely ferent fom ‘other Hungarians et though the work of Hungarian Romantics, Seer culture is heralded as true Hungarian culture. One ofthe areas where ‘Scholars such as Batok and Kodaly collected folk soags is Cak County (Guchot! 1981, 55) a distinclly Seeker area, Outside the Szeer areas,* pr Fur ‘ora (ow Turd), Zila” (now Zaldu) and the Kalotaszeg (now Calas) gion ate cen ss important areas of Hungarian folk tradition (dei 198, 995). Oneof the olast Hungarian folksong, Te Walla Up Wi, describes ‘he balding of the caste im bbws (Vargyae 1983, 218-57). ‘The Core: The Tenaity actor ‘The las thousand yeas of history is marked by numerous steuggles #0 defend the Kingdom of Hungary. While Romantic historians view these ‘eugales as national ones ite not appropiate to dept them ae natonal ‘truggls until the emengence of moder aonlistn a he end of eigh- teenth contury; struggles plo this time tok place in another socal context Ia fact, because tetra sovereignty ies condition of natonal consciousness, Hungarian national consciousness doesnot relly come into full blossom until the mid-nineteenth century, the time when HLungavian leaders began cling for an independent Hungarian naonal state Until tat time, most Hungarian leaders only pushed for more Sutonomous decision making within the Hapsburg monarchy Their wile Ingnas to emain within such poticlfenitoril structure (Le, sul ethnic tte indicates that thelr sense of identity was formated in a Social context much differen than that ofa nation. Therefor, in appIy~ Ing the tenacity factor, we consider only events fom the mlg-nlneteenth cy tothe present “Trandanuhis southern Slovaks and southwestern Rotheni, the Great Alfeld, and Transylvania fll within the cone testoryof Hungarian see of tersitry because they are theteritories where the stugale fr national Independence began and continued throughout modern times, When Hungarian leaders began tee struggle fran independent Hungary, hey ‘were centered in Hungary's capital (Pozsony) in southern Slovakia, Wher ‘he diplomatic struggle tured into an med one in 188, the Hungarian Independence movement relocated to Budapest and then tothe Great Alibi. Daring the ater ‘ofthe Revolution of 1545-49, south Slovakia and Transyvania payed key roles aswell In fact onthe eve of the evolution, the Hungarian Det passed a set flr, now known {isthe Api Laws, which brought about many sca nd political reforms. “Those laws, however, were jst a significant forthe political organza lion of tertory becaase they brought together the hstore tectonics of ‘he Hungarian Kingom int a itary sate (Kana and Davi 1984, 384). ‘Specialy, they inorpoated Teansylvania no Hungary, which had Been governed dict from Viena, ‘Alter the Hungarian defeat inthe Revolution of 188-49, Hungarians di not find an opportunity to begin another independence movement tnt the defeat of Austria in a war with Prussia in 1866. By this tune, Transdanubia had become te politcal centr of Hungary. With a weak Hagar an he ogre ° ‘ned Austlan government, Hungarian lenders were able to demand ‘hough concestns to bring about the Compromise of 1867. The com promise ensued grete independence by puting the Hungatian gv. Emerton an almst equal footing withthe Austrian government trough th erates the dual onary, ore coma town fo the Aust Hungarian Een. The Hapeburg Emperor mained the Linge Hungary bute new Fangarangovemmmen gained cota over “Hungary's domeatc fas euch conte war of cotee made posible trecaue the Hugin goverment gained pete contel over ite tony The importance o Manav cre erny wat one og Iaated when Hungarian ldo sccsflly demanded and seced “ransyleaoia's return to the Hungarian Kingdom. By the 1850s, the Hungarian government began implementing vigorous Megyarasuon polices in a attempt to integrate the tetores ofthe Hungarian Kingdom These Mopyasaation polices were primary diected at Transyvani. "ith the defeat of the Central Powers in the Fist World Wer, the ungaian governiest finally aa its opportunity to declare fll indopendens fom Austin: Unfortunately ithad st cet with the Hungarian people as toon at foreign woope began occupying Hangoan terior” Mihi Karly acount fom Tanyani gained theconfdence of many Hungaisns by damn hat he could preserve the tert intogelty of angary Buran 1980, 35; Macarney and Fraimer 196, 50) Ab a staunch avoosteof democracy, Ks bebowed {hat Hungry had fo reece to the Western Ale by ding four things: Rt, denounce the Alliance wits Germany; secon, dislve the dal monarchy with Aust hi, ecognize the ight of he eth $e minorities and fourth, rent he country © Won’ Fouren Poin 2 soon as possible ‘ntornrael fr Késl, Alle toope avd into Hungary fom he southent despite the signing of Blade Armisteon November 13, {oi8 he Ales approved o Kivaly but di lite to stup the Seba, Pettey preserve some control aver thelr testy anther Hives, ‘Croslathe peripheral tertory over which Hngarians have exercised the gentest contol dough history the best example, The Hungarians have made only modes efot in guiing contol of Croatia since these ‘f nationalism. For example following Hier’ iasion of Yugoslavia in "bi, the Hangaran government noped for an autonomous Croatia and ‘strip ofthe Dalmatian cost (Palmer 1970, 254) but dd litle to Bring it ‘bout. Again in 191, the year Slovenia's and Croatia's governments ‘Seclare thei independence rom Yugoslavia, the Hungacan government secretly shipped weapons to the Croatians, When the Hungarian gov~ ‘mment a forced to admit fits actions, it dectared aban on all rs ‘ales to Yugoslavia to prevent hoses with the Serbian dominated gov ‘emment of Yugolavi (oblen 1991), ‘Bohemia, Plan, Bosnia, Sebi, Walch and Moldavi zeal periph ral teritores that demonstrate the greatness of the Hungarian nation ‘The kings of Hungary demonstrated thir mmense pow when they also tbat the kings of Bohemia and Poland. They also demonstrated the greatness ofthe Hungarian nation when they turned Bosnia, Seba, ‘alachia and Moldavia into vasa states at onetime. During the Firsry Chapter Four ‘World War, the Hungarian goverment exerined it power by annexing ssp of Romanian tertory along the Hungarian Romanian boundary. [No lim had been advanced tothe tertory before thew, Yet, with he fortunes ofthe war, the lertory was taken primary to creat a bufer forthe protestion ofthe cone tenitory of Transylvania In dion to the fsue of enol, the peripheral tertoces played other roles in shaping Hsngarian national dent For example, many ofthe ‘Romantics who collected Hungarian flktore went Bukovina (Dobszay 1985, 76) and Moldavia, to the Cadngs communities (Suchoff 1981, 85); the Caingés area people slosly relates to the early Magyars and Sears (ateost 192, 1-2), By going to these regions, Hungarian Romantics Dhelped to ereate a sen of modern Hangarian national identity that has many components of Coings culture. The geographical location ofthe (Ceigo is slgaiicant a wll. Living between the Carpathian Basin and the steppes of Eursl, the Csdngés representa phystea ink that legit izes the spiral link thatthe Hungarians a the Cazpathian Bain have ‘wi ther ancertral homeland in the steppes of Fran. Specific cites suchas Vienna (Bécs) and Wiener Neustadt (Bésjholy) srenoteworty a rol of the close poll cannon beeen Hungary fn the Austian Empire. Hungary not only was controlled fr long pes fds fom Vienna, but Hungarians waveled and resided in Vienna and ‘Wiener Neustadt fora numberof reasons, event eceive an education Belgrade (Nandorfehérvér) was once» key fortress inthe southern defense ofthe Hungarian Kingdom. Its also associated with one of ‘ungary’s grestest heres, nos Hunyadi (isa 990,51, 52) Ina simlar context, Karle (Sremski KariowirKarloitz is asociated with the ‘Treaty of Karlowitz, which eed Hungary from Ottoman rule in 1699 (Handi 198,72), Fame (Riek) is important because it was Hungary's ‘nly seaport With the lng:held belie of many Europeans that a nation ‘ould acheve greatness only by becoming a sea power, Fame became ‘one of the symbols ofthe greaines ofthe Hungarian nation. The sig Ieanee of Fume i underscored by its direct control by the Hungatian ‘cow following theceation of the dual monarchy, notallowe to Be gov" ‘red by the autonomous government of Cros Notes 1, Ben atin Sedcheny rot many of i dissin German and when not sn Geran, hen in tai reno English (Saran 1965). Sones ae {Guage acces ae noteworthy Deesuss he ws bed “the Grats among, gars ar even the ther of modern Magyar nationals (ara 1968, 3, 235} Hie pr drs rom his being tbe is person ove bid enough fal to addres menses ofthe upper chamber of the Hungarian Dit hungarian, stad of Latin as expected shouldbe noted, however, hat his Hangar and he Hongo us acon sock his Hungarian colagucs got 1972, 51). Aker Scene {Sune Magyar more equ he cmed tat the Hungvon raion hed dee ated beenuse so few Hungutan stil spoke Magyat He lid the ble 09 nga themelves specially his aoe atude twat Mayas to ‘gnes(Brany 1965, 287), whom Romantic aoa would tend ame ‘Magyar then hd odionl ben in the prose af ying out unl te aden of rotolsm becuse st Hungarians di ot sce Maar a3 andl com ponent thet deny 2 The ew langue wr immednty ad ms pictc probes hesause thee waa ebook iene athe ne Hang oc he Magyar at ise, Latin had aways been the lnguage a eduton (Baran 1968, 103-10, 3 CertilyHungaran inter the German ngage or Caran cle tesa they Ha thorsaghly embrace bth over ping cris eh tothe eter ta the major rban centers of Hungary bd Beco cutraly German by the ery rietanth centary (Beran 96, 24). Budapt a8 ‘eption A majrty oft aabitants were German speaking up eM. ‘a the intents centr (Dae 58,38). 4. This dese however dd ot develop unl theater al ofthe niet century: Dug thet al ofthe century, most Hangar leader semaine Ieyalto he Hapa monary ever tee wh apa or ting igh te Hangin langage Even van Seach te ater fanaa tio hsm an ist promoter fhe Hangtan rguage este loyal othe mana {hy (arany 196117, 97) Such aly oa normal goverment oct ao {enlor omer understadings of maton, 5 Pal ignot pot ou tat etre unger and Magy were ony nous untl the end ofthe elgheerth century because “boy touget Bat oe ‘othertangue shoud be ade the in con ofan” C27, 2) WN, ‘hen emphasis psd on ngage, Magyar dovlped more eed ne Ing for thowe who spoke parculst ianguage, wale Hugoran natant trader mening o those who ve nthe gaan Kango Top very ‘lay the rn ng tere tee of uma density Bed eh people ied ot what language they spe With he or of natoals how vcr Magyar tegen to el themacier toe the tw Hungarians bcs they ‘hough that they spoke the true language of Hungary. They nevertees, con {Snue to enly wit the Hungaran Ringom ot jt he Magyarepesing reas In fac the agate amet bee that ha ngage made tm he "igh inhertor of he hangaran Kango (arn 98, 10, “5 Governnent epee fom nighbotng counts expe Wad ‘may tothe Hungarian government in tear to sponsor of the cles {Sone They sate that he celabatona were edentat besauethe Hangaron ‘Kinga nel tetra that ae now part of ober ont 7s not uncommon fr difering peoples to blend together to form one ‘selagy Oven he couumon denominator cosanen tory. Dilering pe les ce thon rhage people ey omupy he ee ns Hons and nat cesar the sme time: Amara of European descent, fr ‘sample wl bate he stories and citer of Native Ate they Seether on. American anigants also are expected ace the itary of6 caper Foe 6. tn 192th Hlangorian goverment Sued satu declaring that he year 595 ws the ounding date snd Began making preparation for the millenia [Souranay Wun the government azo hat ceuld ot prepare oth co ‘Slaton inne it postpone th founding date un 96 (Crd 1906). °S Hungary. reverts wa sipped ffeil ft trtory flowing the Pas Fone Cnfsece the Hungaria loot mre of el erty than a ‘ther deleted powers The approach hat the Hangar epresertates took at thou Pence Contrece deo prevent he ln af tert The angaran [presenta snes ce te fal tho sing he etna af ee outy [undue the tral uty of the Hangartan Kingdon Tn tetespct hey ‘hou ave focsed onthe distbton of poples(Dedk 1972, 208-10) They, Fweree were slvous tut the worlds poi lenders had recently come © ‘heron tha he arbatens of people were relevant fo bound ale ‘to Inher defense the Hangar representatives were nat awa of Si ‘Bitinattes bert they were not ummoned tthe cone unt end, {In then they weno allowed rch contact with he ter partpant blo reaming hl angument (Desk 172, 176-20), a The Teaty of ran ws writen at the Pris Peace Confrence and then imposed en th Hengaran poople ir most known fe hing sipped a (oshins of the Kingdom of Hungary SE Of coure see of deny changes ovr ine Subsequent the cltaral sanseapes have tbe lao mec cangang ess of ent Ans ar ‘nly wre about the Milemiin Monument anh dividual ores Fave ene treet the canging entity ofthe Hngavian aston (190) 12 The university was foro to move to Pa alte the Fest Word Wat 1H, Altough Hungarian ntoal deny hss sang ant Hapebu compo nent tis nesting one a he ak of Aaa press Marl Theresa TnPocsony become esybol fox munyHlungariane ater was orn down by Cotshe atte th ist World Wa (Lardy Brothers 1&7; Korn 187125) Ti. One of Hungry’ greats compose, Ferenc Ertl cme om Pozen} (Dany 199,16), Nott he Carpethans which served as the boundaries he Hung Kington, asl ebosed in angatan postey eventhough hey ae natn fhe modern tat of Hungary 1. Eren tough few Hugi cull out on the Aldo descend or people who ied ther, the AML ben as the earn of Hangary as ach, ‘Flutgasan nana! cnt initey sotto Ths tony no ears ‘igus few Americns for otample ve oreven dase to vein Amoi’ a6 ‘hla eurand or he rugged Weatomnin of he contboy an indepen ‘Sony, fe inking man Nevrteles, he edlonal Ameen ay of He socaed with the reo the grcitarl heard a econ indepe ‘sc, and the bi that ie files wth ted ponies sed to the ‘gpd landscapes dn Was Th Amarin tn woe at what El tut these placer Though many American have not oon to these pce ‘Ames ttonsl ety wo ot be what thot thm Notary ‘hen the ace’ span the conboy hat-oting ems developed In {hernaturl evista he nd est tnd Weetaepopalaly Worm bY ‘many Ares no ater hee thy Ue angry nd he Hangs uw 17, Papi ne the teoal foo ofthe Hungarians, plays uch x le «tata imagine Hangoim cule witout The ops however, Som primary inte Gra Als ts poste gro coe hs ae athe wri ut Hungarians have parce fondoas or papa from he ‘Get ALL, rom the prepa of rational cule, Hungran cle ny ‘ul nob what ti wou te ret A 18, Tansyvana was even ecoghsed ab seri tat nthe Treaty of West 064) Baran 199, 17) 1S. Asa of Manga ade aned Mille Wesny alo gves lsh poll sipificance, 2 Oa ents af modern Hungarian non identty began acta te 17805 but nat the dsr for sell, which egies ceria over eeu the ese for elle teste stopp or roi sore) the aoene af n independence stragglers ack fe 1 Selene inten nding an incon formed sere fetal et. 2, The Serbian army ha moved nthe south he Roman amy te puis nd nee Cunhoivsk ary fre north 2 edd ton on cian ples raced by gover iments to dive Hungarians out ofthe former letra the Husgarisn Kingdom an into the modern Hungavon tase The Hongrons: A Dat Nation Bosoy 1968) and Teayoi ae Rots bic Cofi Cada0, Teasnge and Eto 185 2, The eso for thi cnsion of land were never cll explained. Cech leaders had clad tis nd fe he Fst Wot Wnr ut not recive it'Pethapo, a4 « means of compensating Ceecostoaia forthe loss of athena whieh Decne pat of fe Soviet Union specially the Ukssinian Repub Salin deeded tallow the Coechonlvasgoversment fo sanet thi smal pice of teretory Although Hungary lat Rubens once agin Se tie it wast the Soviet Calon and oto Caachlovaia ait ha Been 1920. Hungay then found Suet bordering the Sove Union, whch had never done before. Histol Hangary was how divided among teven cour ties (modern Hungary. Ausra, Corchoslovakia, Romani Wgosiia, Poland sn the Soviet Unto, 2. For dalled information on the pois of the Czachoaovak goverment ‘on ths sue, se Caechotoas pole andthe Hugasan Mir, 194-1018 Canis 1982. tonal infrmaton ca lobe found ia Tae Hunger A Died Neto ered 98 For inert of aay ‘Ten: Ts Rss of Ec Cone (Cada: Ly nd Ee 98) {a The Herron Minny tution Cops Romane Goo 199, 25, The mening af tc autonomy” has laid bt eran, he any ober erm of utonomy, ee sore ee fel ve rey 28. The Hungarian academy produced stow volume on the sry of “haoyivana in 1994 (Ropes & the vue st of pete book wih pps he enaran hraer of ny we pane 0 tay an a) a work of posry with ndacpepatogeaphy apps 1985 (ra and Lil) Over he a ew yen he mow scat acted taps of Tranayvana have ben designs ahd proved i Hungary, tot Romana Pratbly he ba oes pobihed by DIMTAP 998th quay osone hope Four oo that iti commonly found in Romanian bookstore as wall-These ar only 1 inca enn plature ook ave een pblabed on esse = stoi Too the mone eae a is Bona Legezs and Sosy 1992), lind Rirpai Ssceay Sosa, and Leger, 180). These books, of Ouse, Sipe the Hangoron acter of ee teres 5 Romania and the Romanians ‘One lok at the language map of Europe quickly shows that Romanian Sands ut as «Latin language ins sea of Slavic langoager The “garnlngung ein es on he western ano the Roan ae guage region but Hunger morale to Romanian han ote Slavic [Engages Despite the geographic unset Romanian angusge swe shosl not lino te fap that sy Romantics have allen in sed Conclude that the uniqueness of the Romanian language gave bi fhe Romanian ation. Although Romanian ie distin tic ngage today we should ne project hs cuen ditties int he pst ea hry Create the esupton that it has alway existed On the conta itis not the Romanian langage that rete the Romane bu the Romanians ‘wo rested the Romanian anguge Pir fo her of modern nation lism, the socalled Romanian language had tay Slavic, Germany Magyor Grek nd even Terkish words, concep ae grammatical con strc taking Inet alway odin om te eigoring ln ingests today Over the couse of thera nationale Ronan Romane nationalists have worked to maketh Romanian language sep. arate and stint because hey ined themselves oe separate ad Gistnc fom the people azound them, Thus does spawn Sttlonioed s Rewari ratnais gui ote nt mean at ven ‘nevitsbiy bat ater sale ling prophecy broaght sot by much Contaved hard work ‘Romanian Romantic nationalists, of couse, dd not fabricate the “Latins ofthe Romanian language ost of hing, What her ences tor apoke had enumber of Latin element int ut whatever depos of "Tatinness” he language had war mesningles to the people who spoke St Indeed, what wae spoken war no even eleed fo Romania nd {be peple who spe tid not een cal acter Romanian The ee provinces of Walaa, Moldavia, and Trnaylanis ate pay what ow comprises modem Romania Until ths of adem rational ns19 Chapter Fse litle over two hundred years ago the term Romanian was notin gene tral application but rather the terms Walachians, Moldavian, and “Tansylvanians, Because these peoples shared sillar cultural charac- teristics and boenuse Walacin ended to be the terion that exerted rect ‘Stpoltcal avtonomy hrough the Middle Ages and ino the mode er, Central Europeans were inclined to zfer to all ofthese peoples 26 \alachians. The Saxon, Magyar and Szekler populations of Transylvania reserved the term Tranaysanan for themselves and would not share the {etn with ther fellow mhabitants who shared so many characteristics ‘withthe Walachlans, whom they also looked down upon. Thus they ‘rmpoyed the tera Wahi to these people o separate ehemseves, "The Saxons, Magyars, and Szeklers didnot distinguish themselves fron the Walachiane in language but by way of le For the Saxons, Magyars, and Szekers, the fen Walechion (or Wslach, Val) was 20 “ynonymovs with Latin speaker but with shepherd, or simply peasant. Iishort these peoples looked dawn on the Walachlans and were thus “invling to eer to them as fellow Transylvanian. Being 2 the lower tend ofthe social scale, the Walachians tended to communicate with the ‘Stxons in German withthe Magyars and Szeklers in Hungarian, or in {atin during those periods when Transylvania was a par of Hungary: atin was the official language of Hungary unt 180 (Hobsbavn 1982, 167), Evidence demonstrates that Walachian was also aterm of sell-des- {gnaion, For example, in 1791 the Walch of Transylvania ent a peti tion tothe imperial ern of Austria calling fr the Walachians tbe recognized ae the fourth nation of Transylvania. We know that lachlan cll themelves Walachiane and not Romanians because the document wa ted Supple les Valachonon ("Humble petition of {he Walachians")(Verdery 1983, 11), "Evidence allo shoves that Walachins di not consi hei owe lan- guage tobe pateulaey meaning The Protestants of Transylvania, fxample, had translated » numer of religious woeks into Romanian in the Toth century and then the Bible tein 1688 (Eleto 1983, 69-70), ‘but most Walachians didnot embrace such works, Because most were Orthodox Christians, they did not share in the Protestant belie that one should practice one's faith in one's own language. Instead, most Walachian sed Church Skvonicln thelr chuches In hort he evidence suggests thatthe characteris of group distincliveness derived more ftom socio economics than from language ‘ecause Romantic nationalists believe that religion is just as much a ational determinant as language religious belief an practice should be ‘examined to ee if tis truly a paren of the Romanien nation. A close ‘samination of eligion, however, shows that Romanian national dentty [few even les ot of religious distncivenas than It did out of linguis= ‘edistinctvenes. Through history, the ancestors ofthe Romanians were oma ad he Romaine m1 monly Eastern Orthodox Christians. Prieto thereof atonal nthe ‘ineteenth century nothing existe within the general Eastern Orthod {Church that cutfvated a distinct Romanian national dent. The an fgenge ofthe church, including worship service, as Church Slavonic ‘Adainstrativel, Romanian Orthodox churches were contoled by Serbs fom Stemi Kaviovl At the same time, the Orthodox Chur in Eastern “Europe had been administered frm te highest level by the Paarchate ‘of Constantinople, the so-aled Grent Church That the pinnacle ofthe ‘hurch had been ina Greek city, ava least the Greek part of Cons- Tantinope, meant that the ecumenical patriarch was usally Gres Not surprisingly Greek language and clare were the foundation of Europes Eastern Orthodox word (Hobsbawn 1962, 173) but not fr nationalist ‘With the rise of nationalism inthe nineteenth century, Greeks in the higher echelons ofthe Orthacox Church began to see the Orthod (Church a5 the Grek national church Asa resul Greeks imbued i he ‘new natant ideology tre o Hellenize the Orthodox worl A com current growth of rational awareness among other Orthodox Chaistians Jed to the resentment of Helleiaing polices and practices. Indeed, the growth in atonal awareness among other groups led thes other groups {o try tonationalize their Orthedox churches. Because Romanians were administered by Serbs from Sremski Kaviova, they had to endure Setbianizing os well as Helenizing polis and pretces. In many ways, Serbanizing and Hellenizing contributed othe ise of Romanian nation lism and subsequenily led the Romana to desie thee own national ‘Shurch- [a 1864 the Romanians of Tansyvania obtained permission rom the Austrian Empire to establish a separate autonomous Romanian Orthodox Church with its mteopoltan seat ia Sibiu Sarl, 1873 the Romanians of Bukovine obtained the consent ofthe Austrian Empire to establish a metropolitan for Bukovina in Radaupi (Magecsi 1993, 116-117). In 1859 Walachia and Moldavia were united int a single sutonomous province within the Ottoman Empite in 1868 he new gO ‘emment ofthe snd principalities ongenzed the Romanian Ortho ‘Churel (Wite 1964, 100), However, no semblance ofa Romanian national church emerged undl after dhe appearance ofa Romanian national coo Sciousness, not before. Moreover, the Komanian state created the Romanian Orthodox Church not the oher way around. More important, because no separete strain of Romanian Orthodoxy or even anything, ‘uniquely Romanian existed within the Orthodox Charch prior othe ise ‘of nationalism inthe nineteenth century, Eastern Orlhodoxy could not have given beth othe Romanian nation ‘While Eastern Orthodoxy was nt the birth mother ofthe Romanian ration, another rligion was instrumental in the creation af the movtern ‘Romanian nauon: the Uniete Church’ Although the Unate belie! Wasme. ‘hap Foe unique, it snot national identi in the sense that its belevers stood spat trom the people around them and ths came to see themselves as Separate nation. Only 2 minority of Walachians believed inthe Unit faith; they were geographically imited in their distription meng the teventual population ofthe Romanian nation, and many of the Ualate {ath vould subscribe to other national identities than a Romanian one ‘The Uniate Chusch is signficant because the idea of the modern Romanian nation trace is roots to Unite clerlcs who first magne the ‘Romanian nation and then propagated and cultivated into is mature being "The Unite Church isa unique blend of Roman Catholicism and Eastern ‘orthodoxy: liturgy and traditions are primarily Eastern Orthodoxy but Unlates az loyal to the pope in Rome (Magocs 1983, 53) Interestingly, the Uniate Charch developed in the contact zone between Roman (Catholicism Easter Orthodoxy, and Protestantism, These thee branches ‘of Christianity competed vigorously for converts in east Cental Europe “This competion paradovically stimulated the dese of many Christians within this zne of competition to unity the Cristian churches, Thus the Unite Chureh came into beng “Although Austri's pital leaders did not have a diect hand incre ating the Uniate Church Asean lenders quickly realized that he Unite Church could serve their political aims, especially thet teritorial ambi- ‘ions. Roman Catholic, Astin leaders always had ically expand- Ing their empire into teritorie inhabited by Eastern Orthodox Chistian [because Easter Orthodox Chletans could not accept the pla lend crip of hase who Were not ther spiritual leaders church and stat were ‘nt separate tzoughout most of European history. Conversion was the logical means of convincing a conquered population to accep the impo: ison of new imperial oder Cersinly 8 ood Caos, Austen lead fre Wied to convert the populations under their rule to Roman ‘Catholicism. People, however, donot ead and easily change thet a {ious convictions, especially notin a regio ofthe world where the con telof etry by any one empire and its fiat religion is ephemeral “The Uniate Church, however, provided a solution for many ofthe di cules thatthe Ausra Expire had been Sighting to overcome No longer ‘would Austria's leaders have to invest large amounts of energy to charge {he practices and belief of Orthodox Chileans while they silane ‘ously subdued ther unt the conversion to Roman Catlin was com plete, The Uninte fith was mich easier to spread among Orthodox populations because i did nat equie Orthodox Chsans to change thet Estavio, only recognize the pope as her spiritual leader Once Orthodox CChistians convert tthe Unit ath by making the more modes tp ‘of recognizing the pope, Austrian emperors could legitimately extend Roman a te Raine ns {hei contol over Unints because a8 Roman Cath, they were polit feal agents ofthe pope Indeed, Unate converts woul naturally desiee {have thelr titres incoeported into the Austrian Empire an be ot ofthe ursdiions of Orthodox politcal leaders sch the Rossan 230 who became the enemy upon the moment of eanversion Bacause th Austrian emperors sa the Unite Church a an intrment| ‘that could advance thir ambitions, they prompted the Una Chirch on their empice's frontier whenever they had the opportunity, In 1659, not Tong after the Austrian imperial armies drove the Ottomans out of the (Carpathian Bas, Austsan emperor Leopold Isa an april poms which crested anon between the Roman Catholic and Uniate churches. ‘The rion elevated the status ofthe Unate Church within Tasyvania (Gtchins 1977 2-3 Seton Watson 1963, 124-25) Soon aftr the union, the y paying the Sultan the proper tribute. They adn concern for thelr Walachian and Moldavian sects and sought only to enhance thas per ‘sonal prestige and power Consequently, Walachia and Moldavia went info period of econamic decline. With the sg of Romanian nationalism In thesneteenth century, Walnehian and Moldavian became increas ingly hostile to their Greek leaders. The revolutionary leader Tudor Viadimirescu seized power in Walachia in 1821 after overthrowing the ‘Phanoriot prince (Bachan 199), 24; Castella 1989, 117-20). shouldbe remembered, however, that Romanian national identity 2 tll ni184 Chapter Fce {nant state for Viadimiresc didnot attempt to cain ful independence for Walachia but instead proposed a government under Ottoman ‘suzerant. At the same me a evalution took place in Moldavia when Alexander Ypsilan took contra ofthe goverament Unlike Viadimirecu ‘Ypstlan was son of Greek Phanait prince and general in the Russian any, Ypsilanti hed the support of many Romanian boyars but even [pester support of Greek nationalist (partculasy in Odessa}, who ranted to make Moldavia and Walachia the ist independent Greek nation-state of moder times (Seton-Watson 1963, 192-93). So the “Moldavian revolution was just as much Geek a i was Romanian, The revolutions, however, were short-lived, After Vladimirescu and Ypsilanti segued in Bucharest, Greek officers shot and killed Viadimirescu (Gachmar 1991, 29). Ypslons had to le to Tansylvania ater Otoman, luoops, with approval fom the Rusian government, entered Walachia and Moldavia to crush the rebellion. The Phanarot period ended, But ‘alachia and Moldavia were not Yet independent Romanian states but still within the Otaman empire th the Satan continuing the practice ‘oF choosing the princes ofthe vo terior. [Despite the brevity ofthe evoltion, Romanian national identity eon tinued to grove, and with it the desire for an independent Romanian naton-tate, With the wave of nationalism that swept arose Europe in the late 1840s, Transylvania also became a key tertory of national gitar tn. Inspired by the ideas of nationalism, the Magyars in Transylvania ‘made Magyar the oficial governmental language in Tangyvania in 1847, Daring the revolution of I6i8, the Hungarian Diet declared a una of Hungary and Transylvania; Romanian peasants ralied in Bla in appo- sition. The Hapsburg emperor sent imperial oops to suppres the "Hungarian revolution Many Romanians supported the imperial actions bulieving that the emperor was more sympathetic to the Romansin case than that of the Hungarians. By 1849, the Russian army crushed the Hungarian revolution upon the request of Emperor Franz Joseph (18451916) Trensyvania eame under dec contol of the imperil gov" ‘rnment, and Geran was made the offal anguage, The Emperor, ow {ver abolished the Union of Three Nations, hich anly recognized the Fighof Hungarians, Szekers, ad Saxons, and granted citizenship tothe Romanians of Bansjvania “Therevoation spread rom Transylvania to Moldavia and Walachia in 1848, butt was short-lived. In Moldavia, Prince Mika Stutz (1854-89) ‘squelched th sevalution almost overnight Jelavich and flavich 1977, 55) The revolution lasted somesthat longer in Walachia, were here were ‘alls for universal sulfge an the unification ofthe wo principales ‘The Russian czar ws alarmed by the activity and dispatched Russian troops to the principalities to restore order. The Russian army did not leave until 1861 Ron ond the Remains 18 Romanians in Wahi ane Molva no find an oportanity 0 cotta independent Romanian sttonstas ul tne essa det Sn the Crimean Maro 65438 Atha tie, Walch end Molten Ceased ae sin pots cae urs Fearon ua Sic Titan 197,15 By hs ng, he nave fanaa opened roe Europe eulng inthe development ofa common see of Romanian naorinod amoog Wolo, Moldavia nd Teesy ‘rane Theft eit was severe ote Wan and Mel Deletes asemble an ota for oistion, too, and cot ‘oa green 885 an neta ofrecer ‘ean an attncey bt allowed the rafting of common lava {he ther tate “Unite Prinpliien neon he ne forest separate mers nan Bache cle a fhe tan loan Ciara governr of enh stat in 1859 Gevich and Ievich 197,16 964 7-9). Although led the Goat owes bce tothe eign of Cara hah st other ign mates prevented them fom taking action Alter Cura werd toute te nisratons ofthe vo peinplitin te Crest Powers aly eo ‘sed the unity i 185 Fagre53)° The sew goverment ok op theta of weg a cotton which ws completed in 16. Te co Staton adreaedramr fen infty changing the ame ofthe pons rm Unt Prcptoes to Roma chine 296 $0) 806 marked he et yo nto ht th ter Ram as fic appli to troy “Tene porn ee uni oe es of Waacin and Movavi cae during th enh War of 177th an ing tobe re ofthe Otoman Epi the Romanian governnet et touay cooperated with te un government oferta he principalities woul ome tobe domes by the Ressan Emp th Exchange forthe cognition of Romans testa nei, the Roman govemment speed olla Rush ope pas theo Roma Sowing Rasa coy he Ressn government fed ‘he Tet ofS, whch press new pal eopapy te Balkans Theater Great Powers rected the eat and tnd Nel {Snferece in Bein fae ety Although diferentin dtl the “rent of Bern (1879) alo elined x new pola geography forthe Beane Most rotewaty the ey Rema pede thusbriging ution the Romanian sation dese aed goal of cresting tonite “he Homann natal a sede ining he coe eters of alco and Malai tn» Horan ations however he er Romaan ate Git yet ince ents at Romans aoa ‘enty wa ine, Anum tos were msn soc156 cape Fe Scously the core ersitory of Tanayvaia, Thus Teansylvaia became the Toc of Romanian tatonlsts se tey made the niiaton of ‘Tanoyiana withthe vo be cone eerie poy Ten ith ‘Tanyiarn became so inp ht ore than nother ae le Intel the fregn ply of the Romanisn government ring te est ‘Wald War (xo 917, Gas 63, Series BSS, 5) For oampl when King acl advocied naliance with he Centra Paes heel oto favor with oth te Romanian People ane the Eamanian goverment bss chan allan wouldve prevented nln wit Tanayivanin,On the poiive side, Cars dese for an lance wit tha Central Pars would have ed to the annenton of Tenable Cone Power wre sccsfl nhc wa fot ow ter becnse enya ws gl prt of he Central Powe of ‘Rese Hungary a Cente! Power tctry would have, precided Romana fom sinesingTanayvane,Becuae the core terry of Tuyhanin wee mor tnportnt othe Roan seas of rational ene {hyn he smi core tenon ofBenrbin™ te Koran goverment invore analianc with he Ener Tha he desire tga the coe te thoy of Tanoyivana dicted he Ronan goverment foc pol iy during tne war The Romanian govermestinally aye see, hrever befor actually ed te ntente powers Te decison 0 teain ital sete actly strengthened he Romanian goverment ‘SSimoriaryivanis. athe Ener powers treame desperate for aie inne war they coared the Rosana, and th the Romanian go trament wae able oscar the promise of ranylvania—beore ver “rte the was Upon entering te wn he Romanian lary ban “Soutien tothe wer eft invading Tanyas The tery came {ign was such dane tot Romanin we vere ond congue THe ‘ay ene oobi Tanayvani iad nes othe emporary inet Wacis ad al of Moidaia Neverthlesn when the Conral Power at egal ew he Roman ay iia anther amps at scene in captring Walaa an he let portions Sinaia The Rosia ay then invaded anayvanin ogi ht fine king conta With he no te First Word War and te Paris Peace Conference of 1913, the dese of any Romanians to ite te core tennis of ‘alah Molin an aspvanis ins ingle Romanian eats elcome tion ae Pig 52) However he tne of rete ‘Rormin hd crue at, any minis were poset win Gretr Karan, ad the Aled powers waned fo pnt Minories ‘ty othe Furs Pence Conference tat ensure pte o a eh Ininorites fernperely 192, 113-49, 44-60) The Minorities Treaty ‘ree a sue ht evoke pasionat aoa eigen Remo en he Romanos 1 ‘hose related to the ase of boundary delineation. Efors ofa nation to {ain or maintain contol of given terior often ae undermined bythe [imposition ofa ueaty that init a nation’s sovereignty over a terstory [Because the Minot Teaty drafted tthe Pais Pence Conference pre ‘vented the Romanian government from assiiating oe persecuting etc bic minorities, the Romanian government was unable to develop snd pursue polices that would make the territory ofthe Romanian sate a tinclly pure Romanian land, The hostile vscton of Romanian diplo- ‘ats tothe Minorities Treaty atthe Paris Peace Conference le to grt {ficulties in establishing peace in Esrope. Ton Brana prime ministe ‘of Romania, was so outraged atthe Minories Treaty that he cesigned fiom the government in protest, leaving ao one inthe Romanian gov" ‘rament with whom the Western Allis could negotiate x peace treaty (emperey 1923, 4 230-26). Eventually « new government formed and realized thatit hd no choice but to accep the Minories Testy "A Greater Romanlan national state with many ethnic minorities was only ene problem. The new Greater Romania alo faced my problens ‘vith its neighboring nation-states. Spectically, every countey bordering Romania lost trstory to Greater Romania. Romania therfore, found ‘self surrounded by govemments seeking to ety national boundaries, particularly the Hingarin government which wasted Teensyivena fo beretured. Consequealy in oder to hold on tothe newly acquired cone terior of Transylvania, the Remanian government became prevceupied ‘wth bring international recognition of Roman's tetra neg Most noteworthy was the forging of numerous aliance systems to pro- ‘ect the county's borders (Macatiney 1962, 252-54), The most aoable ofthese was the Litt Entente,anallance of Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia All hee ofthese courtries had obtained feritoie fom "Hungary. Thus, with potential mul enemy the Lite Ente ensured ‘he military cooperation ofa thre states in the event hat he Hungarian, itary atempted to reclaim any of Hungary’ lost territories, which {ncluded Transylvania (Temperley 1921 4519), "The isue of Transylvania once again determined the actions ofthe Romanian government in the Second World War After Hitler awarded northern Transylvania to Hungary in the Second Viena Award in 1940 (Gee Bigures 47 and 53), many Romanian leader ll into distvor for not Raving prevented the oss thelr poley of neutrality early fled in pre serving Romania's testo inte. The Romanian pli 00m sup potted landers who believe that the lot teritoie col be rgalned by Collaborating vith Hiller Romanian troops sided Hitler's war efor for {number of years in the hope that Hitler would return northern Transylvania fo Romania. In tum for Romanian cooperation, Hil ‘fre the Romanian goverment the opportunity to annex he Taree158 Chapter Fie ‘egion inthe Ukraine (which was larger and more agrculturaly pro- ‘Guctive than Transylvania) bu the Romanian goveenment declined the ‘offer in fer that Filer would decide that Transnistria was ust compen Satin forthe loss af northern Transylvania (Hitchins 196,473), Despite the Romanian contsibtion to Hitlers war efor and the Romanian devine lng of Transnistea, Hitler never returned northern Transylvani to Romsala When the Au began to crumble, the Romanian government found ‘selina dificalt situation. The Romanian government kev thats s2- able contsbation fo Fillers war effort would not it well with the Soviet szovernment. Not only asthe core teratory of northern Transylvania Indanger of permanent loss, 3 were the core teritores of Walachia ‘Moldavia, and what it till hed of Transylvania~the southern portion. Attempts were made to negotate a surrender with the Wester Allies in the hopes of precluding s Soviet invasion of Romani, but to no aval [eva futher attempt to appease the Allies, King Michael dismissed ‘Romania ulea-coservatve leader Antonescu--fom the government fon August 28, 1984, and setup a government that included a numberof fects Jlavich 1983, 2 258), The nextday, with Aid insistence, the Romanian goverment declared War on Geemany and began if contt- butlon tothe Allied war effort by inating dive to push German oops ‘tof Moldavia Walachia, and al of Transylvania. Nevertheless, thin week, the Red Army occupied Bucharest; on September 12, the [Romanian and Soviet goverment signed an armistice The core teerlo- es of Walacha, Moldavia, ane Transylvania were then in the hands of ‘the Soviets Inthe hopes of gaining the favor ofthe Soviets, the Romaruan lrmy alded the Rea. Army in military operations in Hengary and (Coschoslovaka- In 1947, following the postwar peace negotiations, the Allies signed the final pace weaty with the Romanian government the treaty allowed the Romanion reannexation of northern Transylvania, However, Romania was soon to the Soviet geopolitical sphere nd the Romanian nation forced osc against ts wll and Woltetssense ‘fnational identity "The Soviets acted in two ways that violated Romanian sense of rational ‘deny and sense of trtory regard tothe of Traneyivania and to language and history: On the fn sue, Stalin sought alleviate tensions betwoen Romanians and Hungarians by insisting that the Romanian government eatablish an autonomous region for the Hhungarians in Transylvania; a Magyar Autonomous Region was etab- lished in 1952 (Ludanyi 1983, 254) (see Figure 57), Because Romanians believed that Tansylvania was @ Romanian teritory and of course becouse Transylvania was a core territory to Romanian national iden ty, the Romanian nation was offended by the act. Nationalist ideology | | | | Romi ond he Romaine 19 spicelooet iru wy ern spit tecoraernerecenser Ceara erasers epee eet aa ater fear scimeeysaarnnceaie te pone cerminaeaeiete ietheace neem ieee coenarne ieee mactceeareaneraree came ee cereeiancaantie hence Seer aateaman nee oe Seater elemento en dinero See cameron greece cmeeoeenenees iiiepemmnieemamnreneama meee peepee Spiga cearheasia See eee Sat rere stir mae reagent wo ne eee eae See eee eae eeot ae tetra ere ‘well (Schipfin 1974, 84), However, despite such emphasis, the Romanians penkre meme omnneaie neem seers Raericienkementiane eifineuainan ncaa eta eer opr ceinnetesin poe eee erie eri tn se ies onie har aitear iti ienn tienen cerns sregciral me mimenemankan Sites eaeeeeneene eS oe ee crmee Eimear dsb nara See eee ian mamtamnntsnneaeanse Soccimamonmrmetiias orange160 Chapter Fee Hungarians Under Romanian Rule: ‘igure 57 Hngains Under Romanian Rue 192-1968, “The Soviet attempt to alter Romanian national entity had very lim- ited resuls: Many Romanians from Walachia and Moldavia had placed ‘feiler emphasis onthe Dacian factor in the Daco-Roman equation long, Defore Soviet domination. Primarily the Romanians living under ‘lapsburg ale, educated inthe West, had placed so much emphasis on the Roman pat ofthe equation, The attempt to highlight Russian con- tributions in Romanian history di litle to create a sense of cultural alfnity with the Russians among Romanians. If anything, under ‘Gheorghi-De and even more so under Nicolae Ceausescu, Romanian ‘nationalism continued to row during the period of Soviet domination, Romo and he Raman 18 and the Romanian government grew more dfint of Soviet authority. In 1965, not only waste letter deadopte in place othe eter o replaced 1150 thatthe term Romande was reintroduced (Deetant 1991, 7, Grabars 1982, 2). ‘Inthe post Soviet ea of political istabiity an economic uncertainty, ‘many Romanians are expressing intense feelings of national. The growing stengeh of such ulte-nationalist polis! paris os Untunsa ‘ata Romdnsea (Romanian Hearts Ura) (Gallagher 1982) is indicative of such feoings Cansequenty many stnc minaries are being blames {or the county's economic and socal pesblems in tema of erty, ‘Romanian nationalists and ultra-nationalists see ethnic minorities 38 urovaned infestations tat threaten the intimate bond thatthe Romanian ‘ation has wit ts cove teritoies of Walachia, Moldavia, and Tnsylvaria “The Semi-Core: Site Identification and Landscape Description ‘The semi-core territories of Romanian sense of national teitory consist of eral are northern Doboges, the cena an ester Bane, Marae, ‘eastem Crigan, northern Bucovia, and Besarabia, While these regions ‘ontin fewer places of great importance dan the coe terre theses cove territories, nonetheless, are very important to Romanian national ‘entity. Sigutcan aspect of Romanian national entity are shaped by the smicore and many Romanians havea strong emotional bond the ‘sorticoeferitories. The semicore territories, however, ae hited by many peoples who do not consider thomsaves Romanians. Consequenty the issue of contol over the sei-coe leritores has resulted much «conflict between Romanians and these other peoples or between the Romanian government and other government, The efforts of many Romanians to gain or maintain contol ofthe sei-cre teltoves ae 8 many ways testament to just how important these teriories are f0 ‘Romanian national identity (One of the most important aspects of contra and noehern Debrogea is that the Romans bulla column Dabroges to commemorate thet vie- tory over a Dacian coalition of forces in AD. 1-102. In fac, Dobrogen as the fest Dacian territory conquered by the Romans, The column, Known asthe opueun Trains, resembles the Cours of Trajan in Rome tnd is now situated in the small town of Adami Rdulesc 197, 3; Treptow 199533. Ths column ike the replica in Bucharest, serves ae phys iki the Reman past ani te Ds Reno ‘f Romanian national identity. ‘Dobrogea’s location is another reason forthe regions importance. Situated in the lower Danube valley between the Danube ad the Black Sea, many ofthe ales of Dobrogea became important enters forthe12 Import an export of Romanian goods In 185, large bridge was opened at Cemavoui at grst expense in order to facilitate the flaw of goods 0 land from the port in Constanja (Seten-Watson 1963, 381). Many of, Droge’ trading enters and the fortresses that protected them, have ‘bean important since eary times, For example, Constan, Mangala, nd istra® were the three Greco Roman cits of Tomi, Calas, an Cetaten Hist, All thee cies have museums that celebrate thelr heritage and also emphasize the early and long-standing connection that Romanians have hae with Dobogen The forrenses at Cha an Enis payet end ingroes in the struggle against the tomas Babadag was orginally an ‘Ottoman fortress, buts possession became necessary for contol of the region. The Romanian conection to Dobrogea is also emphasized because ‘vabous Walachian leaders, such as Mirea the Old and Basra, contol ‘uch of Dobrogea and considered itt be part ofthe Walachian state (Gorse 1981, 125-25). In recent decades, many besch resorts have been tstablished in Dobrogea along the Black Sea coast. The belief that DDobrogea is tly 2 Romanian land hasbeen enforced by giving these Romo en he Romaine 16 places Roman names such x Neptane-Olimp, Jupiter, Venus-Auror, and Serum “The Banat, ester Cigna, andl Marine are important because they fall within the Te, Danube, Nista watershed basin par ofthe broader territory that is considered to be innately and organically Romanian {Stoiescu 1985, 9-13) These teritories wer alo ert ofthe Dacian tte ‘nd the Roman province of Dacia. The Banst was the most important of these territories because served asthe physical link or bridge between Daca and the rest ofthe Roman Empire. Diera onthe Danube was one ofthe eight Roman caonia in the Dacian province. When the Romaa Province of Dacia was divided into different administrative districts, pure 9 Sant Easters Crea and Maramures168 hare Fee Poroissum (now Moigad) in easter Crigana, served as the Roman cap- ital of Dacia Porlsseis(Giuesca 1981 61. All f these places serve as physical proof ofthe Roman component of Romanian nalonal dent. ‘Thenstoricalsgniesnce of Maramure stems mostly from the Middle ‘Ages, ragopand Bogan, the founders of Moldavia, iially came fom “Maramures (Giurescu 1981, 119). These to places, therefore, shov the close connection between Naramure and Noldavi. ‘The Banat and eastern Crigana have played important roles for Romanian national identity in raent ties aswell. Bing in the lpsburg npr, the Banat and easter Cigna played rol silat Traneyvania inthe intelectual an cultural development of modern Romanian rational dent Citas suchas Arad, Carancebes, Oradea, and Thmigoara were fmportant educational an religious enters inthe ninelenth century, many of them had printing presses ae well Much ofthe Banat, eastern Cina, ant Maramures is more Hungarian than Romanian. To demon- state the Romanian character ofthese eos, museums have been con Steucted and fle festivals organized. For example Sight the major ow, of Maramures hasan ethnographic museum (Mines 1973, 1). ‘Much inthe same way that Bucovina was a integral part of Moldavia, sorthem Bucovina wa an integral par of Bucovina un twas severed from Romania in 1940 and again in 1945. A Tew noteworthy places in ‘Northern Bucovina gure 510 Northam Buona Romo the Romane 168 the terttory are important to the Romanian nation For example, while Cera (now Cherri, Ukeang) was the capita of Austen Bucovia, “ansmber of important nsitstons were founded inthe owns ane. Sy in 1875, a Metropotta Seo, Orthodox schools ana seminary (Seton Watson 1963, $56) [nother words, Cen as a caltural enter Ut contributed tothe shaping of modem Romanian national identity Northen Bucovin also contain Casman Forest (Codi Cosmin), he place of gent mlltaryvitry where Stephen the Gres ended the Polish threat to Moldavia when he defeated the Polish army (Castllan 198, 235, ‘Besarabia Ukewise had been an integral par of Moldavia uni it was snnexed by the Russian Empse i 512. Chin also Kishi) was, and in many ways sil isthe only significant city of Besarabia. Chigingu played fleas cultural center wit is Romanian schools and printing rete The town sal associated with one of Romania’s gest leads, Stephen the Great statue of him soot in the city center (Popovic 1983, 45-4) before Soviet authorities had it removed. Besarabia also has many ‘of Romania's grest fortes and ttle tes that te to a plerous past. ‘Along the Nitra River ae the fortresses of Hin noe Khotyn, Ukene) Soroca (Clark 1927, 4,84, Tighina, and Cetatea Aba (also known as “Akerman, now Bilhoeod-Dristovs'cy, Ukzaine) on a tbutary of the Nistra but in the same in of defense, s Ort, The battle sites of Lip land Cidibuga mark two great Romanian victories over fo ofthe peo- ples that menaced Europe Lipa was fought against the Tartar in 1469 {Casta 1955, 41), and Cilabga was fought against the Osomans in 1485 Seton- Watson 1963, 46); both vietories were led by Stephen the Grea, now aero to the Romanian nation. The Semi-Core: The Tense ‘Although most Romanians have been primarily concerned withthe cre ternitores nthe nineteenth and twentieth centres, semicore errs have nat been ignored. Indeed, events have made it possible forthe Romanian government to annex semi-coe trtores at various times. However ome semicore erties were lat with some till not part of the modern Romanian sat. ‘Ofthe sem-ore terres, Bsarabla figures st nthe stuggle to re ate 2 Romanian nation sate. Theteriory was created when the Ruslan [government carved i ou of Moldavia in 1812 niall an integral part ‘OF the core territory of Maldavi, Besarabia was very important to the Romanian nation, However, witha few exceptions he territory that ‘became Besaabia had fw places of significance even though twas not thought af sa tetory separate from Moldavia, Consequrt although Factorigre tt Besmbia, ‘he Romanian nation—stil in its infancy—was outraged by the Russian annotation of Besaabla, twas unable to prevent it Indeed, no Romanian state exoted a9 yet, meaning that the core tersitories of Walachl, ‘Moldavia, and Transyvaria hi not been fred, Thas no Romanian was ina position to stop the Russians Nevertheless, when the Ruslan atm lost the Crimean War o the Otomas in 1856, Romanian leaders were able to convince the Great Powers to return the thee soutien districts ‘of Besnrbia to Moldavia, even though Moldavia was ails principality Within the Ottoman Empire. The Romanians, however, were outraged fonce agtn when the Russian government was allowed to retake these {hoe sbutheen districts in the Testy of Berlin (1878, following the vie ‘ory ofthe Ruslan army in the Russo-Tarkish War of 1877-78 Te pees, Romani te Rois 1 fom the Romanian government was so strong thatthe Russian gover ‘ment decided that # was prudent o offer the Romanians the semi Repulic—in the south (King 1993, 283). Because Rassias and other Slavs reside in the Transnistria stat, not to mention ‘other seas of Moldova, and becasse many Russians in Russia til value their former tritris ofthe Soviet Union, the former Soviet 1h any has stayed in Moldavs to support the movement (King 1984-85, 114-15). So, despite the desire of many Romanians to reacquize as much of Begarablaas possible, thee fear of the Russian army has made them te ‘ous and until to apie itary confi. “The unfction of Romana and Moldova has encountered another prob Jem even though the government of Madavs dropped the words Soviet Soi rom the teritory’s name (making the offical name Republic {8 Moioce) in 1991 and then declared independence. Despite the early ‘wave of Romanian nationalism in Moldova, many Moldovans, although Culturally akin #0 Romanians, ate nov expressing the belief that “Moldevans are a separate nation from the Romanians, and thus Want 19 preserve the independence of Moldova as @natiogstate (Haun 1998, {172-73 1t appears that Soviet denationalization policies, na o mention Russfication policies in the nineteenth century, have caused the ‘Moldovans to reject a broader Romanian identity and 10 se themselves ssa ation unto themselves Certainly Romanian naonalss in Romania believe tat tis is what has happened (King 1994-95, 118). Notewarthy, _many Romanians have lor interest in annexing Moldova aswell Hamun 199817), perhaps indicating that Soviet policies have had their effect on Romanian national identity as well Nevertheless, Romanian national doit eo Besarabia as shown by all Romanian politcal par tes regardless of ideology, having to speak of reannening the lst eer- Romani nd he Ramanins 169 tories of 1940—Besaabia and northern Bucovins—i they wa any sup: port fom the Romanian pubic (King 1984-55). Ati time the annex fon of northern Bucovina, the Republic of Moldova, and the sothers districts of Besaraba eanaot be brought sbout by the politica process. ‘The Ulsainian goverment has made tcl that will ao give up north ern Bucovina ofthe southern dist of Besarabia and the government fof Moldova isnot showing any intrest in nication the presence of the former Soviet Ith army is also a hindrance Milly action seems to be ‘he ony alternative currently, butts unwise boas eome of te oppo" nents ate mach stronger than the Romanian som, not to mention the International sanctions that Would come about. Moreover fled il lary campaign could threaten the mote important cove territories of Romanian national identity, The atte an actions that Romanian lea ‘ers have recently taken in regard to northein Bucovina and Besa damontzate that these ertories are tl iportant o Romanian rational ‘entity: However, the lack of willingness onthe part of the Romanian ration to forcefully asserts contol iso demonstrates that hes eto les curcently rank as only semcore erator, ver if hey cold have previously been regarded as coe tectores, “The Periphery: Site Identification and Landscape Description ‘The periphery of Romanian sense of territory consists of southern Dobrogea, Transnlsea, western Crgena, and various sites within the Balkan peninsula, particularly northern Bulgeria and Macedonia, [Romanian identity is only marginally derived from the periphery, and rarely has the Romanian government made great and dati atesnpts 0 {gain conto of peeipheralertories, Yet the peripheral territories under. ‘Store the greatness of the Romanian aation By illustrating how invoived the Romanians have been in great events and how they have shapes the ‘course of intemational istoy. The expansive aeas ofthe perpral te "tories also reinfore the claims that Romanians have to hei cove and ‘acre teritris the peripheral esitores how tat Romanian cae to core and sami-oretntoie are not unreasonable because they have the ight to claim many more teritories If they dese. “The delimitation of Dobrogea hasbeen problematic. Romanian tetl- tory hasbeen defined la tam of natural physiographic fetuses r= ‘ory that alls within the Tg (Tisza), Danube, an Nitra Dnest Rivers Dobroges of course falls Outside of such ateritorial conception (see igure 53). Nevertheless, Dobroge is inion to the Romanian nation’s sense of terstory forthe role that it has played in history and for the ‘iements in its landscape that support Romanian sense of national ien- tiyeAsa result itis seen by many Romanians as Romanian etoey. Aspune 512 The Psp Rom he Remains m te other Romanian terrors ae dein physlogrphicaly, Dobrogea Js kewise define. Debmpe bounded bythe Dene River onthe wet fan north and bythe Black Sao the eit. owever no poppe feature define Dobogescoutern bode Dobopen, pric seal ern Dobroges is impertat to he Romanian nation’s vente of fetory because serves ann fer against any Bulgarian mnitaryitatves lve at Romania's core tess In any yee Roman nation feos threatened by the Bulgarian ration care any Bulgaria covet Dabroge (Dobra). Indeed,Dabroen fal fina the dominant Balgarian nation's sens of tecntory (Markoff 918) Within southern ‘Dobrogesthemast important pace the Ramat nation the rss town of Sse, hich historical spayed ey sei lente region. As result many Romanian lars have seen the ot Sista a cuca to the defense of Walachs and Uw vest of Dobroge ust south ofthe Danbe in northern Bugera ae a ute of btle ste that sere aa testament to Romanian lo Although the Balle of ‘Nicopoe in 1386 wa a dteat or the Chinon fore of Europe Mien the Old and his troops tok pat in this wellknown historical event (Givresas 981,134 lnc of Hunedon's hee acdon in aay eat historic bates also bolsters the prestige of Romanian nalonal deny. Hunedoara defeated the Otomaneotsde Belgrade in 1411 and out Side Nigin 145, He survived te jor Christan defeat al the Bate af ‘ama it 14, and even survived the Bete of Kosovo la 14, hich he ganized hse He was vitro again at Keenan 153 Hoos famounvitory wos the defense of Belgrade in 1156 victory Hat secre igh probe at the ne (Seto Watson 1633629, te recent tines the Bates ofthe Russ Turks War of 1877-78 standout Inthe ery days of the ws, the Romaran mitry lid siege tothe “Tussh rongol in Vilna Bomar Te moet glorious nent forthe Romanians came a the Bt of Plevna n 077 The Rssian ey ad become bogged down and found seit ina prious station Alte the Russian ca offered comma o Pine Chae the Romanian ey Vento the eseueaf the Reins A ret ascriie made out Plevna Geavi tumed the war into wary or the Rss Epic, The ere Struggle ofthe Reman in he bats aon Plevna hare ban ns lala ns number of prinngs (ering! 1976 beeen pages 96 and 9; “Teeptow 1996, 328) "tic group inthe Balkans which are elated to the Romanians also pay aroletn the Romanian natin’ sense of tetoy They ae generally now as Vic laa Kutao-Vlchs or Aron) but subgroue et Known a Isto. Megleno, and Macedo-Romanians (ee Figure 513) They are offshoots ofthe same Thraollyrian sail branch a the omanins who themselves are clasfe Se Daco Romanian inthem cape Fine “Thraco-lyrian racial brs, The ides that modern Romanians ace the dlecondents of « mixture of Dacian (who are lysian) and Romans isa highly controversial mater. That other ethnic groups have similar ori- fins supports the Romanian claim to Daco-Reman identity. All three {groups of Kutzo-Vlachs have such origins even though the Macedo- ‘Vachs ae the only group tha till ests, although in small numbers, “The Kutzo-Viachs also give the Romanians the ability to look beyond, their immediate terstory and even claim tobe the protectors ofa people swith a broader sense of identity ‘Western Crane, which lies between the cuerent Romanian border and ‘tive River is important because i falls within the boundaries ofthe Tiga {Mises}, Danube, sn Nistra (Dneste) Rivers. The region was also within, the Dacian sate andthe province of Roman Dacia. Nevertheless, other than some ancient archslogical sites, the region lacks places of specific importance “Pansnistva, the territory that lies between the Nistea (Dnestr) and Souther Bug Rivers has had some importance to Romanian sense of ter ritory. The region conceptually falls within the radial watershed that ‘rnrates from the Carpaians. Other than having a simula physical env foment to Besarabia, the only important place within Transnistria is ‘Otcas. While Odesstsbviousy is pat innately Romanian it has served, ‘san important city in northeestern Romania. Interaction was facilitated bya mar road, then eal line that an from lat through Chigings and cmt Odessa. “The Periphery: Tenacity Factor Attempts to anexcouthem Dabrogea came wit the Balkan wars in 1912, {nd 193. With the outbreak ofthe Fit Baan War in 1912, the Romanian ‘my did not engage in lay opertions; however, the Romanian gov ‘nent insisted thatthe Balgaeian government cede a narrow stip of lund slong the border in Dobrogea, eluding the important frtess city fof Sista (Bachman 1991, 1) When the Bulgarian government refused, Romanian demands, the Romanian government threatened military ‘ion After Bris arbitration, Romania recstved Silt but ite ofthe ‘ther teretory thatthe government demanded. When the Second Balkan ‘War broke out in 1913, the Romanian government joined the Serbian and Greek war effort agains the Bulgarian government. With the Bulgarian Alefeat the Romanian government annexed southern Dobroges (Giurescu {861,983} Southern Dobrogea was lost Bulgaria in the Fist and Second ‘World Wars. The Soviet goverment allowed the Bulgarian government to maintain control of the territory after the Second World War. Few Romanians have expressed the desire to obtain southern Dobroges again.14 Chapter Fee Romanian involvement with the Kutzo-Vlachs was mos intonse a the cru of the nstenthcentary through the beginning ofthe twentieth cen- tury Ate same me thal Sabian, Bulgarian, and Grek nationalist were {eying to inclcate the people of Macedonia with thet national dente, so were Romanian nationalists, Romanian schoo was opened in Timova in T864 and lner larger school opened in Bitola (Monastir). BY 1905, [Romanian diplomats weze able to ebavince the saltan to gran the Vachs thelr own mil separating them from te Crock patriarchate Seton- Watson 1963, 389-88). By 1910, a commercial college, girls’ normal, school three gyn, ane 120 primary schools were functioning (lark 12,42) Although the Romania government spent large sums of movey fn the Kutao-Vlachs ienever advanced a terstrial dim to any of thet lands The Romanian government cid, however, use the Kutzo-Vlschs 0 ‘dance tetra aime agnins the Bulgarians in Dobrogea during and between the Balkan Wars (elavict and Jeavic 1977210). "The Romanian goveraient saw its opportunity to gain the entice Cigna tpt the Tea River inthe Feat Wored Wat With an itl stance ‘of neutrality both the Entente and Central Powers were forced to make Promises of ertral awards for Romanian cooperation. The Halan gov- ‘anment accepted intents promises of terltry Inthe Treaty of London in 1915, The Entete powers seere willing to ofer Romanian leaders ‘Transylvania, Maramures, mach of Crisan, and most ofthe Banat in the same treaty lower, with the war going badly for te Enente pow ts, Romania leaders were sue tha they could secure the promise af the tte terior upto the Tisza River in exchange for Romanian si which come to be derperately needed. Although the war went badly for the TEntente in he early year, the Russian arty broke through the Austen lines in Galicia by the middle of 1916. When it seemed that the Austo- Hungarian Empire might collapse, Romanian leaders feared that thelr neutrality would prevent even the annexation of Tanaylvania. In a ‘moment ofhase, the Romanian goverment accepted the Enter promise ‘ofthe entie Bana bat not western Crise. Romanian lenders cccepted the offer for a nes border tha was to run northeast from Szeged, paral- lolng the current Hungaran-Romanian boundary ‘Aer the war, the Romanian army advanced past the armistice Lines despite the abjctions ofthe Westem Powers. Later, he Romanian gov~ femment refused to accept the modified border (whichis essontlly the turrent boundary) agreed wpon by the Western Powers. When the "lungacan Red army tied Yo rcaim some of Hungary’ tecitory in 191, ‘the Romanian amy used the Hungarian action as an excuse to advance ll the way tothe Tisza and then onto Budapest, breaking off commu ‘cations withthe Western Posters in the proces. When the leader of the Romanian government, Britanu, refused to respond to demands of the Romo od he Ramarins vs este Powers to withdraw an envy wes dipetthed to Bucharest ‘When the ervey rive tan signed from the goverment Protest of Viet Power ers making even mae othe Wester Powers to hold anyone eeponsbl forthe ation f the Romanian sry in Hangar By 1920 new government weed mala da act ld demand wa the rain amy tothe new benny ln No eaten he eek ‘nade since hn fo rer wes Cra. fevetes “he only atempe made sain tae Tansitria was during the secon Wor Wat he Romain overrides Germany Intent Romanian orton othe sr fe ie simply fered the Romanian government Tanai The ene of Roman Amtonesc sept iso and changed he aro thet of len to Antone tavsane 988, 7), Many Romanians {ek bigates to sty Romar’ acqution of ranminta Jelvck 1B, 8 or tape nape wre cstbuted that sowed ch fhe Uaioe a ben hits by Daca acmen 13,4 Dp Sech atonaintions, ey Romaine including many leaders, began ‘sithaeing te spt forthe Romanian wa ors the oman ey cromel ove te Nc fer ant advaned tend Slag {he Ass armen wee dient fhe Set Union cur the ates at of the war the Red Army reocopiedTrasnista No Romans protested the scons ofthe Swit do in een anced Retertory ne the endo the ne Notes 3. nations these thre major eto, the modern Romanian set iso composed of smal tetris known ste Banat Cisne Maney, acovina and Dnboges 2 Ror Oro chores ist came der the juiiction of the Sets i rma Kvn th fan pe ised he Sta et tan province 1737 In 1765 proving ecsme an indepen body ae fea named de Surin Say Orta Ces Qag 9996), Pre 1, the admiistave boundaries of the Othadox Chin in sothearem Bape Ihe nothing todo withthe spall distribution of maton eed modern ‘ston didnot elt ror 0197 3. The ecumenical patch rally recognise the Ronan Ordon Church in 885 (Mago 198,107. “Kawa acl he Grck Cath Chusch ine 274 (Mago 19313). 5. Dnintes were prima found in eanylvann and Bucovinn, terres ‘which ad bully een in he angaron Kingdom, te Asan Epo the [isto Hungarian Erp ver he tsa os {The tenn mio ration ad been employed es eat 281738 bythe Uae ‘top fon noes Milan His 177, cnered tae he ore175 Chapter Fee {ater fhe Tanalvaian School Micu-Clsin, however wat nt nea sone ‘Sera wit the genelog’af the Romanian tation as tore who cme fein. Inston repent pushed fr ner des conorng the concept of ration hich were more ain owt he ence mea oo evil ba Props comping scl clas Hien onic wt he reali belt Earth ation na composed excuvely of the atoracy MictClnns ad {al ides le fm ight or chon of he pone cases nthe pll proce Because most Whlghane were confined to ue pesshnt classe, modern ‘Romaatan lok bck on lean es national er. 7 Gack was oven the language of government, ection, and acience thtoghout mach ofthe Phanarot period (1701-199, the Une when Ottoman “Suthrtes hd Gress un the goveranents fhe principales of Walch ad Moto (Close 17% 18. 1 Fora moze deta study on he word ogi ofthe eaty Romania an- guage soe And Da Nay's The Early Hiatary of the Rumen Laguge (1977 ‘Sohn Compball anges that some Romanian mainaliss Latnized the Romanian language such degree tat wan completely vorced from the Seracalae ngage of Roman (1971, 27) 0 Although Romanians embraced Fecnch culture willingly the inflsence of she een angunge locos fom paces other than France One of he most notable examples coma fom Ruslan claire who occupied Wlschia and ‘Molden tows oe to 112 and agai fom 1609 834, At that ime Ruan ‘thas nto menson Rusa bly and pnt in gene, preferred 0 speak ‘rend not Russi even wth oe another (Close 197, 20-3. Interestingly dese the coogi egunent for sing the Lan alphabet, iid no conn all tbe sounds the Romania language Chea 192,125 ‘esl Klar 1945 p22). Note that Mice didnot uc the term Romania fn dition although the modern Romanian nition sees Michael the Brave as national Feo, Michael {herve preted natonam Helived dig the age a drastic imperialism, tint baled scoring. or example, he dd not berate te Walachlans OF ‘Tanapvan ut isten courte! he Magysr and Saxon maby (etn Watson {bet 6770) In face conquering amy wae compore of largeconingents OF Serbs Albarias Coes snd Magyace (Stone Naan 163,67) 1S ranoyvnisalhough score eon ofthe movera Romanian state, dl ot funeson a eything tht could be Sesebed ara omarian tte ut Wa Incorporated ino the Ronan natin-tat ater the ist Wert Wo “Also noteworthy as the Hapeburgy gan of Bucovina 1774 and the Russian anexation of Basrabia in 1812 Boh teetois were creted when ‘ved oat of Malan Both empites sls eld ont thee terres ut they ‘dntpeated at he sd of te Fiat Wold Wa 15, The Romanian ter Ae oten wo a treatin othe ngs word ‘nsloata however tis incrarate Areal derives rom the Hungaria nye wa cs oreo the erie that Hngary lst o Romar ‘iter the Fist Wed War. ney waste ros slgnfent of these tert {lest Rawevey Maramuscy, sian, ade Banat wer ls fst and there {ovina nthe term Eri Ards Roman and he Remains ” 16, Dees forest and mountain ae closely soit wit ach other n ach of Earope Trajan tegen tought fe ann cow the (ted mourn” “F,Sgnianty he Grn Powers ea the se of he erm Roma. In ah ‘on, mest Europeans corti to tse the term Walken even though aay ‘idicians ad begun to Bink of theives os Roasts over he pssding few decades I a, Otaman authorities ory went uf a oes the etd Wats (ite 193413). "8. The mportance of Darla poignant sated in Kut Tipton soo A ttorg of foment, whare he quotes the Romanian leader Nisae Tals, ‘alsa or Romani’ laos with he Ente Pensa allan provided the opportunity sgn ranuynanin. Ata meeting iv T815 where he {ied whip tp suppor for an Extent aianc, Ties ei, “Roma ce for be whale witout Danslvanis: Hanayvana te cradle te shoo ft role the maple tht prnrved teeing raven not ony the beat of Pit Romana look ata map. Hagylvanis the of split ge pty (199, 373-7) {o" Pragoutsn prevented the omanan gover fe inedisly joi ng the tent powers eve hough Romane valaed Tanaris more {han Beaabi- On the ee ofthe way it was uncertain which sde woul be ‘esas I te Cont Powers tad overt the tet alan with {Bent woul ot have bough Tanayivaia to Ronuna ss) aretha ne {aly indeed, cooperston with the tnt ay have reed ne or oe (Seton fics and Masa However ln allowed ne $emanian governmant tol ji he Canta Per inthe ater pat othe Posen unpeevetble iztory, ringing he opertity to secre [emai such Besos stl nei aod ot prc te post Sys ining Traneyvanis bone alowed omni jm the Entertepow ‘ie ithey were headed down he road tocar 2. Interesting) the ovis had grat ily in pig the Communists cme to per in Romania becauee he Comaninise wee very popula ‘oman de the Communists pesmary bec he Communists ele ‘tot anvaia da ot elong to Romane, 2 In o4e and 1907, Sova, or Saviano he replace of estore ems of fdr an cone poplar the Savi ole me oe ad etre popaore 12. Tor mareinformaton on Hist se Radu rcs an fon Miche’ s book Th yf st C988). 2, The tery ofthe Republic of Moldova ent coterminous with tht of aarti Aferthe war th Soviets ae he boundaries oe he south emperton of sara, however awing the Hoandarie inl aro ‘poland on the enter ide ofthe Ns (Dnt Ret 1 Although spelings closest Romanian were chosen fo thea of places sd teres in tis ook, he choice was made to employ the English Meare In place ofthe Romanian Mido to ctierentate the ett between he Carpathians andthe Prat Rivero the Soviet Rept th lt ofthe Pe ‘Unfortunately sucha choice sehr a hs ioment becnse snakes i178 nate Foe ppene that the change fom Moldavia to Moldora isa move away from ‘Rania maton een nf was an expression of "SIncestingy tino frm of matonl deny et ed fremed and tind nage dace y testo 6 Serbia and the Serbs (On the surface, the Romantic bei that language an religion determine ‘national deny seems to apply tothe South Slavs (eposlavs Slovenes, Croats, Bosnian Muslims, Serbs, and Balgarans. The Stb, for example, difer from the Bulgarians in language, feom the Croats and Bosalan Muslims in religion and frm th Slovenes n both language and religion. The linguistic and religious dflerencs appear tobe so sign ‘ant that hay lay atthe rot ofthe conflict betwen these groups Indeed, ‘eligiousallation sums to be the dividing sue in the recent wat in the former Yugoslavia and the continuing confit “A closer examination of South Slavic identities, however shows that language and cligion di nat determine the South Stave nations lthotgh language and religion can Be wsed today to identify them In fact, the ‘opposite is true: the various South Slavic nations used language an rel- lon to define tel respective national entities and na vce vers, a8 [Romantics believe. What existed throughout the Ballons prior tthe rise ‘of nationalism, and indeed well nt It was a complex set of identities ‘that varied among individuals, especialy from place to place. With the "eof Romantic nationalism inthe at eighteenth century, South Slavs ‘began to redefine themselves as they ted to recatogorize themselves according tothe conceptions of Romantic nationalism, namely according ‘olanguage use and religious afiation Thus, though the Serbian mation Js clay defined today by the combination of the Serblan language and "Eastem Orthodox Chast, ths definiion sa moder construct which Isat not complete! The further back history we go, the more citi. itis to speakof Serbian identity as something distinct and unigue Ir was intimately bound up with, and even inextecable from, other forms of South Slavic identity. Therefore, write and speak of Serbian history ‘ecurtely its offen necessary to vite and speak of itn conjunction with ‘Tore generalized history of South Slavic and Ilya peoples. Its mis ry180 apes lnading to projet the preset back into the past and falsely write a his- toy ofthe Serbian people as it were always separate and dnc Language use a veligious affiliation had not been insignificant to the forms of ienity among the peoples ofthe Balkans hough history, but the new ideology of nationalism meant that they were oe sed ier: ently define entity. For eample, prior to the nse of nationalism, the (Grioman authorities categorized people according to seligous afliaion fn called these groupe lets. The Ottomans for example put al Eastern Onthodox Christan into one group and called it the Miet-Rum, with ‘Rue referring othe Easton Orthodox Christan faith Bring 1985, 26). All Eastern Orthodox Christians were the same to tse Ottomans. The ‘Ouomans made no attempts to distinguish one Orthodox Christan from nother whether they were Ruslan, Bulgavia, Serban, Greek, or othet Ethnicity was irelevant, and mec nationhood had no meaning, ‘Bocause Chstanlty was urlveral religion, Easter Orthodox Christians accepted a common identity for themselves and even saw the warld it terms of » Chrstian/non-Christian dichotomy. Eastern Orthodox. ‘Christians niveesally applied the teen Prevslaon to themselves ara also didnot put great emphasis on their ethnic diferences. Infact, Although ethnic terms existe, ee shold no rest them a though they have te same degree of meaning tat they have today Prior to the se of nationalism, ethale tems such as Ser, Russian, Bulgarian ec, were ‘agoeterms that had mc lee relevance to one's denity than thay do ‘ute. The ony oer frm of dentiy that were a salient as Pray (Gnd the coresponding Katha, Protestant, and Musliman) were place- baed terme of entity: Being from a particular tertory was very rl ‘ant to one’s dent Therefore, the notion of being Bosnian, Dalmatian’ ‘or Slavonian, for example, was something very concrete, more concrete than enc terms In fact boca anguage se varied rom place Place, {dividuals identifi the language that they spoke by the laces that hey wer from Bosnians, Dalmatians, and Slavonian, for eample referred to their respective languages as Bosnian, Dalmatian and Slavonian, not ‘Serbo-Croatian, term not agreed upon untl te end of the nineteenth ‘century and notin common use until well nto the twentieth century (Naylor 1980, 66). ‘ecuse people a the tur ofthe nineteenth century identified them- selves more as Pravslon and esas Sars and Bulgarians, Russians), ‘atonal inialy fase with Prevsi identity. Thus oneat the earliest, forme of nationhood to emerge the Balkans was 2 Prvosiz one. AS a result the eatat demands fora nation-state wore ones that called fr the ‘ification ofall Easter Orthodox Christians int a single independent ‘Sate. Pavol nationond however, eos problematic. revs inha- ted terior fom the Balkans to the northem forests of Rusia. Bers Serbian tS 181 Provesao inhabited many dierent terstrie, many regional varia {ons of Poa ent eased Moroes they ved in ere pl seal tates. Thowe inthe north, forexample, were ogee nthe Roan Empire Mos ofthe oles were inte Otoman Expire, ad ae we Jncatedin the Hapeburg el, The poll onpantanton of teoy ond fs impact on the formato of deny can be overemphated Ts {he call was made to unify al the Presi of the Ototan Expand tocreate an independent nation-state lat would be caved oat of te Ottoman posetsons nt surprisingly, help for such ovetent was soled rom the Prac ofthe Rela Ene Bans 984, 8) “The Pavsion Used Church Slavonic in selgous practice ad thelr Joel languages oir day day teraction Beene ngenge Ws ota base of deni rir tothe nie of Romantic natonali, the Peesion were not arate or concerned shout te ling lationship and ferences in thang we They dealt wt her ings ferences by ienting what they spoke Scoring to whaler gions they lived in However wi the a of Roman atonal, anguage began take on anew meaning As igus sued the languages of southeastern Europe, ty ba tse commonalities in ngage pra ‘ce and began making broader negations of linguage se. The ere Tiron? for example, began to take on geenersigncanee berese ‘efered tall he South Shave langage speskes More signfcant over {he long, however hese anguage catgortation rete othe pl ‘a conta of territory Alough peoples of southeastern Europe were the subject of ouside elms Hapabsrg, Okman, and Rosin npirs—vestiges of many oftheir former pita site il emaned and continued to play some role in the sdmiisrtion of terior, tithough within the empires just mentioned. Tos modern languages few and develope with the politcal oganization of space Evenly $ separate language became ssrolted with each polucl center For ccample, separate and dine Bulgarian language was codified and tulivated asthe modern Bulgarian ste ws founded a subeequeny ie. The Romanian and Grek inguager developed in sina a ‘eras the Romanian and Grek tan topectvely came int being ad {pew We have witnessed tis proces tis cntry with he Macdonian {bnguage’ The same began to Rappon with Dlnadan and sola etl these two tertories were lncorpuated int te polices, Since then the aborbing goverment worked to destoy the tnquenes of ‘eselangunp Corson taengvge to lng ant separate and din eventhough the people who spoke fem once ‘considered them to be so. cana ve ‘As Zag and Belgrade bogan exerting their pot influence in the ete onary Crotan and Sean languages began to ake shape.12 ape Si Bocnuse the South Slavic languages are closaly related, he language das Siations of every Linguist nthe nineteenth century were unique; When. ‘ompated with one another the cssifeation sytem didnot een the ‘ame languages, with many accepted dialects being clasied in difering Tangoages* The lack of consensus concerning what was ngage and ‘wht was adialest had profound impliations when fased with nation tis With every dieing conception of nguiste relationships came a ‘corresponding eascepHon of nationhood. One ofthe more relevant con- ‘eplons of linguistic relationships ne wich had a profound effect on ‘atonal imagination, wae the one created by Vuk Stlanovie Kanadt {0787-1864). Krad simply classified everyone who spoke the Soka ‘ian dialer as Serb (Banae 1964, 80-8), Because come Solawian speak fers were Roman Catholic, Karada labeled them as Roman Catholic ‘Serbs and because some dokavian speakers wore Maslin, Karadit cas- sie them as Muslim Serb. Sigeiicantly, many of these people whom ‘Karad clssified ax Serbs di not consider themselves tobe Serbs The ideas of there being Roman Catholic Serbs and Muslim Serbs clearly ‘uns contrary tothe Int twenteti-centar conception of nationhood in the former Yugoslavia, According tothe definition ofthe last several ‘cates, Eastern Orthodox Christians are Serbs, Roman Cetholics are (Croats, and Miislins are Muslins, no exceptions! ‘Karagic was a Serbian nationalist, bot we should not view him in ret rospect a one of those populany labeled nationalist atributed withthe ‘behavior of concocting every fimsy excuse to claim as much teritory a8, potable, On the contrary when Karadae cassie all tokavian speak: rss Serbs, he wae simply applying the Romanti conception tht natons ‘ste defined by language Rather than teat Karad as an early example (ofan extreme Serbian nationalist, if would be more productive to note that Kanada’ attempt to use stokavian to define Serbian nationhood, demonstrates thet language does not determine nationhood” Furthermore, Kaada’seforts—as well of those of his contemporaries — ‘demonstrate thatthe des of what i was to bea Sesh not to mention & ‘Groat Bulgarian, or Macedonian—Was not clear. The term Serb a8 & ‘vague en term, an the spatial distribution of Serbs was even vague. ‘Despite every failed attempt to eentity nations based on separate and istnet languages those imbued with Romantic nationalisms remained lundaunted in their efforts to equate language with nationhood [Noteworthy were the actives ofthe aforementioned lian movement, ‘which asserted hat al South Slav peoples were one nation (Naylor 1980, 27), The Illyeian movement was instrumental in cresting the Serbo~ ‘Croatian language (Greenberg, 196, 396) and thus in helping to being together the politeal centers of Belgrade and Zagreb. Specially, this movement brought about the “Literary Agreement” (Kian ogo) 2 Sea and he Serbs 13 document signed by South Slavic intellectuals and writers in Vienna in 1850 (Greenburg 196,296; Kati! 1984, 278; Naylor 980, 78-79), Te doe lament presented the begining of conscious and cooperative effort bring about a single unified Serbo-Croatian Language for the perceived nents ofthe South Slavic nation Despite the expression ofthe deste to ‘work gether on this single language, many important decison eger: Sng this new language were not aig down in this agreement. ninety, not even the ter Seo Cretan was sed In face term Sethian id nat come into general acceptance forthe language unt the went: ‘th century (Naylor 1980, 68). The standard forthe new Serbo-Croatian language was based in age degree om the work of Vu Karas, whose Standard was derived from the vernaclar of eastern Herzegovina and western Serbia (Greenberg 1996, 396; Katie 1984, 278). Interestingly the general public, especially those who lived in what was to become Serbia, discounted Karedes an eccentric (Kati 1984, 259). ‘When the government of autonomous Serbia adopted Kara's er ary standard in 1868 (Naylor 198, 8; Kale 1984, 290), everyone within {he Serbian sate was expected to use it. Thus the language practice of individuals was manipulated. Late after the Fst Wold Wer an he cre ation of the first modern Yugosly state, the Yugoslav government Sccepted the literary standard~by now being more commonly referred {os Serbo Croatian—as the oficial and domunant language ofthe new stat. Thusalltzensof the new Yugo sate were expected ot the Innguage: Despite the creation ofa single state witha single government, Belgrade and Zagreb continued to represent fering pola units and curl realms, namely Serbia and Croatia respectively In time, the fow- feument im Zagee declared the independence of Croatia (19). Subsequently both the Croatian and Serbian governments declared the tend of the Serbo-Croatian language (Greenberg 1996, 398). Now that Serbia and Croatia are two independent political states, Serbian and Croatian are now considered by their speakers to be two separate lan- guages. Moreover, efforts are being made to alter the languages 80 that they willbe separate and distinc! languages (Woodward 199), The i= tory of he language an the recent declaration of independent langues demonstrate that language doesnot determine nationhood but nation- hood determines language. ‘Language and religion certainly played their roles in ently, but hee res wore nt unidirectional, defining ones. In veligoa, all Eastern (Grthodox Chvstians, for example, sa themselves as Pravoin regard Jes fet In language, Seth Savs swe themselves as las also single people comprised of many ethnicities Ilanism, however, was Delmar an ileal construct that had lie meaning to the common People the Balkans: Mot people saw themlves as Pratolos but thy184 nape Se also saw themselves in terms ofthe territories they inhabited (8 Bosnian, Dalmatians, Slavonians, Montenegrin, etc). Although many peoples of diferent terores were enc Serbs, they didnot see them Fives as one people, Indeed, Serb 20m Belgrade and the Morava Valley ‘Considered the Serbs ofthe Vojvodina and Stem to be so culturally dif- ferent from theelves that they called Ubem ether retin?” or nema {torch 1976, 14), Elin terms sch 5 Sar or Crot were not neatly So important oan individuals entity two hundred years ago as they fre today, What existed two hundred years ago, and indeed well into the threntith century ia the Balkans, was complex set of overlapping den {es The sens of Romani nationalism, however, had to impact of sln- plying identity The Romantic emphasis on language and religion gave Eirth tothe idea that thove who spoke Serbo-Croatian with an Eastern ‘Gethodon faith were Serbs even though many ofthe people with these ‘altura traits often didnot see themselves as Serbs. Thus even thought the characteristics of Serbian nationliood were simply conceived, the com plex set of ienttes tat individuals actually hed made the identifica- fiom of Seba task that was not nearly so eas. Infact, troughout much ‘ofthe mieteenth century it was not precisely clear who was a Serb and ‘ino ras not In fat, we stil find today Serbian nationalists who are ‘hing that many Crots and Muslims ee realy Ses. This claim stems fRom the Importance of estory as factor in determining Who isa mem boro the Serbian nation Thecause itis not posible to dently Serbe and thee spatial distribution by simply noting the locations of Sesbo-Croatian-spesking Orthodox Chistian it salsa not possible t delineate an appropriate Serbian nationstale by mapping out Serbo-Croatian specking” Orthodox ‘Chstians, Indeed, Because teretory Isa key component of Serbian atonal ident, the terntory that defines Serbian nationhood as to be ‘enti before te spall distrloution of he Seblan nation ean be ides tified, The elationship between people and place i symbiotic not uni Gitecional Therefore, one must sak how certain territories became Conceived of es Serbian, and thus their inhabitants in turn defined a8 Serbs, For ealy Serbian nationalists, the answer was not an easy one. Unlike the Hungarians and many Westen Europeans wo had Kingdoms ‘hat could be redefined as atlon-staes, the Sesbs did not have a kings ‘dyn on the eve of nationals eat could beso redefined. Interesting and ‘ery noteworthy, the erly Serbian nationalist movement defined Serbia in terms of Ota texitoral conceptions. Namely ater two insusrec- tions (1801-13 and 1815-17), the Seebs were able to exert enough author- ity to claim semlautonomy within the Ovoman Paalik of Belgrade (see Figure 1, By 1830, they were abe to agitate for fll autonomy within this Ottoman adminiszaive datriet. A the Serbian nation grew in Sab and the Sr 185 strength it continued to define lselin terms of oman tert con- ceptions. In 1835, Serbian leaders extended the boundaries of thelr Sutonomous state, primarily southward, and annexed six Ottoman ahs" In both cases, Serbian leaders claimed Ottoman administrative Unis not terstoriesinbabited by Serbs even though Serbs etal ved ‘wha these tertores, ‘A blatant contraction existed inthe Serbian nation’s desire fr pol fea independence fom the Oloman Empie vis dvi ts delineation of Serb according to Ottoman tersitoral understandings Ie was not lng, ‘however, before Serbian nationalists began to conceive of Serbia in if- ferent terns. Not long after the Serbs in the Pgalikof Belgrade exerted their ssonomy, Sets fom the Vojvodina and Srem began migrating Info the tertiary: The Vojvodina and Seem were important territories foe the ‘restion of eas relating to Seblan nationalism. They played the same tole that Transylvania fr Romanian rationalism. The Vojeoding and ‘Stem had altedy been the henth forthe iden of eeating 2 Pevasan ratoo-state and i was where Vuk Katadai had completed mich of hit trork. Now it was the source of teachers and bureaucrats forthe new Suan autonomous tate (Petrovich 1976, I LAI-42, 217-2), Tha many Serbian nationalists came from the Vojvodina and Srem is significant becsie particular etal, antionaliai, and geopolitical views were cul LUvated in here teritories Because the Vojvodina and Sem were Inthe "apabung Empire, aamely on is frontier, Hapsburg authorities showed an intense intrest in the cultural and pola developments this ‘tory. As mentioned in Chapter 5 the Hapsburge—ike other imperial Teadere—soughttoexpand ter empires Dut aways hod fc doing, so where the religion differed from that of the mpi the time when ‘church and state were one conquered people would not recognize a ruler ‘fa differing eeligion As also mentioned in Chapter 5 the Hapsburgs found it to their advantage o promote the Unate church to further the ame because the Unint church coined with Easter Orthodox prac ‘es ofthe people yet recognized the authonty ofthe pope in Rome and ‘ofcourse his agente such a the Roman Cathole Hapsbargs In conan ‘on with promoting the Unite sith, te Hapeburgs also found itt their fsdvantage to promote certain ethnic terme as well Ths the Hapsbusgs financed the Uniste church in the northeastern tersitrigs of thet empire trencourage tet subjects an the ones beyond ei boundaries to think fof themselves as Ukrainians and not lesser Rusia the tem lesser Russian,” of course, implied closer connections with the greater -Russians—the opponents ofthe Hapaburgs. As discussed in Chapter 5, the Hapsbusgs also promotes the Uniate church in Tranaylvania and ‘encouraged the Walachiars to think of themsalves as Romanians the term ‘Walacon wos not edt the cltual eal of ny opposing power bow=186 hope Se Teioral owt othe ose |” 4 Sern an Yopoin Staten { i i gure Tent Growth of the Modem Sein and Yogosay States, ever, the term Romanian was preferable because i implied a greater con= ‘ection tothe West thant either the Ottoman or Russian empires. na ‘mls matter, the Hapeburgs promoted the Unite church on the south fasten boundary and most ely encouraged the people t call them selves Serbs, if nt Ilyrians, because the more commonly used term Praosion’ was 00 intimately ed to the Eastern Orthod salen ofthe Russian Empte Serb and Sore 187 ‘Tae Unite church cid not prosper inthe Vojvodina and Seem asi id nother Hapsburg territories. Nevertheless the Hapsburgs were sue> ‘ssf ining and Fiancing other cultural nations that succes faly evened the inhabitants of he Vovadina an Sem to the West. Ther sucess illustrated in the aforementioned term nomacla (meaning German"), which the Serbs ofthe Otoman Empire called the Serbs of the Vojvodina and Sem because they had adopted so many German chase acters. Eventually, she Hapsburg promotion of Serbian nationalism ‘worked against Hapsburg sims when the Hapsburgs ted to extend the boundaries oftheir empire farther to the south in the early par ofthe twentieth century. Nevertheless, up und that point and even to this day, {he Hopeburgs scceeded in fostering fem of Secbian nationalism that ‘vas, and continues tobe cide a Tarksh Integral t0 those ideas that the Hapsbuege helped epaven in the \ojvoina and Srem were ides that defined the tetory of the modern Serbian nation-state As Romantics busily collected and codified folk posiy and msi, dey gesurected store from the past.” The Romantics ff the Vojvodina an Srem iho worked on the folktales of the South Slavs heard story ater story about a great lender bythe name of Stephen Dan, who had crested avast empire in the fourteenth century that stretched from the Danube and Sava Rivers tothe Adriatic ane Aegean Sess (en Figure 62), Dusn’s Empire hd gest symbol meaning besides bing territorally very expansive It was a major power in Europe dur- Ings time and concetbly might have conquered the Byzantine Empire i Dutan had not ed prematurely. The very existence of Dusan's Empire ‘ould be a source of geat national pide and th the potential of plac Ing the Serbian nation on par with the other great natins of Europe. “Thus, much in the same way that he Romanian nation ha defined the terior component of te dentty in terms ofthe Dacian wate and he vray that many other nations Rad dane by zesurecting the memories of tater defunct imperil sates, Serbian nationalists had done forthe Serbian nation. Jas a5 important, by redefining Dugan's Empire asthe appro- rat teitory fr the modem Serbian nation sat," Serbian nationalist Sete also able to identity who was and was nota Ser, and those who ‘Should ewe which tertitoies i they were uniing to adopt the newly ‘defined Serbian characterises i conta to many of the other nations of Central and Eastern Europe win raed hel national eritories an ths identities in ers of i torical func empires, the Serbian choice of Dusan’ Empire was prob lematie, Namely id not incorporate many ofthe trsitoris where people were developing a Serbien national identity, including the ojeodina and Srem, where Remantcs ware busily resureting and cre= sting memories of the past. Moreover, Serban nationalism haa grown in186 hap Si MEDIEVAL BALKAN STATES: ‘igure 62 Medieval Bltan Stas tandem with othe nationalist movements namely the Myrian (later ‘Yugceae) movement Creatian and Balgavian national dents also gaew concurrently an in overlapping fashion. Relate to these forms of en- tity were alse Prvoslev identity and strong senses of teretoral dent- ties such as the Montenegrin, Slavonian, Bosnian, and Delmatian ‘dentites. Serbian sense of ational dent was tangled up in these other focms of identity and was unable to divorce self completly from ther, 199 would not be dificult to argue that many Serbian nationalists cannot ssethe dference between Granter Serban and Yugoslvism. 1could ‘even be argued thatthe recent arin the Balkans sa elt ofthe nt iloment of these identities andthe inability of Serbian nationalists to fee the diference between Greater Serbianist and other forms of South Slavic national, The combination of inividalsoutide the former ‘ernitory of Dusan’ Empire having developed a Serbian national idenity ‘ed the entanglement of Sebian national deny with neighboring forms of identity meant that the tertorilty of Serbian nationhood did not ‘emain confined othe former teritry of Dusan’ Empire Other teio- Fes wore added tot but they were nt simply tritores inhabited by Serbs. nstead other terstorien of the pase were resuzeted (Se Flgures 62 and 67), namely those of Tomislaw’s descendants and of Terko. Notoworthy the tte teritry of Tomisas’s descendants forms the basis of Croatian nationhood and Tress the bass of Bosnian nalonhood.® “Although the medieval states ofthe Balkan framed Serbian national iden ity, the matter of constricting a Serbin nation-state was Farther om plicated by the nationalist” sls speaking in terms of the existing Teeitoriak administrative unite. Ths Serbian nationalists spoke ssl taneously of resurvecting Dusan’s Empire (and the other medieval ‘empits) and uniting Seba, Bosna Herzegovina, Dalmatia, Monteneg, ‘&c-Altough seemingly convoluted such alk was not contradictory the tnifiatlon ofthese later teritores would recrete the medieval tates “The significance of Dusan’ Empie and th otter medieval empires is demonstrated by one figure in pariclar Ih Garasona (1812-1878). ‘Garakanin was somewhat younger than Karadt, but he shared the views of Kara and the other Romantics af the Vso and Seam. Moveover hebecame more direc involved in polite. After Goat maved bak Into the autonomous Serbian sate, he entre the civil service and rose to the level of interior minister (1843-52), then to foreign minister (1852-53), and finally to premier and foreign minister (1860-58) (MacKenzie 1985, 2). Garafanin is most known fr his geopolitical plan [Naderei (?Memorandom” or “Outline”, which he drafted in 1844, Nate calle forthe wifiestion of ll Ses into anew Serbian state, bt to him the Serbian nation state was Dusan’s Empire (Staveianos 1941-42, 52) plus other medieval stats ofthe Balkans thus “all Serbs" ‘were dened asthe Slavs, regardles of religious afilatio, that lived ‘within these teretoies Because the Serbs were among the 8s of the South Sats to assert thir independence and were for some time alo the “stongest litany, Garand oer Sein nationalists bbeved that It was the destiny ofthe Serbs to unite all the South Slav peoples in Ditan' resurrected empire (MacKenzie 1985, 4 Stavriance 1811-12, 52). Serbia's central loeaton made ithe natural “Piedmoat ofa South Slavic union’ (Peuovich 19761: 231-22).190 cape si Although Vuk Karad and Ij Garadain lived in the ninetenthcen- tury end summarized the erly development of Serbian nationalism he ideas that they ae their contemporaries represented continued 0 express thmselves in Serbian national entity tough De went century ane ae present even today For example tear be argued that Yugoslavia failed asa state because too many Serbs saw Yugoslavia asa Greater Serbian state From its inception, Serbian leaders insisted on making ‘Serbian institutions and symbols those of gos." They even insisted thatthe Federal capital be locate in Serbia's eaptal—Bolgrade Even in the recent war, Serbian nationalists fundamentally clalned territories ‘whlch they perceived tobe Serbian, ln some caves, these terior were Inhabited by Serbs, an in other cases they were not. Consequently, the Yugoslav army and Sesbian paramilitary units spent much of thei ime and efforts attacking non Serban-inhabitedtertories "The concenes- ‘Son camps andthe associated acts of genocide stp by Serbian pars military units had nothing to do with claiming Serbian inhabited teritores,On the contrary, they Were designed to emove noe Serbs frm. territories persived tobe Serbian with the intent of replacing the non- Serbs with Serbs A term was coined forthe proces clemising-—a concept intumataly bound up inthe concep of territory, fr eis tertory ‘whic i bela cleansed. Therefore, an understanding of Dusan’s Empire and other medieval Balkan states sa necessary requcement for under: Standing the tertoraity of modern Serbian national entity. Indeed, applying ste identification and landscape description to the medieval States ane the historical events subsequent tothe, but within tel pa tal eam, evens many of the individual places and estes that deine ‘the Serbian nation thus making the mapping process possible. Because ‘numerous places exist, they ae presented in regional groupings fr the Stkeof catty, and even reyouped more broadly int a core, semircore, tnd periphery categorization. Ther importance is revealed bythe sppli- ‘ation of the tenacity factr, presented asthe latter part ofeach of the Droader classifications (Le, that of the core, semiveore and periphery) Because modem Serbian national identity is only about fo hundred yeas old the tenacity factr applied to only Ue las vo centri. Even though peoples fought over terntory through history, identity existed In 2 tterent context prior tothe Inte eighteenth century. Therefore, the Importance of place and terctory was kevise much diferent aswel. It ‘would be inappropriate even anacironistc, to apply the tenacity Factor {o prenalonaliststeuggles a if hey were nationalist ones, even though Romantic nationalists believe that they were “That the tenacity factor cannot be applied much earlier han the ena of {he eighteenth centary does nt mean that events before this time are iel- tevant: On the contrary in site identification and landscape description, se dhe Sb a1 smany places highlighted ae ascocated with figures and events of much ‘atler periods It must alvays be remembered, however, tat places are ietied not forte signtieanceof her ime bt fr their importance © the modern Serbian nation Infact many ofthe places identified became ‘memorialized with monuments shrines and the wack only since the ae ‘of nationalism, some only in the lst ew years eventhough they signify fn event that may have taken place a thousand years ago. Therefore all, places and tritoris are identified in thete current significance, even nigh many represent something mich older Because Serbian rational identity contains within it many Romantic ele ‘ants hsteycannet be disregarded. On theconzay, he Serbian ration Ins developed emosona- psychological bonds toa lng lst of places hat ‘now regards o be historically sgnicant. An understanding of Serbian Instory facials an appreciation of Serban testo Therefore, while ‘the purpose ofthis bob oto retell Serbian try ti, neverthlas, _nczasry to provide an tine of relevant history no mates how crudely ‘eneral2e, inorder to set the tetra component of Serbian rational Identity in its proper conte. Brief Overview of Serbian History “The Rot view of Serbian history hat developed in the ex rne- ‘nth cont oie the Roc st hat were cet for {fe other matt of ast Central rope and the alas Beg wi thes ofagoupfte living cng the Dk Age the he wa dled he cura homeland of the oder nation and event founded great sate Inthe neo the Seb, hanno gated tthe Bika somsine nt si cotery Pooch 197% 13 Brae Tbe, 3b, Afters psd of sping escrito in Serban Dogar tocol tonal ste for hn {lan The pn ote Balkans cashed contnaly wth one sother a. ‘chsougt oenence Now personal powers At tines on wold team ura grand Span bt itr spy andthe wilingress of try pe tosolt aid fom oer nde trghost he Balsa Enrpe prevent sich snr ting ong (child 1% 67-8) Infact allnces that many pons ey feed ith ears of tthe Calta groupe aren any myst ato concept Shaved Ment exsed tat war analago to modern Serban onl iden ‘Oren leger terior stats emerge, ut the lances ht the ‘pan formed th ae laden in Earope completes the mater of {nn the South Slavs nos age terri tite Ot retest conee {Jere formato of meds err sats wash hewe Caper si Savin ofthe Balkans ay between the domain ofthe Western oe Latin ‘Chustan Church of Rome an the Eater or Byzantine Chistian Church ‘of Constantinople, The competition between the Eastern and Western ‘ranches of the Clvstian Church had profound implications forthe deve ‘opment of group identities among the South Slavs becmuse some South ‘Slavs converted to Roman Catholicism and others converted to Eastern Orthodoxy. ‘While the warring between the fans continued for several centuries, «period of medium-sized territorial state-building eventually began Some ofthe ist medium-sized states to emerge inthe proto'Sexbian ates ‘were anes that united the tenitories of Bosnia, Hum (Herzegovina), Zeta (id Montenegro), Bra, and northern Albania. However, the competl- ton between thet branches ofthe Chetan Church directed the com cers ofthe South Slavs in these regions ar the resto he Balkans away ffom one another despite any physiographic, economic, or familia es thatmight have united them. Overtime, the people of Rasa, Zeta, rd, land northern Albania became Sey committe to the Othodax Church, wate thon ofthe Aditi coast and farther nonthovet accepted Roman (Catholics many of those i between, such a the iahabitarts of Bosnia nd Hum, developed a mised faith out of both. "Alera period when medium-sized sates continued to falter as. result, of internal rivalries among leaders, a state was eventually founded that endured for sme tine. In 1168, Stephen Nemanja, the upon of Rak,” ounded the Nemarjid Dynasty, that lasted for over two hundred yeas Ths eine, Stephen Nemanja yas abet extend he control to the west by uniting Zeta and Hum (Herzegovina), an then to the Adriatic coast, ‘the area that suetched from northwest of Ragusa (Dubrovnik) to south ‘ast the Bay of Kotor and to Skadar Shkoder- After Stephen Nemanj’s ‘Seath, hie successors were able to keep the state together and even cone solldate tate power. With the accesion tothe throne of Stephen Duan fn 138, this medieval state ofthe Nemanjids began a period of rapid ‘expansion sn reaches its zenith in 1355. After incorporating tert tes that extn to the Sava ac Danube Rivers in the north andl te ‘tories of Albonia, Macedonia, Epirus, and Thessaly in the southeast, Stephen Duan cated one ofthe largest and most powerful medieval Stats ofthe Balkans (se Figure 62) At the height of his power, Stephen ‘Duan had hself crowned "Emperor and Autocrat of the Serbs and Greeks, the Bulgarians and Albanians” (Chssol 1966, 98). Dusan’ sl ‘esignaton demonstrates tht he save himaelt and his state in mperlal- Intterms not natinalst ones. “The establishment ofa lasting dynasty meant that disparate groups of people could eventually be molded into single people with contin Deseo interaction and the inteodution of laws that applied to all unk form. The Nemanjel Dynasty accepted Orthodox Christan, made i Seri an the Sr 193 sat institution, and suppressed Roman Catholicism and the Bogomil Ihresy within the tnitoy ofthe tate. n 1386, ding Dusan’ igh the archbishop of Peé was raised to patareh (Fine 1987, 309). The patiar- ‘hate of Pe, the predecessor ofthe National Seblan Orthodox Chueh, “ontributed greatly othe molding of group identity which eventually ‘valved into a Serbian atonal ent Becsuse there wat concept of mation 2 els today, however, hare was no nation of creating state testis or nations. With he lack of broad national dentites, leaders created state institutions to develop @ sense of loyalty among the people they ruled (Hartshorne 199, 247-18 "Bocnse lender sav the people of othe states a jut ote people who ‘could be euled by anyone who had the means to doc, nothing ethically prevented leaders fom atacking, conquering o annexing the terrors ‘St neighboring states. Consequently the Mile Ages of Europe were ‘arkad by frequent arlae os dynasties sought to increase thet ower. Nevertheless, a sense of unity often formed among the people wo lived ina territory with stable boundaries (Anderson 1986b; Anderson 1988, 023. Despite the growing unity of he people within Dusan’s Empire, instar ‘lity returned after hi det in. 155 when various leaders within the ‘pice bogan personal sugges for power Ina shor time, regional lead ters began governing independently. The disunity ofthe empire was Troughttoight with great external test. othe southeast, the Ottoman Enmplte wae growing quickly and beginning to sccrete territories 18 [Barope. The princes of Dusan’s Empire banded together to meet the (Ottoman thrst but they Were defeated outside of Adnanople Eaime, “Turkey) athe Bate of Marie (or Cmomen) in 1371, With the continual ‘expansion of the Ottoman Empiz into Europ, leaders of southeastern ‘Baropecontnied to ban tether 6 resist the Otoman amie. With the ‘defeat on Kosovo Polje, "the felt of blackbirds in 1389, however, the remnants of Dusan’s Empire were destroyed” (Banac 1984, 4) “The defeat at Kosovo in 1389 is seen By modern Serbs asa defeat of ‘Serblan forces an the end ofthe grest Serbian empire of Dusen. As Already sated, However, modern national identities as they exist ody Aid not exist at eat time. At the time, leaders and their people rallied ‘under common Chistian dent ors he Isle ath a spread ‘withthe Ortoman Empire. Many ofthe forces at Kosovo Pole 138 were the ancestors of Hungarian, Albanians, Callans and Bulgarians aswell ‘as Sebs Indeed, Dusan proclaimed himself the emperor of Serbs, Gresks, Bulgarians and AMbanians, Although the Battle of Kosovo was realy poli! struggle between Christan leaders of Europe and Telarc lee {of the Middle East, modern Serbs view the Battle of Kosovo Pole as the struggle to preserve Serbian independence in the face of the mena ing Iniamic Turks. In reality, however Sexbian Romantic nationalists fail,1 ape si to recognize that some Serbs fought on these ofthe Ottomans that day ‘Gud 1997, 28 ltr, even more Sezbs fought alongside the Otomans against the Christians forces of Burope atthe Bate of Nicopolis (1356) (amperey 1919, 109, Although Dusin’s Empite came to an end in 198, not all ands ofthe ancestors ofthe Serbs were occupied, Raska and the land t the north, to the Danube and Seva rivers maintained a degre of independence for ‘a edlitional seventy yeas. This principality was ruled fst by Stephen {azarevie (1389-1427) and then by Djorde Brankovi (1427-1456) until the lst stronghold, Sederevo, lie 1489 (Pie 1984, 27). With the excep- on of many highland communities in Montenegro, the teratorles of ‘southeast Europe remained under the contol of the Ottoman Empire Unt the beginning ofthe nineteenth entury. ‘Dring the long period of Ottoman ral, the Nemanjid Dynasty died ‘tand no oer lsdership hierarchy fly emerged. Society became et al composed of peasants and landholders. The only socal, politcal ana ‘conoale intitton that survived and fostered unity among the people ‘asthe patriarchate of Pe Itremained the only institution in this eon ‘ofthe Balhae that could serve asthe depository of memories and the cul ‘Svar ofa unique regional identity forthe groups of South Slavs who ‘were othervice reduced to mere peasantry ‘By the late seventeenth century, the Ottoman Empire had reached its zenith and begun to wane. The waning ofthe empire led to continued “rest among the South lays, As the borders ofthe empire were pushed back tothe southeast, South Slavs found themselves in the midale of 2 zone of conflict. nan afempt to hore up thelr empire, Ottoman author Ines began to extract more resources from the South Slavic lands while Darcy suppressing any form of diesidence Daring the eighteenth century, dhe South Slavs found that more and more Ottoman troops were being garrisoned in theit lands and many ‘South Slavs were subject othe whims of Ottoman soldiers, particularly ‘ofthe special unis known as jens. By the tno he nineteenth ces tury life had become unbearable for many of the South Slavs ofthe ‘Ottoman Empire, particularly for those in the Pagalikof Belgrade. At thessine time, the wave of new nationalist Wdeology was spreading ea, ‘across Bwope with Napoleon's armies, resulting inthe felings of urique- ross among the Balkan peoples. Within a short time a sense of national Consciousness emerged among he Balkan peoples. Soon thenew nations ofthe Balkans would atemp to establish states (ie, nation-states) for themelves "As Otomen oppression grew worse, Ses began banding into ixegs> Jar military bands By the spring of 1808, widespread rebellion had begtn (elavich an flavich 1977, 25). The rebellion, known asthe First Seblan Insurrection, lasted from 1804 unt 1813, when it was finally suppressed Set ond Sr 18 bby Ottoman forces, The main leader ofthis insurrection ag Djrde Petrovit beter known as Karajan a ig dealer from the Samadi region chosen by many of his pears to lead the rebellian. Although the febele had many successes, the insurrection was nally suppressed in 1813. Otoman reprisals athe Impostion of sviet oder didnot foster ‘ong ising peace, By 1615, te Second Insurrection Bega, ld hs ie by Milot Obrenovis a rival of Karadjor. The Second lasumection was ‘marked by quick military encceses and was helped by 2 Ruslan gov- temment tit was na position opresure Otoman authoitis into make {ng concession. Moreover, Obrenvic was eager to negotiate astement ‘The Second Serbian Insurrection ended In 1617 when Obrenovi secured. 4 numberof concessions fom the Ottoman government, marking the ‘ginning of semiautonom. Along with the concessions, Obrenovie ws recognized a “supreme ins and leader of the Serbian people” Jelavich tnd Jelavich 1977, 36-97; Petrovich 1976, 10). The resurrection of the eely nineteenth century witnessed the bith of ane Serbian dyna "ering from the two evouonary leaders, Peto! (Karaja) and Obrenovi. Coupled with new right of governing, the leadership of pong Serban aon wan abet pan preter susreny amore "Fhe pursuit of greater autonomy was facitated by the evolving eae tionships between the Grest Powers in Europe. As the Austrian and Russian empites pushed the Otioman Empine ost of Europe, the Serbs ‘and other Balkans peoples benefited, Russian victories im particular lowed Serbian leaders to obtain more concessions from the Ottoman Enipte In 180, for example, the Sultan recognized the fll autonomy of Serbia, and Milo§ Obrenovié became prince n 1833, Obrenove sa aa ‘opportanty to forcibly add the sx nal (distil) to his autonomous dott Gee Figure 6.1), "The opportunity for independence, hostever didnot come unt the ic tory ofthe Russian Empire inthe Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 The Serbian state would have profited by the Russian governments sttle- ‘ment proposal Known asthe Treaty of San Stefano ut the Great Powers ‘f Cental and Western Europe rejected it.The suosequently proposed land accepted Treaty of Bertin (1878) actually brought even greater bene- fits (Petrovich 1976, 2: 399-401) (2e Figure 63) [naditon to indepen dence, the Serbian sate was allowed to annex a larger tract of tersitory “Montenegro iso grined some terry but nol as much es was ald fe inthe San Stefano Testy ‘iy the early pas ofthe tventeth century, the Ottoman Empire had boone seriously weak Balkan leaders conepired to annex the raining, (Gitoman possessions in Eusope. In 1912, he Montenegrin goverment ‘declared war onthe Ottoman Empire intting the Fist Balkan War As Planned, Serbia, Bulgarian, and Greek armies joined their ally and‘Sebi an the Sr w scrambles to ocupy Ottoman tersitorie. The quick sucess ofthe ist, Balkan War alsrmed the Grest Powers, and they qulckly blocked fur ‘her hostile by imposing the Teaty of London i 193, barely eight months after hoses began. Despite the call for peace the Second Balkan War broke out in 1913 when the Balgarian amy moved to assert ‘he Bulgarian lain tothe Ottoman territory of Macedmia, which the Greek and Serian arses had accupled during the First Balkan Wer and their respective governments efused to relinguish The Bulgarian ores, however were defeated when the Romanian and Ottoman armies came to the ai ofthe Serbian and Greek armies, The resulting Treaty of DDuchares solidi Serbian and Greek contol over Macedonia the same tne, the Serbian and Montenegrin goveraments wee able extend ‘their countries’ boundaries into the Sonjak of Novi Pazar and ceecte a ‘common border (ee Figure 64). "The Serbian tate was ake pyerin the evens that led to the outbreak ofthe First World Wat While Arche Ferdinand, hei to the Hapsburg, ‘hone, was ona Vist a Sarajevo Qelavich 198, 2: 112-18) inthe stumsmer of 191, he was asesinate, The Hapsburg government, lng displeased ‘with the activites of the Serbian government in Bosnis- Herzegovina, ‘Secided to blame de Serban government forthe asassnation although the assacsination was committed by a Bosnian natlonalstOn July 28, 1914 the Austr Hungatian government delivered an ultimatum. The terms were deliberately harsh bu the Serbian government agreed to ‘meet ll the terms but one, which required Hapsburs participation inthe Investigation of the assaeination The fire to meet te lst pe of the tlimatuan gave the Hapsburg government the excuse to declare Wat Oa July 28 "The resources of Serbia were no match against those af the Austro- -Hlungarian Empire and is Bulgarian aly Within six weeks the Serbian ‘rm had to retreat out of Serbia. At dhe binning of Octaber 1918, when the Austia Hungarian Empire began to disintegrate, the Serbian army began liberating Serbia, At the same time, councils of South Slavs from "iapeburg lands began dicussing the politial future oftheir people; the National Counal (Narono wit n Zagreb was the most igiant (Campe 196, 18°10) As these council debated internally, they nagol- ated with representatives fom the Serbian government. In the chace and "emo that ensued in the aftermath ofthe war epresertatives rom thse ‘oun greed to in thei former Hapsbarg tertries with those of the Serbian sate Likewise, National Counc in Podgorica (DBtograa) voted to join Montenegro with Serbia, The new political state was called the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, officially declared on December I, 1918 Petovich 1975, 2680-8). rom its beginning and throughout the 19208 and 1930s, the new RUSSO-TURKISH WAR 1877/78 | = ® Figure 63 Raseo-Tukih Wa of 177-1878198 Chapter six ‘The Balkan Ware: 4912/1913 2) omer anon ase nyt 8 Gd Seeceeregge sneer te a Semen pus 64 The Balkan Ware 12-193, Kingcom ofthe Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes had great internal dificul- tes, The most fundamental confit was between Serbian leaders who ‘were determined to build a Greater Serbin and lecers of other groups, pariculey the Croats, who insisted on preserving high deyeee of auton ‘omy fr thee peoples (Jlavich 1983, 2: 155). Many solutions were tried, bbut none succeded. For example, Alexander Katadjordjevit, who had ‘een constitutional monarch of the kingdom, eid to remedy the situa Sea ond Sr 199 tion in 1929 by abolishing the constitutional zepne and intoducing his [peronal dicatorship, Alexander even renamed the county the Kingdom ‘St Yugoslavia an ret signi the wnity of alt poopie by allowing fnly the Yugosay flag tobe flown (Dragnich 199,69). Both Serbs and ‘on Serbs were displeased with hi polices. Folly Alexander's personal Alctatorship abruptly came fo an end with his assassination in October 1834 Jlavich 1988, 2202), "The allure to overcome the tensions betwen the various national inter ests within Yugoslavia only exacerbated the collapse ofthe sate in the Second World War Hier easily exploited the country’s etic tensions by focusing his alfack on Serbian lands wie supporting an independence ‘movement ofthe Croats. On Apri 6, 1940, German and Ilan forces Invade, and on April 17 an armistice was signed. Yugoslavia was dis- marie (oe Figure 63) asthe countries surrounding I annexed eto Fes that had long been claimed. Montenegro, Serbia Proper, and the ‘emainder ofthe Vojvodina came under direct Axis occupation. A cstn Sibly independent Croatian state, composed primarily of Croatia and Bosnia Herzegovina, emerged on April 10 under he leadership of extreme Croatian nationalist (the Ustass Regie), “As the Naz forces withdrew from Yagoeavi towards the end ofthe war resistance fighters, known as Partisans and led by Josip Broz Tio ‘crear of the Yugoslav Communist Party entered Belgrade and bogan ‘Searing the country af ls opponents. Tha ise of To and the Commas ‘hanged the natare of conser between the Sout Slavs To wa the fist Insider ofa government in Belgrade who vas not med withthe dea of ‘realing a Greater Seibia, He avertad the immediate reemergence of eth ri tensions, and hence the Greater Serbian Yugonay’ struggle, with sev- trl tactics He defined te oar as 9 gent patriotic struggle of Yogev Stzens against foreign enemies and defined politcal struggles 38 ‘Communist versus non-Communist. He focused onthe need to ebuild ‘he country Finally rom apolitical geographical perspective, he reorga- ized Yugoslavia into a federal state with sx republic se Figure 68). ‘Throughout his eg of more than 35 yeas, To was able to prevent the ethnic cltferences rom tearing he Yaposly state apart Over time, ‘however, To foun himaelfin the position of granting eich group more tnd more rights as e tried not eo alow aay ethnic group to dominate “Eventually, this practice only led to ferther divergence within Yugoslav social. To compensate fr growing differences, Tito had to exer more land more personal canta avr the state; however this practice made the slate ever more dependent on Tito’ lenderhip Inthe end, ll ha as Int of Yagoslavia wae Tt, When Tit ded in 1980, the Vagos tate ost mach oft raion dre ‘Despite Tite's power and charg, he was never abl to alter funda- snenialy the base Serbian belief that Serbia was the Piedmont of the200 hap six ‘THE DISMANTLING OF YUGOSLAVIA: 4944-1946 8 Eaten Cr inobeenvenr rare Ss oo owner oneece a pee Figure 65 The Dismantng of Yugoslavia: 191-296, Balkans and Serbs were destined to rule the South Slavs. Therefore, t0 most Serb, particularly Szbian leaders, Yugoslavia and Greater Serbia ‘Were een the same Being the ethnic majority n Yugoslavia and ia ‘contol of many ofthe sat netittions, particularly the military, Serbian leaders successfully implemented policies of domination. Lacking the political power to resist Sebian leaders in the federal government may igure 66 Yogosavin: 1907-90, ‘non Serbian lenders saw itn the est interes of her peoples to move ‘ovard independence "The desie for independence expressed by many of Yugoslavi's national groups was e severe bow to Serbian identity. The prominent ‘Serbian lender Slebadan Milodevie states that any epubles waning inde pendence fad to eave any territories inhabited by Seb othe Yagoslay Fate Saclete 1991}. Despite the det of having the Serblar-dominated Amy attacking their epublic, the governments of Slovenia an Croatia Aeclared thei indepertdencein Jane 191. By September 1951, the gor- ferment in Macedonia declared independence andthe government of Bosnia Herzegovina di the same in 1992. Thowgh fev Serb lived in Slovenia, the Yugoslav army tied to prevent the Siovenians frm exert Ing their independence, The Yugoslav army implemented a number ofom caper six salary operations against Stovena (Mages 1985, 313-11) before easing {allure Military action Was aso taken against Croatia and lasted mich Jonge (Vast 1996, 128-20) In fat, the Yogoslaw army and Serbian pa military units were able to hold onto about a third of Croatia’ tesitory {ora numberof years The Yugoslav arms, however, was notable c= ple the Croatian state In time, the Goatan army built upto sufficient, Strength to drive all Serbian forces out of Croatia. Ia the case of ‘Macedonia, the Sebian-lominated Yugoslav government inially didnot recognize this republic's declaration of independence; however, the Serbiancdominated Yugoslav army did not tr to provent Macedania’s independence ether. Tinrespanse tothe declaration of independence by the government of ‘Bosaia-Hlesaegovins, some Bosnian Serbs formed their vm government for Bosnia-Herzegovina and began an armed rebellion. The etic civer- sity of Bosnia Heraegovina has provides many opportunities for both ‘Bosnian Serbs and other Serbs to exploit and undermine an independent Bosnian state The drive far Bosnian independence has 0 far resulted in ‘the most bloodshed of al the independence movements, With aid from ‘the government in Belgrade, nationalist Bosnian Serbs have been able 10 ‘weak havor in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Af fling to thwart the enieinde- pendence movement of Bosn-Heezepovina, the Serbs of Bosra formed ‘helt own republic within Bosnia, known as the Repl Srp, which ‘primar es inthe nother and easter portions of Bos Herzegovin, Despiteall the inependence movements the former Yagoslava, most ‘Serbs continue to believe ina Yugoslav. However itean be argued that ‘many Serbs stil eannot distinguish between Yugoslavia and Greater ‘Serbia Instead of ving the remaining epublis of Serbia and Monten {ro anew name, the Serbian government in Belgyade has held onto the ‘ame of Yugoslavia and has insisted upon holding on or maintaining ‘everything that once belonged to Yagoslvia, ftom the military hanswaze to-embasses and diplomatic positions inthe international communi ‘The international community, however, did not initially recognize the ‘ight ofthe Serbian government to cisim ll that which was Yugoslav. In ‘April 1892, in an tierpt t etimate tse asthe true el to Yageslavia, the Serbian declared the formation ofthe Federal Republic ‘oF Yugoslavia, which x composed of Montenegro and Seba witht to stutopomous provers Places Significant to Serban National Ider In he aplication of the thre indicators ofa nation’s sense of tesitory, «pie poems and songs figure prominent forthe Serbian nation. Seis ‘serotof national history and identity hs developed and been passed on Serio the Sr a3 ‘om generation to generation by eple poems and songs, more than by ny other medium. The thee lndkators show that Serbian ational den” ‘te to a numberof paces sere the Balkans (oe Figure 67). The _nnge i extensve, but t would be unreasonable to consider al ste to be ‘exclusively Serbian terior. However a strong concentration of places ‘nati the canter ofthe range. This concentration ca be considered 0 bethe core of the Serbian nation’s sen of erstory The cote ince the ‘regions known as Serbia Proper, Montenegro (Cr Gov), the Vojvodina and Stem and Old Serbia (Raska and Kosovo). Inthe semcore ae the regions of Macedonia northern Albania, Bosnia Herzegovina, Dalmatia, the corral areas ofthe Hana, and areas of west Bulga In the periph ‘el zone, the places af least sgnicance, ae southern Bulgaria netheen ‘Groce, ceneal and soatheen Albania, Croatia Slavoni, the Pannonian Pla, and the eastern Dana. ‘With the historical overview of Serbian national history in mind, the «core, semi-