Genesa Iron - World

02005 Society of Eoonomk Geologists. Jnc.
Eronomic CAOloo lOOt" Annra..r..rry VollI ll'Wl

pp. 643-679
Precambrian Iron Formations and Iron Formation-Hosted Iron Ore Deposits
J. M. F. CLOUT'
Fortescue Metals Group Ltd., 50 /Gngs Park Road, West Perth, Western Australia 6872
AND B. M. SIMONSON
Geology Department, Oberlin CoUege, Oberti", Ohio 44074-1052
Abstract
Iron formations are the most important precursors to et.'Onomic iron ore deposits. Iron formations originated
as chemical sediments rich in iron and silica that accumulated almost exclusively on Archean and early Paleo
proteroZOiC sea floors. Most are banded and known as banded iron formations (BIF); they originated as thinly
layered chemical muds. The less common granular iron formations (GIF) are rich in sandsizecl detritus known
as granules and generally crossbedded, indicating deposition in shallower, higher energy environments. Banded
iron formations display a heterogeneous suite of ironrich minerals including oxides, silicates, carbonates, and
sulfides; iron oxide and silicate minerals dominate GIF, although a few are rich in iron carbonates. The acme
of iron sedimentation was reached between -2.65 and 1.85 Ga when large iron formations were deposited
globally due to a unique confluence of (1) a large supply of aqueous iron from oceanic hydrothennal systems,
(2) the appearance of large continental shelves to serve as depositional repoSitOries, and (3) a stratified ocean
capable of connecting the two. Depositional mechanism(s) are still being debated, but evidence for the in-
volvement of microbes is increasing.
Iron formationhosted iron ore deposits account for the majority of current world iron ore production and
consist of three classes: (1) iron-rich primary iron formation with typically 30 to 45 wt percent Fe, (2) martlte-
goethite ore with abundant hydrous iron oxides containing 56 to 63 wi percent Fe, and (3) high-grade hematite
ores with 60 to 68 wt percent Fe. The highgrade hematite ores, which account for the majority of world re-
selVes of high grade iron ore (>31,000 Mt), can be further subdivided into hematite and microplaty hematite
ore types. Individual iron ore deposits range from a few millions of tons to over 2 billion tons at >64 wt per
cent Fe, although most are within the range of 200 to 500 Mt. Many depoSitional features of parent BIF and
GIF, especially microbanding. have been preserved during ore formation for the martite-goethite and high-
grade hematite ores.
There is a general oonsensus that martite-goethite ores from Australia fonned as a result of relatively recent
supergene enrichment of iron formation through replacement of gangue by goethite beneath Cretaceous to
Tertiary weathering profiles. Likewise, a supergene origin is well supported for the soft, highgrade hematite
ores from the Quadrilatero Fenifero in Brazil, but this involved leaching of iron formation gangue and resid
ual concentration of hematite. The origins of both microplaty hematite and Brazilian hard high-grade hematite
depoSits are still controversial ; alternatives proposed vary from supergene to initial supergene with subsequent
burial metamorphism, hypogene, and supergene-modified hypogene-hydrothermal involving warm basinal
brines plus ascending or descending heated meteoric fluids . Although the supergene-modified hypogene-hy-
drothermal has received widespread support, it is unlikely that a Single hypogene model can explain the wide
diversity of deposits around the world.
Introduction
IRON FORMATION-HOSTED iron ore deposits account for the
majority of current world production and >31,000 Mt of high-
grade hematite resources of iron are (Dalstra and Guedes,
2(04). Archean and Proterowic iron formations with 30 to 45
wi percent Fe are still mined in the United States, Canada,
and especially in China, the latter where -100 Mt was mined
as ore in 2004 and beneficiated to a -64 to 67 wi percent Fe
product (]. Clout, unpub. data). ApprOximately 700 Mt of
run-of-mine ore and 200 Mt of magnetite concentrates were
produced worldwide from iron formations in 2002 (Astier,
2003). Iron formations are also the precursor for martite-
goethite and high-grade hematite (56--68 wi % Fe) orebodies.
Given the primacy of iron formations as hosts for large iron
ore deposits, we first describe the sedimentary characteristics
of iron formations and genetic models proposed to explain
them. Variability in the characteristics of unenriched iron
t Corresponding author: e-mail.jclout@fmgLcom.au
fonnations set important constraints on ore formation; some
iron formations are even mineable without subsequent en-
richment. Another important constraint on the formation of
large iron ore deposits is simply the amount of iron Originally
deposited on the sea floor. In general terms, the largest iron
ore deposits are found where paleoenvironmental conditions
permitted the accumulation of the largest iron formations.
For example, the Carajas and Quadrilatero Ferrifero (Iron
Quadrangle) provinces in Brazil and the Hamersley province
in Western Australia are among the largest iron formations
on Earth and account for the bulk of the world's iron re-
sources, in the form of iron formation-hosted high-grade iron
ore. Higb-grade economic bodies do not form, however,
without subsequent events that upgrade the iron formation,
typically increasing from 30 wi percent Fe in an unenriched
iron formation to 56 to 68 wi percent Fe in martite-goethite
and high-grade hematite ores. To give a sense of the diversity
of processes by which this can be accomplisbed, we dedicate
the second and greater part of the paper to describing the
643
644 CLOUT AND SIMONSON
different types of high-grade iron ore depoSits and ore gene-
sis models formulated to explain their origins. The ultimate
goal is to better understand the full spectrum of processes
that create economic iron depoSits from iron fonnations . es-
pecially high-grade iron ore, from which an iron ore product
can be recovered, either through crushing and screening or
beneficiation. This in tum will lead to more efficient explo-
ration for as yet undiscovered deposits of iron ore to meet
growing demand.
Our knowledge of the nature and genesis of iron formations
and high-grade iron ore hosted by iron formations has
evolved through time from the early petrographic and genetic
work on iron formations (Van Hise and Leith, 1911; James,
1954; Cole and Klein, 1981; James and Trendall, 1982) as well
as high-grade iron ores from Australia (MacLeod, 1966;
Kneeshaw, 1975; Morris, 1980, 1985; Ewers and Morris,
1981; Ewers, 1983), Brazil (Guild, 1957; Dorr, 1964, 1965),
and Canada (Gross, 1965). Despite the economic importance
of high-grade iron ores, their origin is still subject to intense
research and debate. The early work by Morris (1980) estab-
lished the importance of supergene leaching in the upgrading
of iron formation to high-grade iron ores, especially for
hematite-goethite ores, and also led to the proposal of a su-
pergene-metamorphic model for generating high-grade mi-
croplaty hematite ores. Renewed interest in iron ore genesis
has led various workers to propose a supergene-modified hy-
pogene hydrothermal origin for the upgrading of iron forma-
tion to form high-grade hematite ores in the Hamersley
province of Australia (Barley et al. , 1999; Hagemann et al.,
1999; Taylor et al ., 2001; Dalstra and Guedes, 2004; Thorne
et al. , 2004) and the Caraj:\s province in Brazil (Dalstra and
Guedes, 2004; Rosiere et al ., 2004;), as well as the hard, high-
grade ores in the Quadrilatero Ferrifero district of Minas
Gerais in Brazil (Spier et al., 2003; Rosiere and Rios, 2004),
Krivoy Rog in the Ukraine (Dalstra and Guedes, 2004), and
the Thabazimbi deposit in South Africa (Beukes et al., 2002;
Netshiozwi, 2(02). This work has greatly expanded our un-
derstanding of iron ore formation, most notably on the nature
of the ore fluids via detailed fluid inclusion and stable isotope
studies (e.g., Hagemann et al., 1-999; Webb et al., 2003;
Rosiere and Rios, 2004; Thorne et al., 2004). Given their di-
verse characteristics, it is unclear at present whether or not
researchers will eventually converge on a Single unifYing
model that can explain all large iron ore depOSits.
Review of Iron Formation Sedimentology
Where depositional features are not obliterated by meta-
morphism, iron formations can be subdivided into banded and
granular varieties based on their original grain size. Even
though their original grains are masked by diageneSiS, it is
clear that banded iron formations, or BIF as they are com-
monly known (Figs. lA-C, 2A-C, 3A-C), were deposited as
chemical muds. In contrast, the detrital textures of granular
iron formations, or GIF, are generally retained and consist of
well-sorted chemical sands (Figs. ID-F, 2D-F, 3D-F), analo-
gous to those of calcarenites (Dimroth and Chauvel, 1973).
Most of the clasts in GIF appear to have formed via erosion
and intrabasinal redeposition of chemical muds like those that
became BIF (e.g., Beukes and Klein, 1990). The acronym BIF
is widely used as a blanket term for all iron formations because
most iron formations have thin layers or "bands," but it should
be noted that GIF usually have thicker, more discontinuous
bedding instead of thin, well-developed, and laterally contin-
uous banding. The fundamental dichotomy between BIF and
GIF has been recognized for years. For example, the "slaty"
vs. "cherty" iron formations of the Lake Superior region
(Morey, 1983) are essentially BIF and GIF, respectively.
In addition to the banded andlor granular distinction,
James (1954) subdivided iron formations into four facies
(Table 1). Although he called them "sedimentary facies," his
subdivisions were more along the lines in which metamor-
phic petrologists use the term facies, as they were based en-
tirely on what type(s) of iron-bearing minerals were present.
Chert was not incorporated into his scheme because it is a
near-ubiquitous component of iron formations . James did
emphasize that different mineralogical facies of iron forma-
tions are likely to show different suites of sedimentary fea-
tures, and this observation has stood the test of time. Specif-
ically, the vast majority of GIF belong to his oxide andlor
silicate mineral facies, whereas BIF span a much broader
spectrum that includes Significant thicknesses of oxide, sili-
cate, and carbonate facies (James, 1954; Simonson, 1985).
Sulfide-facies BIF are rarer and less extensive but nonethe-
less occur in some successions (e.g., Goodwin et al., 1985).
Debate continues as to which of the mineral constituents in
iron formation (if any) represent original preCipitates and
which formed during diagenesis. Excellent overviews of the
chemistry and mineralogy of iron formation can be found in
James (1954, 1966), Klein (1983), and Lepp (1987). As with
all sediments, depoSitional processes and paleoenvironments
are best inferred from textures and structures rather than
from mineralOgical compositions alone. We summarize the
depositional features first because they set important con-
straints on porosity, permeability, and rheology, which in turn
help set the stage for any subsequent enrichment to form
ore. We start with GIF because, unlike BIF, their primary
detrital constituents are coarse enough to be readily visible in
hand sample or thin section.
TABLE 1. Names and Idealized Compositions of the Iron-Bearing Minerals
Characteristic of Each of James' (1954. 1966) Four Minera10gicaI Facies of
Unenriched, Unmetamorphosed Iron Fonnations
Mineral facies
Oxide
Silk-ate
Carbonate
Sulfide
Principal iron-rich
mineral (s)
Hematite
Magnetite
Greenalite
l
Minnesotaite
l
Stilpnomelane
"Chlorite"2
Ri ebeckite
Siderite
Ankerite
Pyrite
Chemical fannula
Fe2D3

Fe,S;,o, (OH),
(Mg.Fe),S40",(OH)'
(K,N a, Calo . ( Mg.F"" . F "").SW
(O,OH),,-2-4H,O
(Fe,A1;Mg)' (S;,AI) ,o,(OH),
Na:aFe3+Fe3
FeC03
Ca( Fe,Mg.Mn)(CO,) ,
FeS2
Fonnulas are from Deer et aI. ( 1992) unless indicated otherwise
I from Miyano (1987)
2 from KJein and Bricker (1977)
!HON FOIlMAT10NS AND ASSOCIATED /HON ONE DEPOSITS
Flc. I. Iron formations in outcrop. A. The entire ISO-m thic:kness of Dales Gorge Member of t he Brockman Iron For-
mation exposed in \Vi ttcnoom Gorge, Western Australia. Prominent macrobanding consists of banded iron fl:mnation (HI F)
layers (oxidized resistant ledges) alternating with shaly layers of volcanic origin (slope-fanning intervals with extensive
spinifex (.over); Trendal! (1983. fig. 3--.5) shows part of same cliff with macrobands labeled. Kate geologist in white shi l1
on road in lower right comer. B. Part of single 131 F macroband ncar base of Dales Corge Member in Dales COr<Je with al-
ternating mesoband ... of reddish white hematitic chert and dark iron oxides; note chert pods (whitish ovals ) in thicker iron
oxide mcsobands and seam of crocidolite at base (shiny, bluish strip just above the coin). Strata in image are 30 cm thick:
coin in lower left is 2 elll in diam. C. E:qx)sure of silicate-carbonate BIF ncar base of the I ranwood Iron Formation, Coge-
hi c Bange. northern Wisconsin; layers rich in iron silicates and carbonates appear greenish and tannish, respecti\'e1y. Coin is
2 em in diam. D. Cross-bedded granular iron formation (GIF) in the Sokoman Iron Formation near SchefTerville, Quehec;
imhricat ed white diagenetic mottles dipping to len help defi ne one 25-cm-thick crossbcd coset; layer above coset is rk:her
in iron oxides and has small er scale trough crossbedding, reflected in more wavy bedding. Coin ill upper right is 2 cm in
diam. E. Flat pebble conglomerate layer 20 em thick in same Sokoman exposure as (D); pebbles are intraclastic rounded
disks of hematitic chert, space between them is filled with cherty C I F. Gray layers at top and bottom are C I F rich in coarsely
crystalline magnetite. Coin ill upper right is 2 cm in diam. F. Interbedded Sokoman Si r and GlF deposited in deeper water
east of SchefTerville, Quebec. Light-colored lenses are up to 10 em thick, ('"Oll sist of coarse GI F (see Fig. 2D), ha\'e internal
and rorm trains of stalvet! dune-size bedforms, some of which were deformed during compaction. Thinly IUlIli -
natcd B I F rich in iron silicates (dark) encloses lenses. Coin above and to left of center is 2 em in (liam.
645
Granular ironjo111wtiol1s (GIF)
Three pri maly textural components are readily recogniz-
abl e in GIF, as in most arenites: (1) a framework of clasts, (2)
matrix (fine r grained interstit ial materi al), and (3) cement
(authi geni c mineral s filling interstitial voids). Fine-grained
detrital matrix is present locally (e.g. , Simonson, 1987, fi g.
8A) but rare in GIF' overall. The framework clasts mostly
range in size Ii'om fine to coarse sand (Mengel, 1973) and
generally consist or a finely crystalli ne mixture of iron oxides,
iron silicates, and/or chert internally. They have long been re-
lim'ed to as granules (Figs. 2D, 3D, F). They are analogous in
Illany ways to the peloids and intraclasts of carbonate grain-
stones (Oimroth and Chauvel, 1973; Dimroth, 1976) and
646 CLOUT AND SI MONSON
FIG. 2. Iron formation in hand sample (all shown in correct stratigraphic orientati on). A. Microbancl cd he matiti c che rt
layer capped by dark layer ri ch in magnetite with more indistinct lamination from Dales Gorge Me mber (same locali ty as
Fig. lA)o B. Thinly laminated 131 F <:onsisting largely of siderite and chelt from deeper watcr part of the Sokoman Formation
near SchefTervill e, Quebec. Gray maten,ll is unweathe red; dark brown ri nd along edge is from oxidation of iron carbonates.
C, BIF from the \Vittenoom Fonnation, Western Allstralia, wi th parts of two hematitic chert pods: defl ections of laminations
near ends of che rt pods arc due to diffe renti al (;ompaction (see also Fig. 3C). D. e l F' from le ns in Figure I F, consisting of
coarse sand to flat fine pebble. size intraclasts or he matHi c che rt; intergranular ce ment consists or t ransparent quart z and
che rt. Staple in lowe r right ror scal e. E. Cross secti on or trough crossbed wit h tangential base rrom Sokoman e l F in the
Howell s Hiver area (Klein and Fink, 1976); ori ginally homogeneous sand now varies in compositi on rmm red hematitic che rt
to greenish sili cate-rich chert to dark iron oxides. F GI l" rrom Sokoman ncar Schd TcJVi ll e, Quebec, cut by si nuous, n e a r ~
verti cal cf"J. ck fi ll ed wit h dmsy megaquart i' .. e l F surrounding crack is cement rich and uncompacted. G. T)1)ical irreb'lIlar
he(kling in GIF rrom the Sokoman Formation (sec Fig. I D); early chalcedony and dms), quartz cements are abundant in
hematitic cherts (reddish areas) but scarce in magnetite.li ch areas (dark). H. Small m\umnar (fingcrlikc) che rt stromatolites
(rom the Biwabik [ron Formation, Mesabi Bange, nort hern Minnesota; areas betwee n columns are fill ed with oolites or chelt
and iron o.\y hydroxides.
mON FOHMA'fIONS AND ASSOCIATED I RON OIlE DEPOSITS
F IG. 3. Text ufCs of unenri ched iron format ion. A. Dales Gorge Member BIF (between crossed polarizers) wit h mi-
crobands alternately ri ch in iron oxides and chert; chert-rich laminations have abundant coarse replacivc ankerite crystals
(l ight) and iron oxide-ri ch layers (dark) have int ernal lami nations that arc fi nely wavy, probably from dirrerential cementa-
tion and compaction. H. Thinly laminated Bl F from t he Kuruman Iron Formation, Transvaal SlLpergroup, South Africa (be-
tween crossed polarizcrs); most of the rock (.'Oll sists of finely clystalline greenalite and sideri te, but coarser ankeri te (light)
and magnetite crystals (black) selectively replace certain laminae. Sample from core CN- 109 (I3eukes and Kl ein, 1990), cour-
tesy of C. Kl ein. C. Contact between chert pod (clear) and adjaeent iron oxide-rich, chert-poor sediment (most ly opaque) in
Dales Gorge Member BIF (plane-pohui zed light); laminations inside chert pod are much thicker and very similar to those
in c'Ontinuous chert layers (e.g., Fig. 3A). D. Typical oxide faci es GIF from the Gunfl int Iron Formation of CUll /lint Range,
wcstem Ontario (between crossed polarizers witli gypsum plate inserted). Granules are fairly homogeneous intemally and
range from nearly pure chert {magenta} to al most opaque with iron oxides (black); most of original porosity was filled wi th
chalcedonic cemcnt (ori ented quartz fibe rs evidenced hy strips of blue and yell ow extinct ion). E. I lematiti<.: chert oolite from
the Sokoman Formation near Scheffervilie, Quehec, with interstitial cement of drusy quartz On plane-polari zed li ght). :\Iote
delicate concent ri c laminations in ooid cortices and some compound nuclei. F. Sokoman Formation GIF' from same crop as
Figure 2E (plane-polarized light); granules consist of chert with minor silicates (probably greennli te); intergranular cement
is drus), quartz. Diagenetic crystals of euhedral magnetite (black) and a fibrous iron silicate (probably minnesotui te) cut
across both granul es and c"Cments.
647
range in shape from well rounded to angular (Mengel, 1973).
Concentrically laminated ooids are locally abundant in some
GIF (Fi g. 3E) but much rarer than granules overall. Many re-
searchers beli eve that much of the material now found in the
granules is derived from the Origi nal sedimentary materi al
with relatively little change in composition (e.g. , Kl ein and
Bricker, 1977; Beukes, 1984). Many granules and ooi ds con-
tain small septari an-style cracks formed by postdepositi onal
shrinkage, suggesting they originally consisted of amorphous,
gelatinous materials (see below).
Cements nIl the former pores between the granules in
many of the undeformed GlF, most commonly iron-poor
drusy quartz anellor chalcedony. These siliceous cements gen-
erally show textures formed during VOid-filling precipitation
rather than via later recrystallization (Fig. 3D). Much of this
silica cement was emplaced very rapidly and close to the sed-
iment-water interface (Simonson, 1987; Maliva et al. , 2005).
Many GIF also contain large cavities, cracks, andlor vugs
filled with siliceous cements (Fig. 2F) that may contain quartz
crystals up to a centimeter long. Such cement-filled cracks
cut across both granules and cements and form a continuum
with septarian-style cracks confined to individual granules
(Maliva et al., 2(05). The intergranular cracks have mor-
pholOgies that have not been reported from any type of sedi-
ment other than iron formations and have been attributed to
true syneresis, Le., shrinkage due to the dewatering of a
gelatinous silica precursor (Gross, 1972; Dimroth and Chau-
vel 1973; Beukes, 1984). However, early silica cementation is
not universal; many GIF were heavily compacted as evi-
denced by tight frameworks and distorted clasts. In addition
to primary textural constituents, even undeformed GIF con-
tain varying amounts of secondary diagenetic phases that are
generally more coarsely crystalline and cut across clearly de-
trital textures. Because they consist of reactive precipitates,
recrystallization of iron-bearing minerals is widespread, even
in iron formations where surrounding units such as sand-
stones show little evidence of diagenetic reorganization (e.g.,
Klein and Fink, 1976). Han (1978, 1988) demonstrated via a
series of careful textural studies that most if not all of the
coarsely crystalline magnetite in GIF and BIF is diagenetic in
origin rather than a direct precipitate from basin waters. Thus
diagenesis alone can give rise to low-grade, syngenetic ore de-
posits, called taconite, that contain enough magnetite for it to
be concentrated economically via grinding and magnetic sep-
aration. As a result of heterogeneous cementation, wide vari-
ations in the size and abundance of quartz crystals pose a
challenge for beneficiation of taconite-type ore deposits (see
beloW). However, quartz crystals in GIF grow larger and
more uniform \vith progressive metamorphism (Gross, 1961).
Both GIF and BIF can be rich enough in magnetite to be
considered taconite ore, but the quartz crystals in a typical
BIF tend to be much finer and more uniform than those in a
GIF, unless it was metamorphosed.
Dune-scale cross stratification is the dominant depositional
structure and evident in most GlF that have not been highly
altered by diagenetic processes or tectonic deformation (Figs.
ID, 2E; Simonson, 1985). The few paleocurrents that have
been measured on these cross beds show complex polymodal
patterns with hints of herringbone structures, typical of shal-
low marine sands (Ojakangas, 1983). Flat-pebble conglomer-
ates (Fig. IE) are a minor but widespread component of GlF.
Pebbles in intraclastic layers in GIF are generally siliceous,
indicating that they were preferentially derived from silica-
rich layers; this is consistent with the early silica cementation
discussed above. Other depositional structures are scarce, but
siliceous stromatolites (Fig. 2H) are locally abundant in some
GIF and have characteristics like those of siliceous sinters de-
posited by hot springs (e.g., Walter, 1972; Hall and Goode,
1978; Fralick, 1988; Maliva et al., 2(05). Due in part to per-
vasive early silica cementation, these stromatolites and associ-
ated strata in iron fonnations contain some of the best-pre-
served early Precambrian biotas in the world (Walter and
Hofmann, 1983), including the oldest macroscopic carbona-
ceous body fossils (Han and Runnegar, 1992).
Layers of pure GIF thicker than a few meters are rare,
whereas BIF can continue uninterrupted by GIF or other
iron-poor sediments for thicknesses up to a 100 m strati-
graphically (Simonson and Hassler, 1996; Trendall, 2(02).
Iron formations with a mixture of BIF and GIF are probably
more abundant than pure GIF, and they show a style of bed-
ding that is intermediate in character, Le., thicker and more
lenticular on average than pure BIF but thinner and with
more lamination than pure GIF (Fig. IF). The GIF in mixed
iron formations usually occurs as discontinuous lenses en-
closed in BIF. Some of these lenses represent starved bed-
forms generated by storm waves and currents (Simonson,
1985), but others appear to be products of differential com-
paction, Le., concretionlike volumes of sediment that were
preferentially cemented with silica prior to Significant burial.
The latter are analogous to the chert pods of BIF (described
below). GIF lenses in mixed iron formations are commonly
zoned with an oxidized, jaspery core and a more reduced
outer rind; the latter is probably a reaction rim formed by in-
complete equilibration between oxidized sands and the re-
duced muds encasing them during diagenesis.
Banded iron formations (BlF)
BIF are too intrinsically fine grained to reveal much about
their sedimentary nature via petrographic analysiS (Fig. 3A,
B). Even though diageneSiS has overprinted all primary detri-
tal textures, unaltered BIF are typically remarkably fine
grained and uniform and show more diversity in iron miner-
alogy than GIF. Most of these mineral assemblages are
thought to have compositions close to the phases originally
precipitated from basin waters, e.g., siderite, ferric hydrox-
ides, and poorly ordered precursors of silicate minerals such
as greenalite (Klein and Bricker, 1977). One clear exception is
stilpnomelane, whose presence usually reflects contamination
with volcaniclastic detritus (LaBerge, 1966a, b; Pickard, 2002,
2(03). Chert is generally interpreted as a primary precipitate
(Maliva et al., 2(05), but its content can vary tremendously
along a given stratigraphic level. The lateral variations are
mainly via the presence of structures known as chert pods,
which are localized pockets rich in silica, much of which ap-
pears to have been added early in diageneSiS (see below).
As the name implies, most BIF have well-developed thin
lamination to thin bedding with alternating iron-rich and -
poor layers (Figs. lA-C, 2A, B). A hierarchical nomenclature
for layers at different scales has been developed for the BIF
that have been studied in most detail , those of the Hamersley
basin. Within stratigraphic units of BIF, bedding (generally
referred to as banding) is commonly cyclic at three different
scales, to which Trendall and Blockley (1970) gave the names
macrobands, mesobands, and microbands. Thicknesses are
typically on the order of meters for macro bands (Fig. lA),
centimeters for mesobands (Fig. IB), and millimeters for mi-
crobands (Fig. 2A). Microbands were originally defined as
couplets of layers, one rich in iron minerals and the other in
chert. Subsequent study revealed that this simple nomencla-
ture was not adequate to cover the complexity of all the vari-
ations in the Hamersley BIF (Ewers and Morris, 1981; Tren-
dall, 1983). Additional terms such as aftbands (Trendall,
I
IRON FORMATIONS AND ASSOCIATED IRON ORE DEPOSITS 649
1983) and microlaminae (Morris, 1993) have since been in-
troduced, as well as entirely different nomenclatures (e.g.,
the ferhythmite of Beukes, 1980). The terms microband,
mesoband, and macroband have gained the widest usage, but
they may have somewhat different meanings when used by
different researchers. Moreover, these terms have rarely been
rigorously applied to BIF in other basins, one exception being
the Kuruman BIF of South Africa, a contemporary of the
Hamersley BIF (Pickard, 2003). Consequently, the terms
micro-, meso- and macroband are used here primarily to con-
vey a sense of scale consistent witll their original definition by
Trendall and Blockley (1970).
Thin lamination is the norm in fme-grained Precambrian
strata, given the lack of burrowing biota, but the layers in BIF
(particularly those rich in iron oxides) are among the most
striking seen in any sediment. Macrobands can generally be
correlated throughout the ca. 60,000 km' within which the
Hamersley BIF are preserved (Trendall, 1983). In some
cases, mesobands and even microbands can be correlated for
over 100 km (Trendall and Blockley, 1970; Ewers and Morris,
1981; McConchie, 1987), but it is not a given that such uni-
formity is typical of all BIF, and perhaps it has been overem-
phasized (Morris, 1993). Correlations at this level of detail
have not been attempted in very many units outside of the
Hamersley basin (Trendall, 2002). The correlations in the
Hamersley basin are aided by the fact that the layers in these
BIF are highly cyclic at various scales (described above).
Given their scale and rhythmiCity, the microbands are gener-
ally interpreted as varves (Trendall and Blockley, 1970; Ewers
and Morris, 1981; Morris, 1993). Trendall (1972) attempted
to relate various cycles in the Hamersley BIF to orbital para-
meters, but they have yet to be adequately tested for the pe-
riodicities typical of Milankovitch forcing.
The behavior of the bands or layers in and around chert
pods (Fig. 2C) reveals much about the original nature of the
sediments that became BIF. The shapes of the chert pods and
their relationships to enclOSing sediments are highly analo-
gous to concretions in other types of sediment. For example,
chert pods typically have ovoio cross sections, they are circu-
lar to amoeboid in plan, and microbands commonly continue
through, but thicken sharply inside of, chert pods (Figs. 3C).
By analogy to sediments of other compositions, the chert-
poor BIF adjacent to the pods have been compacted relative
to their original thickness, and material added near the sedi-
ment-water interface protected the sediment inside the pods
from similar compaction (Dimroth, 1976; Beukes, 1984; Si-
monson, 1987). The cherty nature of the pods indicates that
this material was siliceous cement. The observed reductions
in microband thickness indicate that the depoSitional porosi-
ties of the precursor sediments to BIF were comparable to
fine-grained sediments of other compositions (70-90% in
argillite: Singer and Miiller, 1983; 80-95% in carbonate: Cook
and Egbert, 1983), which in tum implies that most of the
chert in the pod was added as early cement. Early cementa-
tion also helps account for how the Hamersley BIF re-
sponded to the rare high-energy events that happened during
their depoSition. For example, high-energy waves andlor cur-
rents associated with an asteroid impact preferentially en-
trained those layers rich in silica in the Dales Gorge BIF
(Hassler and Simonson, 2001; Pickard et al. , 2004). Likewise,
the fact that the rapid emplacement of several large carbon-
ate debris flows did not cause any Significant soft-sediment
deformation in the JolTre BIF immediately underneath (Kepert,
2001) is consistent with strengthening by early cementation.
Early concretions typically shield minerals from chemical al-
teration as well as physical C'Ompaction. A range of finely crys-
talline iron-rich minerals are preserved inside chert pods,
suggesting tl,at the original sediment had a range of composi-
tions similar to the four facies shown by present-day BIF,
rather than any Single precursor mineral (Simonson, 2(03).
Pods in the Hamersl ey BIF may also have a preferred orien-
tation andlor developed as stacked pods (Trendall and Block-
ley, 1970) due to dilTerential extension during compaction.
Depositionol environments of iron fonnation
Interpreting the environmental signillcance of iron forma-
tion is not as straightforward as it is for most types of sedi-
ment because of a lack of similar present-day analogs. The
approach that has arguably shed the most light on the depo-
sitional setting of iron formations has been the study of sedi-
mentary units witll which tlley are associated, particularly
those with which they are in conformable contact. A wide
array of different sedimentary and volcanic rock types is asso-
ciated with iron formations, implying an equally wide array of
different possibilities for subsequent development of iron ore
deposits. The diverse sedimentary characteristics of iron for-
mations themselves likewise require depoSition in a range of
different environments. Moreover. in classifying iron-forma-
tions Simplistically into either banded or granular varieties,
BIF or GIF, there are nevertheless large variations within
each category. In short, iron formations constitute a diverse
class of sedimentary rocks that show a range of depoSitional
lithofacies. While some have textures that are analogous to,
for example, certain limestones or phosphOrites, their distinct
chemical composition indicates that processes or conditions
rarely if ever active in the Phaneroroic were a prerequisite for
the depoSition of iron formations. However. iroI) formations
were depoSited in environments ranging from deep basinal
shelf and slope areas well below wave base to shallow, higb-
energy platform settings. Key sedimentary data bearing on
the original environments of iron formation depoSition are
summarized below, fOCUSing on the stratigraphic settings of
the larger iron formations.
Despite the variety of different rock types associated witll
large iron formations , generalized patterns have emerged at
the broadest level. Most notably, the great majority of large
iron formations are intimately associated with demonstrably
marine units, and there is a high degree of correlation be-
tween the nature of an iron formation (GIF vs. BIF) and that
of the associated units. Large GIF are typically underlain by
shallow marine deposits such as tidally influenced quartz
arenites (Goode et al. , 1983; Ojakangas, 1983; Simonson,
1984) or platformal carbonates (Beukes, 1983, 1986), whereas
BIF are typically associated with deeper water shale-rich suc-
cessions with turbidites whose composition varies from silici-
clastic to volcaniclastic to carbonate (Larue, 1981; Klein and
Beukes, 1989; Hassler, 1993; Simonson et al., 1993; Pickard et
al., 2004). In addition, the successions in which large iron for-
mations occur have proven amenable to sequence-strati-
graphic analyses, and some of the largest BIF and GIF are in
successions that closely resemble those deposited in younger
marginal marine settings (Blake and Barley, 1992; Morey and
Southwick, 1995; Krapez and Martin, 1999). Although it is
certainly' possible that some smaller iron formations are la-
custrine in origin (Eriksson, 1983; Beukes, 1984), the nature
of their stratigraphic context indicates most, if not all, large
iron formations were deposited in open marine settings. An
additional argument against a nonmarine origin is the lack of
chemical and mineralOgical variability one would expect if
they had precipitated from waters that would of necessity be
highly variable in solute composition (Gole and Klein, 1981;
Lepp, 1987). The sheer size and lack of internal variability of
the largest iron formations is another argument in favor of the
marine origin of iron formations (Kimberley, 1989; Simonson
and Hassler, 1996).
Another common element in the deposition of large iron
formations is that they were preceded and/or accompanied by
transgression, i.e., deepening of the connection with the
ocean. This was clearly the case with the large GIF (e.g.,
Ojakangas, 1983; Simonson, 1984; Klein and Beukes, 1989),
where the onset of iron formation sedimentation may Signal a
chemocline migrating into shallow areas from which it had
previously been excluded (Simonson and Hassler, 1996). De-
position on a continental margin also enhanced the preserva-
tion potential of iron formations, since they were less likely to
be subducted than if they had been deposited on oceanic
crust. It is more difficult to determine if large BIF were like-
wise associated with transgression, i.e., deepening of the
water column, because there is less variability in the associ-
ated sediments. However, this appears to have been the case
in the two basins containing the largest and most extensive
BIF, the Hamersley and Transvaal successions (Beukes, 1983,
1984; Klein and Beukes, 1989; Simonson and Goode, 1989;
Simonson et al., 1993; Simonson and Hassler, 1996; Thome
and Trendall, 2001).
Hoffman (1987) suggested the transgressions that com-
monly accompanied the deposition of large iron formations
were due to subsidence induced by the approach of thrust
sheets. Loading of the continental lithosphere induces a flex-
ural response that creates a sediment-staIVed repository
known as a foredeep (or foreland basin) that migrates laterally
in front of the advancing thrust sheets. The sediment-starved
phase in foredeeps is typically succeeded by a thick succes-
sion of shallow-water clastic material. The GIF-rich Daniel-
skuil Member (Griquatown Iron Formation, South Africa) is
one possible example; it shallows upward conformably into
the lacustrine Pietersberg Member (Beukes, 1983). Dating of
units from the Lake Superior region also appears to be con-
sistent with the migrating foredeep model (Schneider et al. ,
2002). However, large GIF are typically overlain by deeper
water successions rich in shales and turbidites, many in con-
formable contact (Simonson, 1985), radler than dIe shallow-
water successions predicted by the foredeep model. Morever,
many large iron formations accumulated for extended periods
on stable-shelf to upper-slope environments with little or no
evidence of synsedimentary tectonism. In the Hamersley
basin, for example, folding and thrusting began no earlier
than 2.2 Ga (Tyler and Thome 1990), whereas the first major
iron formation was deposited before 2.6 Ga. Finally, iron for-
mations were depoSited in a number of different tectonic
environments (Gross, 1983). Some tectonic configurations
may have even been unique to early Earth history, e.g., the
centers of convective descent model of Trendall (2002). The
scarcity of examples of post-GIF and -BIF shallOwing also
raises questions about the simple model of chemocline mi-
gration. Many iron formations contain thin but widespread
volcaniclastic interbeds (e.g. , Ewers and Morris, 1981; Has-
sler and Simonson, 1989; Barley et al., 1997; Pickard, 2002),
suggesting that their depoSition was more a result of height-
ened volcanic activity than conditions endemic to anyone
sedimentary or tectonic environment (discussed below).
Changes in iron formations through tim
Iron formations range in age from early Archean to Neo-
proterowic, but they were not formed in equal measure
throughout this long time span (Kerrich, 2005, fig. 12). BIF
are found among the oldest well-preserved sedimentary suc-
cessions on Earth (Nutman et al., 1984), although the sedi-
mentary origins of some of dIe oldest BIF have been called
into question (Fedo and Whitehouse, 2002). At the other ex-
treme, iron-rich rocks widely referred to as iron formations
were deposited on various continents in the Neoproterozoic.
The Neoproterozoic units differ from early Precambrian iron
formations in having a simple iron mineralogy dominated by
hematite and being less cherty on average (James and Tren-
dall, 1982; Beukes and Klein, 1992). However, thinly lami-
nated cherty beds similar to microbanded BIF and pelOidal
layers that resemble GIF occur locally in Neoproterozoic iron
formations (Klein and Ladeira, 2004). Unlike early Precam-
brian iron fonnations, the Neoproterozoic examples are inti-
mately associated with glaciogenic sediments (Young, 1976)
and are much smaller on average. The largest iron formations
were all depOSited during an interval of -800 m.y. in the
Neoarchean to Paleoproterozoic which ended rather abruptly
at or before 1.8 Ga (Gole and Klein, 1981; Trendall, 2002).
Researchers are starting to realize that this may consist of two
or more peaks of iron accumulation rather than a single
plateau of iron formation deposition (Isley and Abbott, 1999).
Clearly, there were secular changes in both the size and de-
positional environments of iron formation, as follows.
Statistically, iron formations that are Paleo- to Mesoarchean
in age tend to be smaller than those of the Neoarchean to Pa-
leoproterozoic. This could simply reflect greater degrees of
tectonic dismemberment with age. were it not for the fact
that older iron formations show a different mix of depoSitional
features and stratigraphic associations. Gross (1965, 1983)
therefore subdivided iron formations into two major varieties,
Superior type and Algoma type. In general , Algoma-type iron
fonnations are smaller, consist exclUSively of BlF, and are in-
timately associated with volcanic rocks, whereas Superior-
type iron formations are associated primarily with sedimen-
tary strata (which commonly have a volcanic component ), and
may contain GIF as well as BIF. Algoma-type iron formations
are typical of Archean greenstone belts, whereas Superior-
type iron formations occur in continental margin successions,
are Neoarchean to Paleoproterozoic in age. and include the
largest iron formations. James and Trendall (1982) assessed
the size variation in iron formations as a function of age by
placing major iron formations from five continents into four
categories: small (1010 or fewer tons of iron), moderate (on
the order of 10
1L
I0" tons of iron), large (on the order of 10
13
tons of iron), and very large (10
14
or more tons of iron). Their
data set confirms that the largest iron formations are all
Neoarchean through Paleoproterowic in age. In contrast,
smaller iron formations range in age from Paleoarchean
through Paleoproterowic, including the time span during
which the large iron formations were deposited. Although the
smaller size of Algoma-type iron formations is generally taken
to mean deposition in smaller hasins, Cole and Klein (1981,
p. 170) correctly noted that some Algoma-type iron forma-
tions "may have been quite extensive prior to deformation
and disruption. "
The largest individual iron formations known from any
point in geolOgiC time are the Neoarchean to Paleoprotero-
zoic iron formations of the Hamersley basin of Western Aus-
tralia and the Transvaal basin of South Africa. Examples of
James and Trendall's (1982) very large" iron formations are
found on all five continents, but those of the Hamersley and
Transvaal hasins contain the highest estimated tonnages of
original iron. Although there are five major iron formations
within tl,e Hamersley succession (Trendall, 1983, fig. 8) and
two in the Transvaal succession (Beukes, 1984), the Transvaal
BIF contain a larger total mass of iron because the area over
which they are preserved is roughly twice that of the Hamer-
sley BIF. The exceptional size of the iron formations in these
two hasins becomes even more remarkable since they may ac-
tually be two parts of a single basin. Button (1976) summa-
rized a number of striking similarities in their deposits (both
sedimentary and economic) and geologic evolution. Cheney
(1996) formalized this hypothesis by suggesting the name
Vaalbara" for the combined landmass. Not everyone is per-
suaded, but detailed studies have revealed some striking geo-
lOgiC parallels between these two successions even at very fine
scales (e.g., Simonson and Camey, 1999; Pickard, 2003). Iso-
topiC dates compiled by Nelson et al. (1999) point to certain
inconsistencies in the ages of stratigraphically comparable
units on the two continents, but dates from the BIF them-
selves indicate they are essentially contemporaneous
(Pickard, 2003). Either individually or jOintly, the Hamersley
and Transvaal basins constitute the largest repositories of sed-
imentary iron on Earth.
Although iron formations grow larger on average around
the time of the Archean-Proterowic boundary, the average
energy of the environments in which they were deposited did
not increase dramatically at first. The typically older Algoma-
type iron formations are generally associated with volcanic
rocks and deep-water turbidites and consist almost exclu-
Sively of BIF (Dunbar and McCall, 1971; Barrett and Fralick,
1965, 1989; Shegelski, 1987). Occurrences of GIF in Algoma-
type iron formations (e.g., Manikyamba. 1999) are extremely
rare. The older of the Superior-type iron formations likewise
accumulated in deep shelf to pOSSibly upper slope environ-
ments (Trendall, 1983; Simonson, 2003; Pickard et al. , 2004)
and consist largely of BIF, but more GIF are present in these
older Superior-type iron formations (Simonson and Goode,
1989; Beukes and Klein, 1990). Unlike any of tl,e younger ex-
amples, some of the older GIF are siderite dominated. Re-
cent work on the Fe isotope compositions of the siderite sug-
gests they are indeed primary precipitates from the water
column rather than diagenetic products involving reduction
of ferne iron-bearing phases after burial (Johnson et al., 2003,
2004).
Between their first appearance around 2.65 Ga and their
disappearance around 1.8 Ga, Superior-type iron formations
changed Significantly in character. Most of the large iron for-
mations in the Lake Superior area and Labrador trough of
North America were depoSited from around 2.0 to 1.85 Ga,
and most are rich in GlF that have a high proportion of iron
oxides and silicates but little siderite (Gross and Zajac, 1983;
Morey, 1983; Dimroth, 1986; Fralick and Barrett , 1995; Fral-
ick et al. , 2002; Schneider et aI. , 2002). Similarly, the iron for-
mations of the Nabberu basin of West em Australia are young
in age and rich in oxide-facies GIF (Hall and Goode, 1978;
Goode et al. , 1983). In addition, many of these younger GIF-
rich Superior-type iron formations are in conformable contact
with tidally crossbedded quartz arenites and stromatolitic
dolomites (Hall and Goode, 1978; Morey, 1983; Ojakangas,
1983; Simonson, 1985). The increase in the abundance of
GIF (Kernch et al., 2005, fig. 12) and the nature of the asso-
ciated units both indicate that the average depositional en-
ergy of Superior-type iron formations increased through time.
It is unclear at present whether iron formations changed
gradually and progressively through time or if the changes
were abrupt, discontinuous, or possibly even oscillatory in na-
ture. The transition from Algoma- to Superior-type iron for-
mations was gradual in the sense that Algoma-type iron for-
mations were still accumulating on other continents at the
time the oldest Superior-type iron formations were being de-
posited in the Hamersley basin of Western Australia and the
Transvaal basin of South Africa (ca. 2.6 Ga). Moreover, some
iron fonnations deposited on the margins of the Kaapvaal and
Zimbabwe cratons at -3.0 Ga appear to be intermediate in
character between Algoma- and Superior-type iron forma-
tions (Watchorn 1980; Fedo and Eriksson 1996). The abrupt-
ness of the shift from virtually all BIF to a mixture of BIF and
GIF within the Superior-type category is more difficult to as-
sess because most iron formations with well-constrained ages
are concentrated in relatively short time windows, the most
prominent of which occur near 2.7, 2.45, and 1.9 Ga (Isley
and Abbott, 1999). This clustering may itself be a sign that the
evolutionary changes in iron formation were not evenly dis-
tributed in time. Moreover, a contrast in the isotopic variabil-
ity of iron suggests that the younger Superior-type iron for-
mations may have been deposited by different mechanisms
than the older ones (Rouxel et al. , 2005).
Models for the Deposition of Large Iron Formations
There are no close present-day analogs of iron formation,
and this may be the reason that an unusually broad range of
theories has been proposed for their origin. As Trendall
(2002, p. 60) so eloquently put it, iron fonnations ... have
often been described as bizarre or unusual rocks, and corre-
spondingly exceptional conditions have been advanced to ex-
plain their presence in the stratigraphie record; .. . it should
not be asked what strange circumstances led to the depoSition
of BIF, but instead in what respects were the ordinary envi-
ronments of the Precambrian Earth radically different from
those now existing." One of the first and most creative re-
searchers to take this approach was Cloud, whose suggestions
(e.g., Cloud, 1968) stimulated much new thinking about iron
formations and early Earth mnditions in general (see Tren-
dall, 2002, for a nice summary of Cloud's contributions). Al-
though consensus has yet to be reached on the specific mech-
anisms whereby iron and silica were precipitated and their
physical states, most researchers now favor models involving
derivation of the dissolved iron from hydrothermal vent
sources in the open ocean, deposition of the larger iron for-
mations on sediment-starved continental-shelf to upper-slope
environments via the precipitation of iron-rich phases along a
chemocline in a stratified water column, as well as coprecipi-
tation of silica with the iron, and involvement of microbes in
the precipitation and diagenetic reorganization of these
phases. We elaborate briefly on these important points of
broad agreement below (see Simonson, 2003, for a fuller
discussion).
Banded iron formation deposition has been linked to hy-
drothermal activity via stratigraphic context and facies rela-
tionships for some Algoma-type iron formations (e.g., Good-
win et al., 1985), and hydrothermal geochemical signatures,
e.g., in Tare earth element ratios and isotopic systems such as
sulfur and neodymium (cited in Simonson, 2003) have been
detected in all types of iron formations (Klein and Beukes,
1992). As Fryer et al . (1979) pointed out, sea-floor hy-
drothermal systems would have injected large masses of re-
duced species into the Archean ocean from the bottom, most
notably ferrous iron. The need for a stratified water column
stems mainly from the fact that, even though normal marine
surface waters were clearly not well oxygenated in the
Neoarchean to Paleoproterowic, they were still too oxic to
carry much dissolved ferrous iron (Trendall, 2002). The min-
eralogy of iron formations themselves support this model in
that fully oxidized hematite is the dominant iron mineral
among the least altered GIF, which were deposited in the
shallowest waters, whereas the BIF deposited in deeper
water show a much broader range of iron minerals, including
large amounts of reduced phases such as siderite.
Contrasts in the trace element and isotopic compositions of
iron formations and coeval iron-poor strata (Klein and
Beukes, 1989; Carrigan and Cameron, 1991; Winter and
Knauth, 1992; Rouxel et al ., 2005) support a stratified ocean
model. Consensus has yet to be reached on the character and
causes of that stratification. Some workers envision a surface
layer depleted in iron and a large reservoir of bottom water
with relatively uniform concentrations of dissolved ferrous
iron (e.g., Jacobsen and Pimentel-Klose, 1988; Huston and
Logan, 2004). Others beUeve dissolved iron concentrations
reached a maximum at some intermediate water depth Q\ving
to higher concentrations of hydrogen sulfide in deeper waters
(Cameron, 1983). Sulfide concentrations were probably low
in early Precambrian oceans overall because of low sulfate
production during weathering in an atmosphere with Uttle
oxygen (Farquhar et al. , 2000), resulting in low inputs of re-
ducible sulfate into mid-ocean ridge hydrothermal systems
(Kump and Seyfired, 2005). This is consistent with strati-
graphiC patterns shown by many Superior-type iron forma-
tions (Simonson and Hassler, 1996). In either case, Isley
(1995) demonstrated the feasibility of connecting open-ocean
hydrothermal sources with shelf sinks via lateral dispersal at
shallow to intermediate water depths, even for the large Su-
perior-type iron formations.
Given this situation, models for the deposition of large iron
formations should focus on processes active along chemo-
clines between deeper iron-rich and shallower iron-poor
water masses (e.g., Beukes and Klein, 1992). For example,
iron could be precipitated via oxidation along the chemocUne
in a manner somewhat analogous to the formation of particu-
late MnO. in the present-day Black Sea (Force and Maynard,
1991). Microbes are apt to take advantage of any steep chem-
ical gradients, as they appear to have done for billlons of years
(Johnson et al., 2004), so microbes were probably active along
these chemoclines. Iron isotopes show more variability in iron
formations than in any other natural material (Beard et al .,
1999; Johnson et al., 2003). This was initially taken as a sign
of microbial mediation of redox reactions, but separating bi-
otic from abiotic fractionation effects is challenging (Beard
and Johnson, 2004; Johnson et al., 2004). Moreover, micro-
bially mediated reactions could have affected the isotopic
composition of iron either wben it was first fixed from the
water column or during reorganization in the pore waters
after depOSition (or both). Recently, Rouxel et al. (2005) at-
tributed the observed variations to rapid changes througb
time in the isotopic composition of the reservoir of dissolved
iron in Archean seawater, Whether they were responsible or
not, calculations by Konhauser et al . (2002) indicate that the
number of microbes needed to Hx the mass of iron present is
not unreasonable, even in large iron formations. Trendall
(2002) marshals additional arguments faVOring the involve-
ment of the biosphere in the depoSition of iron formations.
Given the variety of iron minerals found in iron formations, a
variety of different precipitation mechanisms were probably
involved at different times and places (see review by Morris,
1993, p. 254-256). Pinning down the specific mechanisms
and explaining cycUc pattenlS in BIF are the greatest chal-
lenges remaining in understanding the precipitation of iron
formations,
There is near-universal agreement that tile high chert con-
tent of iron formations reflects higher ambient concentrations
of silica in Precambrian seawater due to the absence of silica-
fIxing organisms (Mallva et al. , 1989, 2005). Agreement is
more elusive concerning the source of the silica or the cause
of its coaccumulation with iron-nch phases, Mechanisms pro-
posed for silica precipitation include direct or indirect fixation
by microbes in the water column (LaBerge et al. , 1987), sUght
evaporative concentration, coprecipitation with iron (Ewers,
1983), and polymerization due to electrolyte changes (Morris,
1993). The high silica content of iron formations is not exclu-
Sively a depositional feature; there is saUd evidence (outUned
above) that a Significant fraction of the silica in iron forma-
tions, both BIF and GIF, actually preCipitated in the shallow
subsurface as vOid-Hlling cement shortly after depoSition,
presumably abiogenically (Simonson, 1987; Mallva et al.,
2005). Recent geochronologiC work suggests that the sedi-
mentation rates of iron formations were faster than those of
other sediment types with which they are interbedded, e.g.,
the S macrobands in the Dales Gorge BIF, which are shales
rich in fine volcaniclastic material (Fig. lA; Pickard, 2002,
2003; Trendall, 2002; Trendall et al. , 2004). This in turn sug-
gests a situation where there were relatively short-Uved pulses
of iron and silica input, again consistent with the behavior one
might expect from hydrothermal sources. Higher geothennal
IRON FORMATIONS AND ASSOCIATED IRON ORE DEPOSITS (WI
gradients could have also increased the Ilux of silica from
below by acc..,lerating its dissolution at depth and reprecipita-
tion in the shallow subsurface (Simonson, 1987). However,
recent work on GeiSi ratios has indicated the silica may be at
least partly a product of continental weathering (Hamade et
al.,2oo3).
In addition to points of agreement summarized above,
there is also a broad consensus as to why iron formations grew
Significantly larger on average during the Neoarchean and Pa-
leoproterowic. The transition from small Algoma- to large
Superior-type iron formations -2.6 billion years ago appar-
ently rellects the Hrst appearance of extensive continental
shelf environments. Continental margins offer larger, more
uniform repositories than volcanic terraness, and stable-shelf
deposits of various types increased dramatically in size during
the Neoarchean. For example, the first platformal carbonates
comparable in size to Phanerowic bUild-ups appeared in the
Neoarchean in tl,e same basins as the Hrst large iron forma-
tions (Beukes, 1983; Klein and Beukes, 1989; Simonson et al. ,
1993; Grotzinger, 1994). The expansion of shelf area presum-
ably rellects a Neoarchean surge in the growtll of continental
crust and associated rise in sea levels (Goodwin, 1991; Lowe,
1992; Groves et al., 2005). The highly diachronous nature of
cratonization (Eriksson and Donaldson, 1986) may help ex-
plain why the largest iron formations differ in age on differ-
ent continents (Trendall, 2002). However, the increase in the
average size of iron formations may not be entirely a product
of a tectonic shift. The dramatic increases in the abundance
of GIF, Hrst from Algoma- to Superior-type iron formations
and then from older to younger Superior-type iron forma-
tions, indicate tllat they were deposited in progreSSively shal-
lower waters. This implies progressive shallOWing of chemo-
clines that could rellect changes in the chemistI)' of the
atmosphere anellor seawater. The scarcity of Superior-type
iron formations with well-constrained ages between ca. 2.45
and 1.9 Ga (Isley and Abbott, 1999) makes it difficult to de-
termine if this shift took place gradually and monotonically or
was rapid anellor episodic.
Finally, there is a consensus that tl,e seemingly abrupt ter-
mination of iron formation deposition in the Paleoproterozoic
rellects evolutional)' shifts in atmospheriC and hydrospheriC
chemistI)' (Knoll , 2003; Canfield, 2005). Prior to ca. 1.9 Ga,
dissolved iron could neither accumulate in high concentra-
tions nor be dispersed over long distances in the ocean's sur-
face waters but must have done so in the deeper parts of the
ocean. The mobility of dissolved iron in deeper waters was
clearly radically reduced at about 1.9 Ga. Until recently, this
has generally been attributed to ventilation, i.e., oxygenation,
of the deep ocean. However, the Hrst dramatic rise in atmos-
pheriC oxygen appears to have taken place around 2.4 Ga
(Bekker et al., 2004; Kerr, 2005), which predates the end of
iron formation depoSition by a wide margin. An alternative
model tl,at invokes increased levels of dissolved sulfide rather
than dissolved oxygen to limit iron solubility in the deep mid-
Proterowic ocean (Canfield, 1998; Anbar and Knoll, 2002;
Arnold et al. , 2004) is gaining adherents. Whatever the
change was, it clearly prevented tl,e deep ocean from storing
and transporting dissolved iron over long distances, thereby
severing the connection between sea-floor hydrotllerrnal sys-
tems and continental shelf environments, thus putting a stop
to the depoSition of iron formations. The (111)' sigllitll'ulIl
reappearance of iron fonnati ons happened in till' N,'opro-
teroroic. The source of iron for the Neoproterozoic iron lill"
mations again appears to have been hydrotherr"al ( Bnilko],!".
1988; Young, 1988), but thei r intimate association willi glado-
genic sediments may also be important. The Neoproterozoic
glaciations were probably the most severe in Earth
(Hoffman et al .. 1998). It is possible that global ocealls em-
ered by ice became highly stratined for the first time in o""r
an eon, thereby reactivating some of the mechanisms at work
in tl,e Paleoproterowic (Klein and Beukes, 1992; Trendal!.
2002; Klein and Ladeira, 2004). Another possibility is that SIII -
fide concentrations began to decrease in deep ocean waters ill
the Neoproterow ic, leading to greater iron mobility. Either
way, the deep ocean definitely became ventilated as th"
Phanerowic approached, redUCing the mobility of dissolved
iron for good (Knoll, 2003; Canfield, 2005; Kerr, 2005).
In contrast to the \videspread agreement on the points
raised above, there are still at least two competing explana-
tions that relate iron phases with different oxidation states to
differences in water depths. One explanation is based primar-
ilyon detailed studies of iron formations and associated strata
of the Transvaal Supergroup in Soutll Africa. where Beukes
and Klein (1992) concluded that iron minerals became pro-
greSSively more oxidized in progreSSively greater water
depths. They envision sideri tic sediment being depoSited in
the shallowest, highest energy environments, and fully oxi-
dized hematitic sediment (or a suitable precursor) in deeper
water. This is consistent with the fact that siderite is the main
iron-bearing mineral in the prinCipal GIF of tl,e Transvaal
basin, the Griquatown Iron Fonnation. They attribute this re-
lationship to a Ilux of organic carbon being transported from
shallow to deeper environments, thereby creating a gradient
from more anoxic shallow water to more oxic deeper water.
However, extending this explanation to other basins is prob-
lematic because the Transvaal situation is anomalous. In al-
most all other basins. GIF are dominated by oxide iron phases
with an abundance of hematitic minerals, whereas siderite
and other reduced iron phases are much more abundant in
deeper water BIF (e.g., James, 1954; Zajac, 1974; Simonson,
1985).
According to the second explanation, iron phases become
progreSSively more reduced (rather than oxidized) with in-
creasing water depth. GIF with fully oxidized iron phases sug-
gest an atmosphere that was sufficiently oxic to keep concen-
trations of dissolved ferrous iron in an oceanic surface layer at
Vanishingly low levels, thereby restricting depoSition of re-
duced phases to deeper water. Support for this model comes
from the fact that many of the cherty oolitic and stromatoliti c
layers in GIF are among the reddest layers, indicating all
abundance of finely disseminated hematite. The depositional
textures are exquiSitely preseJVed in these oolitic and stroma
tolitic layers (as is the famous Gunflint microbiota; Walter
and Hofmann, 1983). suggesting they are closest to their pri -
maI)' mineralogy. Moreover, tl,ey are most likely to have eqlli -
Iibrated \vitll the atmosphere chemically as they were d,,-
posited in some of the shallowest. highesl C11(>r",'
environments of any iron formations . DepoSition of the most
oxidized iron formations in the sha110west water t'llviroll
ments would also be consistent with the low L'oneent nit ill iiS I If
iron found in platformal carbonates deposited coevally
(Veizer et al., 1990, 1992). Had the level of dissolved ferrous
iron been uniformly high in ocean waters both deep and shal-
low, much greater quantities of iron would surely have substi-
tuted for calcium while shallow-water carbonates were pre-
cipitating. The relatively low iron content is observed in both
carbonates that grade into iron formations stratigraphically
(e.g., Klein and Beukes, 1989) and others that accumulated in
shallow water at the same time that BIF were being deposited
in deeper parts of the same basin (Simonson and Hassler,
1996; Kepert, 2001). Recent work on iron isotope ratios pro-
vides support for ocean stratification during deposition of the
younger Superior-type iron formations but not those of
Archean and earliest Paleoproterowic (Rouxel et al., 2005).
In summary, the evidence is mounting that large Superior-
type iron formations owe their existence to a unique conflu-
ence of three main circumstances in the N eoarchean to Pale-
oproterozoic: (1) the presence of large hydrothermal systems
on the open ocean floor, (2) a dramatic expansion in the total
area of continental shelves, and (3) a stratified ocean with in-
termediate and/or deep water masses through which large
fluxes of dissolved ferrous iron could travel from sea-floor hy-
drothermal.ystems to distant depocenters.
The fact that large iron formations occur in many different
tectonic settings and are associated with many different rock
types (Gross, 1983; Fralick and Barrett, 1995) suggests that
these circumstances were met in a variety of different set-
tings. If so, the first-order cause of large iron formations
could simply be unusually vigorous hydrothermal activity
(e.g., Morris, 1993; Barley et al., 1997), espeCially when con-
nections between hydrothermal sources and continental-mar-
gin sinks were enhanced by sea-level highstands. Highstands
are probably linked to the increased growth of continental
crust and have coincided with periods of heightened volcan-
ism, e.g., increased activity at hot spots and/or spreading
ridges, throughout Earth history. At such times, precipitates
formed on a chemocline could overwhelm clastic input and
accumulate relatively undiluted (Simonson and Hassler,
1996), consistent with depositional rates calculated by Picard
(2002, 2003) and Trendall et al. (2004). Isley and Abbott
(1999) believe there is a statistically Significant correlation in
age between iron formations and proxies for mantle plume
activity, such as komatiites and flood basalts. A connection be-
tween deposition of iron formations and mantle superplumes
could help explain why Superior-type iron formations do not
appear to be evenly distributed in either time or space.
The existence of a hypsometry unlike any before or since
may have been a contributing factor in the formation of large
iron fonnations during the Archean-Proterozoic transition.
While it is commonly assumed that continental freeboard has
remained constant through geolOgiC time, this is not neces-
sarily the case (Eriksson, 1999). Arndt (1999) has pinpointed
unusual aspects of Archean and Proterozoic volcanic rocks
that suggest the existence of broad, submerged continental
platforms unlike any later in Earth history. Widespread evi-
dence of basaltic hydrovolcanism in large iron formation
basins (Hassler and Simonson, 1989; Hassler, 1993; Alter-
mann, 1996) prOvides support for this scenario, which may re-
flect secular differences in the thickness and buoyancy of
Archean crust (Groves et al., 2005). Replaced shards appear
in some tufTs found in iron formations or associated units
(LaBerge, 1966a, b; Ewers and Morris, 1981; Pickard, 2002),
but signs of explOSive felsic volcanic activity are scarcer than
one might expect if these iron formations had been deposited
close to a convergent margin (e.g., in a backarc setting, as sug-
gested by Blake and Barley, 1992). The existence of Uniquely
large areas of stable flooded continental crust could help ex-
plain the accumulation of uniquely large and well-preserved
iron formations in the Neoarchean to Paleoproterozoic and
perhaps the exceptional lateral continuity of depoSitional
bands in the Hamersley and Transvaal BIF.
Review of Iron Formation-Hosted Iron Ore Deposits
Iron formation-hosted iron ore depoSits account for the
majority of current world production and resources of iron
ore, followed by the important channel iron deposits which
filled Tertiary river channels, iron-apatite ores (Williams et
al., 2005) that are reCOgnized by most as hydrothermal and ar-
gued by some as magmatic (e.g. , Kiruna and Malberget in
Sweden and iron ore depOSits in coastal Peru and nothern
Chile), and finally certain types of copper skarn and rare earth
depoSits (e.g., Da Ye and Bayan Obo, China). There are many
other types of iron ore deposits that have been histOrically im-
portant but not as Significant as the iron formation iron ores
(e.g. , oolitic goethite deposits of Minette and/or Salzgitter
type, contact metamorphic ores formed by replacement of
carbonate rocks in the aureoles of granitoid intrusions, and
detrital marine placer deposits).
BIF - and GIF -hosted iron ores can be subdivided into
three classes: (1) unenriched primary iron formation with typ-
ically 30 to 45 wt percent Fe; (2) martite-goethite ore formed
by supergene processes, with abundant hydrous iron oxides
containing 56 to 63 wt percent Fe; and (3) high-grade
hematite ores thought to be of supergene modified hypogene
or metamorphic origin with 60 to 68 wt percent Fe (Table 2;
Morris, 1985; Beukes et al. , 2002). Martite is a commonly
used textural term to denote hematite pseudomorphs after
primary magnetite where the octagonal outlines of much of
the original magnetite are preserved.
The high-grade hematite ores can be further subdivided
into hematite, including itabirite-derived residual ore and mi-
croplaty hematite replacement ore. Itabirite is oxidized,
metamorphosed, and heterogeneously deformed BIF that
contains iron ore deposits formed by supergene leaching of
gangue minerals and residual accumulation of hematite
(Dorr, 1969; Spier et al., 2003). Microplaty hematite replace-
ment ore consists of a three-dimensional network of 10- to
200-l'm plates of hematite with interstitial voids, formed from
replacement of silicate and carbonate bands in the iron for-
mation (Morris, 1985). Individual high-grade hematite iron
ore depOSits range from a few million tons to over 2 billion
tons at >64 wt percent Fe, although most fall within the range
of 200 to 500 M t.
Many of the primary mesobands and microbands of the
parent BIF have been preserved during ore formation of the
martite-goethite and high-grade hematite ores (Fig. 4; Mor-
ris, 1985). This preservation has resulted from replacement of
chert and carbonate bands by hematite (in the case of high-
grade microplaty hematite ores) or goethite (in martite-
goethite ores), or residual accumulation of martite as the
TABLE 2. Iron Ore Deposit Classifications for Current and Some Future Mines with Either Published Resources or Resenres
Classification Subtype Current and future mines
Iron Fonnation, BIF and GIF Magnetite China: Diao }untai, Gong Chang Ling. Chita Shan, Dashihe
United States: Empire. Hibbing, Northshore

High-grade hematite
Banded
Hematite
Microplaty
Hemati te
Hematite
Australia: Mount Gibson, Koolanooka, Tallering Peak (Yilgam craton), Balmoral (Pilbara cm.ton)
Canada: Wabush, Mont Wright, Carol Lake
Uni ted States: Tilden
China: Dong Anshan, Hainan Island
Australia: Marandoo, West Angelas, Orebody 29, Mining Area C, Hope Downs. Christmas Creek,
Ophthalmia Range, Rhodes Ridge, Paraburdoo Eastern Hanges, Section 6 and 7 (Pilbara craton),
Koolyanobhing, Mount Jackson and Mount Windarling (Yil galll craton)
Australia: Mount Whaleback, Mount Tom Price, Pat'dburdoo, Channar, Yame, Ciles Mini
(Pilbara craton); Iron Duke, Iron Knight, Iron Duchess (Gawler craton)
Brazil: Caraj1s district: NI to N9, including N4E, Sl1-S45
India: Goa, Noamundi, Aridongri district
Guinea: Simandou, Mount Nimba
South Africa: Thabazimbi
Ukraine: K.rivoy Rog district
Brazil: Quadrilatero Ferrifero district: Aguas Clams, Alegria, Andrade, Bali , Brucuru, Caue,
C6rrego do Feijao, C6rrego do Meio, Capenema, Casa de Pedra, Fabrica, Fazendao,
Morro Agudo, Maruca, Ouro Fino, Pico, Pires, Retiro das Almas, Tamandua and TImbopeba
China: Hainan Island
South Africa: Sishen-Beeshoek
Sierra Leone: Marampa
Microplaty Hematite Ore
Iron Formation ><'>8<'QXI
___ K Microplaty Hematite
result of leaching out of chert and carbonate from bands
which once contained disseminated magnetite. Magnetite-
rich bands in the iron formati on were oxidized to martite
andlor replaced by secondary hematite in ore, whereas Al-
rich silicate bands have been leached and partly replaced by
clays to form shalelike bands. The shalelike mesobands
should not be considered as epiclastic sedimentary rocks but
rather the Al-rich residue of supergene leaching and weath-
ering of Al-rich silicate mesobands that originated as a mix-
ture of fine volcaniclastic material and chemical precipitates
(Ewers and Morris, 1981; Picard et al ., 2004). In martite-
goethite ores, chert- and carbonate-dominant bands have
been leached out and replaced by goethite so that the overall
iron content has been enriched. Disseminated magnetite in
chert and carbonate bands is oxidized to martite in martite-
ores. In the microplaty hematite ores, a network of
fine (O.2-D.Ol mm) microplates of hematite has completely
replaced chert and carbonate-dominant bands. For the
itabirite-derived ores from the Quadrilatero Ferrifero, resid-
ual concentration of hematite and martite has been achieved
by leaching out of silicate- or carbonate-rich bands. In the less
strongly leached itabirite-derived ore, some remnant friable
quartz may be present with residual hematite and martite.
'.' Martite/ Hematite
_. -
cheril
Ore
E=3 Shale/Clay
Carbonate
Format ion Martite-Goethite Ore
Martite
.liiiUI
Shale/Clay
Hematite & Itabirite Ores
'11 Hematite/Quartz
P: Hematite
= == Friable quartz/day
FIG. 4. Simplified summary of ore relationships to primary banding in
BIF for high-grade hematite and martite-goethite iron ores. In microplaty
hematite ores, BIF chert or carbonate bands are replaced by microplaty
hematite (cross-hatching), magnetite bands by martite-hematite (black
bands), and Al silicate bands by shale (clays), For mamte-goethite ores, BIF
chert or carbonate bands are replaced by goethite-disseminated martite
(black squares), magnetite bands by martite (black bands), and AI silicate
hands by shale (clays). In the case of itabirite and othe r hematite ores, leach-
ing of BlF chert or carbonate bands has resulted in residual accumulation of
hematite (Stipple) or friable hematite-residual quartz, magnetite bands by
hematite and/or martite (black bands), and AI silicate bands by shale (clays).
Note that chert and carbonate bands in parent BIF commonly contain dis-
seminated magnetite. Note similar replacement relationships also apply to
GIF.
Although the main ore minerals are hematite and
and the overall mineralogy is quite simple, are textures and
their spatial distribution and modification across individual
deposits are typically complex (Clout, 2002).
Iron ore tenninology
There are a number of terms used frequently to .describe
the physical properties of iron ores not commonly used in
other commodities, especially relative physical hardness.
The relative physical hardness of high-grade hematite and
martite-goethite ores varies conSiderably within a deposit and
is a function of ore texture and the extent of secondary leach-
ing of martite. goethite. and microplaty hematite (Clout.
2002). Iron ores are commonly described in terms of de-
creasing physical hardness from hard to medium. friable. soft.
and finally powdery or dust. Ores that are hard to medium
have low porosity with physically strong interlocking textures
of martite. hematite. or martite-microplaty hematite. Friable
is used to describe ore that can be easily broken up by hand.
commonly into centimeter-scale prisms defined by joint
planes and fissile bedding. Friable ore is more porous than
medium-hardness ore. Soft is ti,e term used where the ore
can be dug in situ by hand or with a shovel. is composed of
0.05- to 1.0-mm particles. and is very porous and typically not
dusty. Powdery or dusty ore contains appreciable particles
less than O.Ol-mm diameter. Blue dust is a term used in Aus-
tralia and India to describe distinctly blue-gray fme-grained
(0.005-0.2 mm) powdery ore composed of leached martite
and or microplaty hematite. The hardness and related char-
acteristics of ore are obviously important factors in its grind-
ing and beneficiation. as well as the amount of lump ore ob-
tained as it attracts a premium price over the fines. Lump ore
is defined as having a particle size of 31.5 to 6.3 mm. whereas
particles less than 6.3 mm are known as sinter fmes.
Unenriched iron formation ores
Unenriched primary iron formation is a major source of
iron ore in many parts of the world. especially China and
North America. and includes both magnetite- and hematite-
rich iron formation. In North America. the term taconite is
used to describe magnetite- and hematite-rich BIF and/or
GIF ore with >30 wt percent Fe (James. 1954; Neal. 2000).
In Australia and Brazil , little unenriched iron formation are
has been mined to date due to the presence of Significant re-
sources of direct-ship or easy to beneficiate high-grade
hematite and martite-goethite ore.
Where observed. the geology and mineralogy of the iron
formation ores are similar to the surrounding uneconomic
iron formation, except that the are zone contains more abun-
dant and coarser grained magnetite (Fig. 5A) or hematite. less
gangue inclusions in magnetite. or a higher percentage of iron
oxide meso- and/or microbands compared to silicate- or car-
bonate-rich mesobands (Fig. 5B). Iron formation ores are
commonly located in greenschist- to amphibolite-facies ter-
rane. with the higher metamorphic grade associated with
coarser magnetite grain size and more discrete grains of
gangue (Neal. 2000). Sub- to lower greenschist-facies iron
formations such as those in Australia and Brazil are com-
monly uneconomic, since the magnetite is either very fine
(Fig. 5C. D) or contains very fine inclusions of gangue which
require expensive fine grinding to liberate prior to beneficia-
tion. Many iron formation ores contain a weathered cap of
hard hematite. hematite-goethite. or friable hematite-quartz
(Fig. 6). which in some cases may be economic to process
(e.g . Tallering Peak mine. Western Australia. and the now
depleted high-grade supergene-upgraded ore above taconite
ore in the Great Lakes region).
In the United States. Significant resources of Lake Supe-
rior-type BIF and/or GIF taconite have been mined from
Michigan (Empire and Tilden) and Minnesota (Hibbing and
North Shore). with the Fe grade of ores as low as 30 to 35 wt
percent (Graber and Sundberg. 2002). Although magnetite is
commonly the main ore mineral in the iron formation, other
ore minerals include hematite-siderite (Tilden mine) and
minor goethite near the surface. Key gangue minerals include
quartz. iron carbonates (siderite. ankerite). and iron silicates
(minnesotaite, greenalite. stilpnomelane. cummingtonite).
The Anshan district. located in the Archean Anshan-Liaon-
ing granite-greenstone belt in the southern part of the Liaon-
ing province in northeast China. has a history of iron forma-
tion mining dating back to the middle Tang Dynasty of the 7"
century. The Gongchangling deposit is typical of a number of
>500 Mt BIF ore deposits (25-35 wt % Fe) in the Anshan dis-
trict. with Significant production of 35 Mt of magnetite con-
centrates in 2004 (Bofei. 2005). The Gongchangling deposit is
located within a steeply dipping greenschist- to amphibolite-
facies metavolcano-serumentary sequence. The main ore
mineral is magnetite. although it has been oxidized to martite
near surface. The gangue mineralogy is quite complex and in-
cludes quartz. stilpnomelane. chlorite. muscovite. eastonite.
alumino-greenalite, almandine, grunerite, cummingtonite.
calcite. albite. epidote. or hornblende as independent or
composite bands. Cummingtonite. grunerite. riebeckite. and
arfvedsonite are indicators of high-grade ore. whereas differ-
ent varieties of hornblende are indicators of low-grade ore.
The Mount Gibson (Extension Hill) deposit (200 Mt) is a
typical iron fannation ore located in the Murchison province
of the Archean Yilgarn craton of Western Australia (Western
Australia Department of Industry and Resources. unpub.
data; Lascelles. 2002). The deposit is located within steeply
dipping and tightly folded magnetite BIF of the Windanning
Formation. which has been metamorphosed to lower green-
schist facies . and has a hematite-goethite oxidized cap (Fig. 7;
Lascelles. 2002). Magnetite is present as 0.05- to 0.2-mm-size
grains in typically lO-mm-thick (<1 mm->20 cm range)
oxide-rich (>80%) mesobands or as a matrix surrounding sili-
cate gangue. as well as in disseminated fine (0.001-0.01 mm)
grains within chert-rich mesobands (Lascelles. 2002). Sepa-
rating the magnetite-rich mesobands are bands ranging in
composition from hydrous iron silicates to carbonate or chert.
Although magnetite is the main ore mineral. like in many
other BlF ores, iron is also present in iron silicates (grunerite,
minnesotaite, chlorite, and stilpnomelane) and carbonates
(siderite. ankerite. and ferroan dolomite). which are usually
either not recoverable or are undesirable in downstream iron-
making processes. The ore has been subdivided into four ore
types based on the percent of chert and other gangue be-
tween the magnetite-rich layers. with ore types 1 and 2 con-
taining massive magnetite, whereas are types 3 and 4 contain
more disseminated. fine-grained magnetite and a greater
abundance of chert and other gangue (Povey and Leather.
1997).
Martite-goethite supergene ores
The martite-goethite ores are generally accepted as the
products of recent supergene leaching and replacement of
BIF (Morris. 1980. 1985). Martite-goethite ores are charac-
terized by a predominance (>50%) of goethite over martite
and well-preserved bedding from the primary iron formation.
About 90 percent of the premining iron formation-hosted
1
IRON FORMATIONS AND ASSOCIATED IRON ORE DEPOSITS
FIG. 5. Photomicrographs of typical ore textures and microstructures for BIF, mamte-goethite. and rnicroplaty hematite
ore. Plane-polarized reflected light images. E '" epoK)' resin. G "" goethite, Ceo;: goethite replacing carbonate. H '" hematite,
M ., mamte. mpl H :: microplaty hematite, Mt = magnetite, OC = ochreous goethite, P = micropore.s-are black, Si '"'
silicates-mainly quartz. and SVC .. silicates and carbonates. A. Coarse magnetite with inclusions of quartz, unenriched.
Nammuldi Member BIF, Marra Mamba Iron Fannatian. Chichester Ranges, Western Australia; same location for (8 )(D).
B. BIF composed of alternating microbands of magnetite and chert-disseminated dolomite. C. BlF comprising disseminated
magnetite in chert wUh disseminated dolomite. D. Fine-grained disseminated magnetite in chert BIF-particles mounted
in epoxy resin. E. Martite-goethite ore, Marandoo deposit, Mount Newman Member, Marra Mamba [ron Formation. F.
Martite--ochreous goethite ore, West Angelas A deposit, Mount Newman Member. Note the microbanding is simil ar 10 Ihal
in typicaJ Marra Mamba BIF in ( B). C. High phosphorous martite.goethite ore, Mount Tom Price section 6, Brockman Iron
Formation. H. Silicates psudomorphouse after ochreous goethite, Marandoo deposit, Mount Newman Member. I.
Interocking network of hematite microplates, Mount Tom Price, DaJes Gorge Member, Brockman Iron Formation. J.
Microplaty hematite-goethite ore, Iron Duke deposit, South Austraha. K. Martite-microplaty hematite ore, N4E depoSit,
Carajas, Brazil. L. ltabirile-derived foliated hematite ore, Aguas Claras deposit, Quadrilatero Fenifero, Brazil .
657
resource for the Hamersley province is of Phanerowic super-
gene martite-goethite ore (Morris, 2002b). Some of the best
examples of martite-goethite ores (Table 2) are hosted in the
2.60 Ga Marra Mamba Iron Formation (Fig. 8) in the Pilbara
craton of West em Australia (Trendall et al ., 1998) and include
the Marandoo, Area C, and West Angelas deposits (Harms-
worth et al. , 1990). Significant martite-goethite mineralization
is also well developed in the stratigraphically higher Brockman
Iron Formation (Fig. 8; e.g., Ophthalmia Range, Rhodes
Ridge, Paraburdoo Eastern Ranges, Section 6 and 7 deposits).
658 cwur AND SIMONSON
Surlace
Depth of We,alherina
FIG. 6. Stylized cross section through the magnetite ore deposit of a t)p-
ical Australian iron fonnation, showing depth of weathering and hematite cap
to the deposit. In more intensely weathered areas, low-grade goethite may
dominate over hematite in the deposit cap. Vertical scale ,. horizontaJ scale
and depth of weathering is 5 to 50 m.
Hematile and
cherl-free BIF
Quartz mica schist
Felsic volcanics
SOOm
- - - - Shear zone
m;"
DIF
,','. Dolerite
B
100m
-.----. Geological boundary (inferred)
. . . Bedding trace
- . _ Base of weathering
Drillhole
-
Shear zone
Flc.7. Geologic block model and cross section of Mount Gibson (Exten-
sion Hill) deposit, Western Australia. Adapted from Lascelles (2002).
220 BOOLGEEDA IRON FORMATION
200 WOONGARRA RHYOLITE
400
WEELI WOLL! FORMATION
g
40=

340
u
c
35 =
-"
.!l
120
""
100-
f-
45=
Yandicoogma Shale }
Joffre Member
Whaleback Sbale FORMATION
Dales Gorge Member
MT McRAE SHALE
MT SYLVIA FORMATION
500
WITTENOOM FORMATION
235
Mt Newman Member } MARRA MAMBA
MacLeod. Member IRON FORMATION
Nammuldl Member
Flc. 8. Stratigraphic column for the Hamersley Group, Pilbara craton,
Westem Australia. Adapted from Hannsworth et aJ . (1990).
In Marra Mamba and high phosphorous Brockman mar-
tite-goethite ores, martite has replaced magnetite micro bands
(Fig. 5A-B) and magnetite disseminated in silicate andlor car-
bonate microbands (Fig. 5C), preserving the original outline
of banding in the BIF (Fig. 5E-F). Preservation of banding
also occurred due to iron enrichment where silicate and/or
carbonate microbands are replaced by either brown goethite
(Fig. 5A, G) or yellow ochreous goethite (Fig. 5B). Delicate
brushlike silicate textures (Fig. 5F) and carbonate rhombs
(Fig. 5F) from silicate-earbonate BIF are pseudomorphous
after ochreous goethite.
The West Angelas A deposit (reseIVes in excess of 418 Mt
at 62 wt % Fe; Rio Tmto, 2(04) is hosted within the Mount
Newman Member at the top of the Marra Mamba Iron For-
mation, immediately beneath the Wittenoom Formation (Fig.
8; Harmsworth et al. , 1990; Bergstrand et al., 2(03). The de-
posit is located in a synclinal structure on the southern flank
of the east-west-trending and west-plunging Won Munna an-
ticline. Bergstrand et al. (2003) provided deSCriptive details of
the West Angelas A deposit from which the follow account is
given. The main ore minerals in this deposit and many other
Marra Mamba ores are martite, hard brown goethite, and
powdery yellow ochreous goethite that has histOrically been
referred to as limonite. In the flat-lying section of the West
Angelas A deposit (Fig. 9), the top of the mineralization is
overprinted by areas of vitreous goethite hardcap. Hardc.p is
a common term used in iron are geology to describe recent
intense weathering of iron ore, up to 60 m below surface, con-
sisting of highly porous or coarse cellular-textured vitreous
goethite with high concentrations of Si and AI either substi-
tuted into the crystal lattice or occurring as inclusions of clay.
Hardcap contains minor visible colloform-banded quartz.
The hardcap at West Angelas is immediately underlain by
hard martite-goethite hematite ore where extensive dehydra-
tion of goethite inftll has resulted in hematite fonnation (A,
Fig. 9). The lumpy hard martite-goethite-(hematite) ore (>50
wt % hematite) passes stratigraphically down into underlying
medium to friable goethite-martite are 50 wt % hematite;
S ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
Water Table
600 m RL
o 100 m
---
Mineralized West Angela Member
Bedded martite-goethite
Bedded friable goethite
D Alluvium, colluvium
o West Angela Member
!1 Mount Newman Member
Wil Macleod Member
rool
Hardcap
Flc. 9. GeologiC cross section looking west through the West Angelas A deposit, Western Australia. Letters A-O denote
stratigraphic zones separated by thin shale units within the Mount Newman Member of the Marra Mamba Iron Formation.
Adapted from Bergstrand et aI. (2003).
B, Fig. 9) and then into leached, friable to powdery, bedded
ochreous goethite-martite ore 30 wi % hematite; C, Fig. 9),
reflecting original variations in stratigraphic composition.
Ochreous goethite-martite ore when friable contains denser
brown goethite, either as cement between martite grains or as
discrete pods, whereas powdery examples have alternating
meso bands of leached yellow ochreous goethite with highly
leached martite "blue dust."
The steeply dipping sections of the ore tend to contain
more friable to powdery ochreous goethite-martite ore, due
to secondary leaching by ground waters, compared to the less
leached and dehydrated flat hard ore, whereas the moder-
ately dipping ore is intermediate in hardness and mineralogy
between the flat and steep ore (Bergstrand et al. , 2003).
Preservation of primary BIF layering is common, with mar-
tite pseudomorphous after magnetite micro- to mesobands,
and silicate and/or carbonate micro- to mesobands replaced
by goethite (Fig. 10). In the hard martite-goethite ore,
coarse-grained (1-4 mm) martite is intergrown with goethite
and few pores remain (Fig. lOA, I). Moderate leaching of
martite-goethite flat hard ore has resulted in either porous
martite (M in Fig. lOB) or martite-ochreous goethite ore (M-
OG in Fig. lOC). Friable ochreous goethite-martite ore in
zone C consists of alternating bands of ochreous goethite re-
placing ex-silicate and/or carbonate microbands and martite
grains replacing original magnetite microbands (Fig. 100).
The gangue occurs as thin 2 m) kaolinite-rich shale
mesobands, whereas quartz is largely secondary and re-
stricted to the weathered surface hardcap.
Circulation of ground water in the upper portion of the de-
posit may have been influenced by the presence of aquicludes
such as shalelike bands (Bergstrand et al. , 2003). Iron-rich
ground water is interpreted to have ponded above near-hori-
zontal aquicludes, encouraging abundant secondary goethite
to deposit in localized zones, and subsequently to partly de-
hydrate to hematite, thus causing the denSity of the host ore
to increase (Clout, 2002; Bergstrand et al ., 2003).
Many high-grade hematite deposits in the QuadriIatero
Ferrifero and Carajas districts of Brazil also contain a recent
thin 30 m) goethite-martite hardcap and goethitic "canga"
(Fig. 11), a term to describe loose detrital material and ce-
mented martite-hematite conglomerate at the surface. How-
ever, the hardcap and canga may derive from goethite re-
placement of gangue in BIF or supergene ore during recent
weathering (Spier et al., 2003).
High-grade hematite ores
The high-grade (>60 wi % Fe) hematite ores, which in-
clude martite-hematite and microplaty hematite-martite re-
placement ores, have quite variable characteristics (Table 3).
Hematite ores: The hematite ores are composed of residual
martite and/or hematite thought to be derived from iron for-
mation by leaching of gangue, leading to residual concentra-
tion of the iron minerals. For the most part, hematite ores
contain very little (<15%) goethite, except in the surface
hardcap, and may include some hematite of interpreted hy-
pogene origin (e.g., Quadrilatero Ferrifero hard high-grade
ores).
Fl c. 10. T)1)ical hand specimen examples of marlite-goethite from West Angelus A deposit (A-D and I) and variOllS high-
grade mi croplaty hematite ores (E-H). Samples are (A) hard martite-goethite ore with macropores; (B) hard tlHlrtite-gocthite
ore with low porosity (venter) and outer leached (darker) fdable martite ore; (C) contact between hard martite-goethile ore
(dark, left ) and leached friable ochreous gocthitc-martite are; (D) laminations of martite (dark, after magnetite) with ochre-
ous goethi te (yellow, after silicate). (El to (Gl arc from Mount Tom Price, Dales Gorge Member, Brockman I ron Formation;
(I::) thin lami nations of microplaty hematite (after chert ) in massive bands of dense and very hard interlocking-textured
hematite (after magnetite); (F) hard martite- hematite ore with macropores (red-omnge); (G) alternating bands of tnicroplaty
hematite-goethite (darker) with martite-microplaty hematite (l ight gray); and (1-1 ) porous mieroplaty hematite (slightl)'
darker) alternating wi th well-jointed hard martite- microplaty hematite (lighter) b,mds, Channar mine, Joffre (I )
martite-ri ch hands after BIF magnetite-ri ch bands, whereas goethite- ri ch bands are after BIF sil icate an(Vor carbonate
bands. C '" goethite. \ '1 == martite, mpll l :: microp[aty hematite, OC '" ochreous goethite, P = macropore.
The high-grade Sishen hematite deposit (1690 Mt at 64.8
wt % Fe; Carney and Mienie, 2002) in South Afri ca occurs
immediately beneath a major regional erosional unconformity
and grades downward into unmi neralized BlF (Beukes, 1986;
Beukes et aI. , 2002). High-grade hematite ore is only devel-
oped in the Asbestos Hills Subgroup where the unconformity
transects BlF and the ore is inteqJreted to be of pre-Tertiaty
residual supergene origin. The Sishen-type high-grade
S
...........
"'c.. .
. . . . . . '.':'
.. .. . ..
. ..... . .
...... ...... , ......... ... .
....... . .. .
..:-:-: . ".-:-: -: .' ,
.... . . . .. . ...
............. .
N
Itabirite
Dolomitic
Itabirite
Shale
Goethite ore
D Soft high grade ore
_ Hard high grade ore
I t I Quartz ltabirite
hematite deposits are best developed where the host BIF has
slumped into karstic structures in the underlying Campbell-
rand Dolomite (Fig. 12). A siliceous chert breccia (Wol-
haarkop Breccia) marks the dissolution surface between the
dolomite and overlying ore-bearing BIF. Bedding in the iron
formation precursor is commonly highly contorted andlor
brecciated due to slumping. Iron ores in the karstic slump
structures are typically overlain by reworked conglomeratic
iron ores and highly aluminous diaspore-rich shales and asso-
ciated pisolitic lateritic profIles (Gutzmer and Beukes, 1998).
Thin (1-2 m), high-grade hematite ore beds are locally pre-
setved below the unconformity away from the karst slump
structures .
FIG. 11. Schematic geologic cross section through the Aguas Clams de-
posit, QuadriMtero Femfero. Brazil. Adapted from Beukes et aI. (2002).
Beukes et aI. (2002) and Carney and Mienie (2002) de-
scribed two major supergene ore types and their relative
abundances: hard microcrystalline massive (58% of the total
resource) and laminated (18%) martite ores thought to be
derived from supergene residual enrichment of BIF below
the Gamagara unconformity; and conglomeratic (detrital )
ores (16%) derived from erosion of underlying laminated
martite ore and concentrated in the lower part of the overly-
ing Gamagara Formation. Carney and Mienie (2002) also de-
scribed breccia ores (8%) comprising very angular and poorly
sorted fragments of laminated and massive ores that fill sink-
holes in the Campbellrand Dolomite. The microcrystalline
laminated martite ore preserves original textures and band-
ing of the precursor BIF and are interpreted as supergene
residual concentration of martite. This is supported by oxy-
gen isotope data for hematite that vary between --3 and +3
TABLE 3. Summary of Characteristics of Key Hematite Del::itsl
Reserves Gt Interpreted timing
District (1.000 MI) Host rock Main ore type Accessory ore types of mineralization
Sishen. South Africa 0.17 Asbestos H;jj, Subgroup Hard massive hematite. Specular hematite Post metamorphism
laminated hematite
(60-66% Fe)
QuadriU.tero 3.3 Itabirite Friable hematite Specular hematite. magnetite. Premetamorphism
Ferrlfero. Brazil (35-41% Fe) (64-68% Fe) dolomiteitabirite (32% Fe)
Carajas. Brazil 18.0 Carajas Formation Friable hematite Brecciated hematite-<lolomite. Synmagmatic
(3.5-38% Fe) (66-08% Fe) laminated hematite-dolomite
(45% Fe)
Hamersiey, Australia 3.5 Brockman Iron Hardfriable hematite Magnetite.siderite.apatite. Postmetamorphism
Fonllation (34% Fe) (64-68% Fe) hematite-ankerite-apatite
(44-68% Fe)
Krivoy Rog. Ukrame 4. 7 Saksagan Suite Hematite Magnetite/magnetite-specular Postmetamorphism
(36% Fe) (64% Fe) hematite. magnetite-earbonate.
magnetite-amphibole
(50-57% Fe)
B.uadila, India 1.5 Bailadila Group Hard hematite Synmagmatic
(35% Fe) (64-68% Fe)
Thabazimbi. 0.3 Penge Iron Fonnation Hard hematite Brecciated hematite-calcite Premetamorphism
South Africa (36% Fe) (65% Fe) (45% Fe). lami nated
hematite-<lolomite (42% Fe).
hemati te-talc
All percent values on v.rt basis
I Modified from Dalstra and Cuedes (2004), Carney and Mienie (2002). and Hagemann et al. (in press)
--------- - -
-- - ------ -- ------ - -- --- -- --- ----
--- - --- --- - - ----------- - ---------
-- -- -- -- --- - ----- - -- -- - ----- ----
----- - - - -- - ---------- - ------- - ---
-- - --- -- -------- -- --- - - - --- - ----
............
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
........ ...
T
E
is
N
0
.,..,
I
1
-200-500m ,I
c
Red and cream shale
. Unconformity
-;;; Laminated Ore
E
0

r
'"
c
g .9
1 1 Transgressive quartzite
I I AI-rich shale
I z ,.1 Cherty iron fonnation
'"
a IT ... TI Wolhaarkop Breccia
'" -
.. '"
c E
'"
::E&
'"
8 Dissolution surface
:lIi-; Conglomeratic ore 0 Campbellrand Dolomite
Flc. 12. Schematic geologic cross section through the 5ishen deposit. South Africa, showing karstic solution collapse
struchues. Adapted from Beukes et aJ. (2002).
per mil (relative to SMOW), suggesting precipitation from
surface waters at low temperature (Beukes et al., 2(02). How-
ever, localized coarse specular hematite infill of secondary
pores and veinlets crosscuts both laminated and conglomer-
atic ores and suggests some secondary post-Camagara iron
remobilization.
The Quadrilatero Fenifero hosts Significant (-17,500 Mt at
>64 wi % Fe) soft, high-grade hematite and/or martite de-
posits, with resources of -10,000 Mt averaging 66 to 68 wi
percent Fe. They are thought to have formed in part by resid-
ual concentration due to supergene leaching of carbonate and
quartz from hard itabirite (meta-BlF) protore with about 40
wi percent Fe (Cuild, 1953, 1957; Dorr, 1965; Rosiere and
Chemale, 1991; Pires, 2002; Beukes et al. , 2002; Cuedes et
al., 2002; Ribeiro et al., 2002; Spier et al. , 2003; and
Rios, 2004). However, only 15 percent of the total resource is
of hard high-grade ore, thought to be of hypogene origin,
which form smaller pods and lenses within the dominant
(85% of total resource) soft, high-grade supergene residual
ores (Fig. 11; Spier et al., 2003). The high hematite-content
ores are hosted in the Caue Itabirite Formation of the Pro-
teromic sedimentary Minas Supergroup, which uncon-
formably overlies Archean greenstones. Itabirite in the
Quadrilatero Fenifero has been deeply weathered to depths
of up to 500 m beneath the surface. The district consists of
two structural domains: an eastern high-strain domain domi-
nated by thrusts and mylonitic shear zones, with tight to iso-
clinal folds, and a western low-strain domain with well-pre-
seIVed megasynclines, discontinuous shear zones, and thrusts
(Rosiere and Chemale, 1991; Chemale et al., 1994; Rosiere et
al ., 2001, 2(02). Both the iron formations and hard, high-
grade ores have been regionally metamorphosed and are
quite structurally complex (Rosiere and Chemale, 1991;
Rosiere et, al., 2001, 2003, 2004; Hagemann et al., in press).
At the Aguas Claras mine (-288 Mt), in the Quadrilatero
Femfero district, high-grade (>64 wt % Fe) ore sits between
hard itabirite and black phyllite (shale) and is interpreted to
grade at depth into dolomitic itabirite and laterally into soft,
hematite-rich itabirite in an overturned sequence (Fig. 11;
Pires, 2002; Spier et al. 2003). The dolomitic itabirite is
strongly banded with characteristic centimeter-scale meso-
banding of carbonate and/or oxide layers and dominates in
the mine area over siliceous itabirite found in the north wall
of the mine (Spier et al. , 2(03). However, the origin of the
dolomitic itabirite is controversial; proposed alternatives in-
clude a sedimentary facies variation of the Minas sediments
(Dorr, 1965), diagenetic replacement of chert by carbonate
(Spier et al ., 2(03), and hypogene hydrothermal replacement
C!f chert by carbonates (Dalstra and Cuedes, 2004). The
Aguas Claras ore consists of pods of hard, high-grade
1
I
hematite are, of interpreted hypogene origin, within domi-
nant soft, high-grade supergene are, with a thin goethitic are
hardcap (Fig. 11; Spier et al., 2003). The soft, high-grade are
mainly consists of residual martite, granular hematite, and lo-
cally foliated tabular hematite crystals (specularite; Fig. 5L)
with rare gangue consisting of dolomite, chlorite, talc, and ap-
atite (Spier et aI., 2003).
At least four principal textural types of high-grade hematite
ore are recognized in the Quadrilatero Ferrifero, including
the follOwing: (1) thin-bedded, laminated, and banded; (2) fo-
liated, micaceous, and schistose, from high-strain domains;
(3) minor brecciated; and, (4) massive andlor compact
(Rosiere et aI. 2001; Pires, 2002; Rosiere and Rios, 2004). Al-
though the ores are best known for a foliated hematite spec-
ulante texture (Fig. 5L), the most common texture is martite
after magnetite. Magnetite porphyroclasts occur in schistose
(mylonitic) are types in high-strain domains (Rosiere et aI.,
2001, 2002; Rosiere and Rios, 2004). The friable hematite-
rich low-grade (40-58 wt % Fe) itabirite ore is composed of
liberated hematite and quartz gangue and so is widely used as
low-grade concentrator feed to produce a high-grade (>65 wt
% Fe) concentrate (Spier et aI., 2003).
In the Pico mine, south of Aguas Claras, high-grade are and
iron-rich itabirite are hosted within siliceous itabilite (Spier et
aI., 2003). The soft, high-grade ores are well laminated and
highly porous (30-45 vol %) and consist of microbands
formed by aggregates of martite and hematite that alternate
with highly porous martite-hematite microbands (Spier et aI.,
2003). Ribeiro et aI. (2002) reported evidence of a collapSing
process with subsidence of the soft, friable hematite ore fol-
lOwing dissolution and volume loss, including kink-bands and
chevron structures.
Roserie and Rios (2004) present detailed fluid inclusion
(infrared microthermometry), petrographic, and textural re-
sults on difTerent generations of hematite from the
iron are deposit in the northeastern part of the
Ferrffero. The authors define three generations of hematite
and specularite related to different deformational phases.
Hematite I is composed of porous martite and new hematite
crystals interpreted to have formed from oxidation of mag-
netite by low-temperature, low- to medium-salinity fluids of
possible modified surface water origin, follOwing the collapse
phase of the Transamazonian orogeny (2.1-2.0 Ga). However,
no measurements cou1d be made on fluid inclusions in
hematite I. Hematite II defines a granoblastic fabric in iron
formations and high-grade ores representing a second
episode of mineralization and subsequent recrystalization
during regional metamorphism. Hematite II crystals grew
from low-temperature and low- to medium-salinity hy-
drothermal fluids (based on large two-phase fluid inclusions
with Th 115_145C and salinities eqUivalent to 4-10 wt %
NaCI). Tabular hematite III is syndeformational and formed
above 120C (based on two-phase fluid inclusions with Th
120-140C) during the Brasiliano-Pan-African orogeny
Ga). Finally, speculante that is composed of platy
hematite crystals contains two- and three-phase fluid inclu-
sions with Th of 140 to 205C and dissolution of daughter
crystals at _350C; this formed in ductile shear zone-related
schistose high-grade orebodies. Hematite III and speculante
are both associated with high salinity (> 20 wt % NaCI equiv)
fluids, although unequivocal evidence for their origin is not
presented.
Microplaty hematite ore: The high-grade replacement mi-
croplaty hematite ores are characterized by ubiquitous mi-
croplates of hematite (Fig. 51) and vanable hardness and
porosity; and they occur with or without martite. The Mount
Tom Price deposit in the Pilbara craton of Western Australia
is an example of high-grade microplaty hematite ore, with the
Original resource being 900 M t at 63.9 wt percent Fe of low
phosphorous (0.053 wt % P) ore (Harmsworth et aI. , 1990;
Taylor et al., 2001; Bitencourt et al ., 2002; Dalstra et al.,
2002). The deposit is located in a synclinOrium along tlle
northern limb of the regional Turner syncline on its eastern
closure (Figs. 13, 14). The structure of the Mount Tom Price
area is characterized by major thrusts and faults that parallel
fold axes, with many open synclines and anticlines plus faults
persisting along strike for 20 to 40 km (Harmsworth et aI.,
1990; Bitencourt et aI ., 2002). The Mount Tom Price miner-
alization is largely restricted to the Dales Gorge Member of
the Brockman Iron Formation and the underlying Colonial
Chert Member, altllOugh there is minor iron enrichment of
the overlying Mount Whaleback Shale Member and the Jof-
fre Member. Subvertical dolerite dikes cross the deposit sub-
parallel to the major axis of the orebody (Fig. 14) and show
locally intense chlorite-hematite-talc alteration. Magnesite-
dolomite veins and intense talc alteration in shale, ore, and
BIF characterize the hydrothermal alteration along the
Southern Batter fault and in the North deposit (Dalstra and
Guedes, 2004; Thorne et aI., 2004). Thorne et aI. (2004) have
documented a complete hydrothermal alteration zone across
mineralization in the North deposit (Fig. 13), with a distal
zone of magnetite-siderite-iron silicate that grades into an in-
termediate zone of hematite-ankerite-magnetite, and finally
into a proximal zone of martite-microplaty hematite-apatite
which represents the main ore mineralization. Fluid inclusion
studies on ankerite in hematite-ankerite veins from the distal
alteration zone revealed mostly high salinity H,O-CaC!, pseu-
dosecondary (23.9 wt % CaC!,equiv) and secondary (24.4 wt
% CaCI, equiv) inclusions with mean homogenization tem-
peratures of 253 and 117C, respectively (Thorne et aI. ,
2004). The carbon isotope signature of the carbonates is in-
creasingly heavy from distal magnetite-siderite-iron silicate
alteration (OIOC -8.8 0.7%0) to the intermediate microplaty
hematite-ankerite-magnetite alteration (OI'C -4.9 0.70/00;
Thorne et aI., 2004).
The microplaty hematite ore at Mount Tom Price varies
from hard to medium massive hematite andlor martite-mi-
croplaty hematite, to friable ores, and to powdery and highly
leached blue dust ore (Box et aI. , 2002; Clout, 2002). Alter-
nating hard, medium, and friable hematite andlor martite
micro- and mesobands persist laterally over a few meters
(Fig. 10E, G, H). Porous microplaty hematite mesobands
(Fig. 10E) commonly alternate with hard and dense, inter-
locking mosaic-textured hematite (Fig. lOE) or residual mar-
tite (Fig. lOF, H). Although the microplates of hematite in-
terlock in the harder ore types (Fig. 51), they just touch at
their tips in the friable porous ore types. At shallow (0-40 m)
depths below the present land surtace, the pores between
hematite microplates may be filled with secondary goethite
(Fig. lOG), which may be partly dehydrated back to hematite;
664 CT,Of.JT AI\' D SlMONSON

.. _--
""""'-..........
""'"
c::::J sw.u;
C=:J WT.l'L\"" FORMAl1(f;
" T\"T1;.'<0CIM . OR. ...... nOf'

c:::::J JEERIl'WI ......... n<;;.:

_H .. <; .... ' 11<_
_ ' _ _ ' ARs

---
FIG. 13. Geologic plan of the Tom Price deposit, Western A%tral ia. After Taylor e\ at (200l ).
Microplaty Hematite - Low P
Microplaty Hematite - High P
c::J Magnetite - High P
SOUTHERN
BROCKMAN IRON FORMATION

Joffre Me mber
WhaJeback Shale Me mber
Dales Gorge Member
El
Footwall Zone
MT MCRAE SHALE
CJMTSYLVIA FORMATION

Bee Gorge Member
Paraburdoo Member
FIe. 14. Geologic cross section of the Mount Tom Price deposit at 13002E, looking northwest. After Taylor al. (ZOO]).
similar textures occur in the Iron Duke iron ore deposit in
South Australia (Fig. 5J; Clout, 2(02). The blue dust ore con-
sists of largely 0.2- to 0.03-mm corroded and leached plates of
hematite and minor porous martite. At Mount Tom Price,
Taylor et al. (2001) and Dalstra et al. (2002) documented
magnetite-carbonate mineralization with high phosphorous
concentrations at greater than 200 m below surface (Fig. 14),
marginal to the microplaty hematite mineralization that they
interpret as protore. Magnesite-dolomite veining and intense
talc alteration in shale, ore, and BIF characterize the strong
Mg-Fe metasomatic alteration along the Southern Batter
fault (Dalstra and Guedes, 2004).
The Mount Whaleback deposit is the largest iron ore accu-
mulation in Australia, originally having in excess of 1,800 Mt
of resources at 64 wt percent Fe. It lies in a faulted outlier of
the Hamersley Group (Harmsworth et al., 1990; Brown et al.,
2004). The deposit is structurally complex with the orebody
defined by the westerly plunging overturned East and South
synclines. The northern limit of the ore is truncated by the
southeast-dipping Mount Whaleback fault that juxtaposes the
Brockman Iron Formation to the south against the older
Jeerinah Formation to the north. The Mount Whaleback fault
has a normal sense of movement, and several low-angle nor-
mal faults branch off of it and cut across the orebody. As with
Mount Tom Price, the ore is largely developed in the Dales
Gorge Member as medium to hard microplaty hematite-mar-
tite. Ore is developed to a lesser extent in the Joffre Member
as softer fissile microplaty hematite ore with locally more
goethite or as highly leached blue dust microplaty hematite
ore. Minor iron enrichment also occurs in the upper section
of the Colonial Chert Member of the Mount McRae Shale.
A third example of high-grade microplaty hematite ore is
the deposits of the Caraja. district, Brazil, which contain
-17,500 Mt with >64 wt percent Fe hosted by the Caraja.
Formation (Gibbs et al ., 1986; Beukes et al. , 2002; Guedes et
al ., 2002; Lobato et al., 2004; Rios et al., 2004; Rosiere et al.,
v
v
v
v
h : ~ . 1 Surface laterite and canga
~ Fresh lava
_ Fresh iron formation
v
v
v
~ Fresh carbonate-hematite rock
2004; Silva et al., 2004). The Caraja. Formation comprises
discontinuous sedimentary layers and lenses of partial to com-
pletely dolomitized BIF and lenses of high-grade hematite
ore, cut by mafic sills and dikes. In the N4E mine area,
dolomite has locally replaced BIF chert along the banding
and also occurs as irregular veins and hydraulic breccias
(Guedes et aI., 2002; C.A. Rosiere, pers. commun., 2005).
Near the contact with hard ore, the underlying volcanic rocks
are typically altered and partially mineralized with dilational
breG"Cias and vugs filled with carbonate, quartz, kaolinite, and
microplaty hematite, quartz-hematite vei ns, and fibrous
aggregates of chlorite (Guedes et al. , 2(02). High-grade ore
occurs as tabular bodies of friable to soft hematite that con-
tain smaller lenses of hard hematite (Fig. 15). The friable
hematite ore occurs both as powdery hematite, almost devoid
of internal structure, and as millimeter-thick bands of fine-
grained hematite. In the N4E mine, Guedes et aI. (2002) have
documented idioblastic martite surrounded by very fine-
grained (-10 /lm) microplaty hematite (Fig. 5K). The hard
hematite orebodies with >66 wt percent Fe contain mi-
croplaty hematite and occur mainly near the contact with the
underlying metavolcanic rocks, where they are surrounded by
an aureole of hydrothermal carbonate alteration. Relict BIF
bedding is generally preserved in the hard ore with dense
hematite alternating with porous hematite.
A number of studies have documented an earlier carbonate
protore for high-grade hematite ore. For example, Beukes et
aI. (2002) recognized an early phase of metasomatic carbon-
ate-bearing ores at the Thabazimbi high-grade hematite de-
posit of South Africa, hosted by the Penge Iron Formation of
the Transvaal Supergroup. Fluid inclusion studies on carbon-
ates and quartz from Thabazimbi indicate mixing of two dis-
tinct hydrothermal fluids; one is a high-salinity fluid responsi-
ble for deposition of early dolomite at lSO to 100C, the
other is a low-salinity fluid that led to precipitation of quartz
at 120 to 140'C (Netshiozwi, 2(02). Beukes et aI. (2002)
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v v v
v
v v
v
v
v
200m
v
v
I } I Goethitic ore
I MiMI Friable ore
Hard ore
v
v
v
f::::=::::j Friable iron foonalion
I'v, I Weathered lava
v
v
Flc. 15. Schematic cross section through the N4E deposit, CarajAs district. Brazil. Adapted from Beukes et at. (2002).
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ 1
used fluid inclusion studies and oxygen isotope data on
hematite and calcite to suggest that the primary hematite ore
formed at 160C from a hydrothermal fluid of -2 per mil (rel-
ative to SMOW). Although they speculate this fluid was sur-
face water that had not exchanged with silicate rocks, hydro-
gen isotope data are required to unambiguously define fluid
provenance.
Ore Genesis
Genetic models for iron ores related to iron formations con-
tinue to attract controversy, especially for the high-grade
hematite iron ore depoSits, even though many core concepts of
current models were established as far back as the late 1800s to
early 1900s (Dorr, 1965, 1969; Morris, 1985, 2002b). Recent
reviews of and contributions to iron ore genesis models include
those by Taylor et al. (2001), Beukes et al. (2002), Morris
(2002), Spier et al. (2003), Rosiere and Rios (2004), and Hage-
mann et al. (in press). The controversy is not surprising, given
the wide variety of ore types and structural settings (described
above), the complex textures of ore and gangue, the lack of data
to constrain ore fluid compositions (e.g., limited fluid inclusion
work), and the large (-5-20 km') size of the orebodies.
The key genepc models for high-grade hematite and mar-
tite-goethite fall into one of three 'categories: (1) early syn-
genetic and diagenetic processes (King, 1989; Lascelles,
2(02); (2) hypogene alteration and replacement involving
deep-seated hydrothermal andlor magmatic fluids (Dorr,
1965; Brandt, 1966; Kneeshaw, 1975; Gutzmer et al., 2(02) or
shallow meteoric waters and basinal brines (Hagemann et al.,
1999; Powell et al., 1999; Taylor et aI., 2001, Buekes at aI.,
2(02); and (3) supergene events ranging from pre-Tertiary
with (Morris 1985, 1993, 2(02) or without (Van Schalkwyk
and Beukes, 1986) subsequent burial metamorphism in the
Mesozoic or Cenozoic (Dorr, 1964; MacLeod, 1966; Morris,
1985; Harmsworth et al., 1990). Despite Significant differ-
ences among models for the origin of the high-grade hematite
ores, there is a general consensus that the martite-goethite
ores have fonned as a result of recent supergene enrichment
of iron formation beneath Cretaceous to Tertiary weathering
profiles (Morris, 1980; Harmsworth et al ., 1990; Beukes et al. ,
2(02), and that high-grade hematite ores have been further
upgraded by recent supergene enrichment (Taylor et al.,
2001; Ribeiro et al ., 2002; Dalstra and Guedes, 2004). Present
debate is centered on the various composite hypogene-super-
gene models for different high-grade hematite deposits.
Syngenetic
Syngenetic models assume a clastic origin for iron forma-
tion-hosted are, with or without diagenetic concentration,
whereas composite syngenetic models include later modifica-
tion by metamorphism, igneous activity, or supergene
processes (King, 1989; Lascelles, 2002). Syngenetic processes
are thought to prOvide the initial magnetite-rich iron forma-
tion and are discussed earlier under models for the depOSition
of large iron formations. However, it is generally accepted
that the syngenetic model is unable to account for the speCific
location of martite-goethite ore beneath recent weathering
surfaces, or the structurally controlled microplaty hematite
ores that are commonly developed in fold structures, around
normal faults andlor back thrusts, or in brittle shear zones.
Supergene
Supergene models interpret the ores to be residual concen-
trates formed from leaching of gangue in the iron formation by
deep circulating ground water below either current or past
erosion surfaces but do not imply that it is a lateritization
process (Morris, 1993). Morris (1980, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1993)
presented the concept that the martite-goethite ore bodies
grew toward the surface via supergene metasomatic replace-
ment of BIF gangue minerals by hydrous iron oxides, driven
by a massive hydrodynamiC electrochemical cell. Magnetite is
oxidized to hematite (martite), preserving the original mag-
netite crystal outlines. For enrichment to occur, the model re-
quires a folded, fractured, or faulted BIF structure that forms
an open-nded artesian system, allowing ground-water access
to BIF well below the surface (Fig. 16). In this model, the
magnetic layers in the BIF are thought to have acted as elec-
tron conductors, whereas ground water seIVed as an ionic
transfer agent driven by cathodic reactions in the upper BIF
zone during wet seasons (4e- + 0, + 2H,O -+ 40H- ). Iron
leached from the friable silicate facies BIF at the surface was
mobilized as ferrous iron by biogenic reactions in the vadose
zone and transported deeper into the system. fu; water flowed
through the fold or fault structure, chert, silicates, carbonates,
and other gangue minerals were gradually replaced andlor
leached from the BIF, locally resulting in substantial strati-
graphic thinning. The ore-forming process generated signifi-
cant macro- and microporosity, thereby helping to create its
own fluid pathways. Pseudomorphic replacement of gangue at
depth by goethite was achieved through anodic oxidation of
ferric iron (Fe" -+ Fe" + e-) followed by ferrolysis (Fe" +
3H, O -+ Fe(OH), + 3H). Silica is more rapidly released into
solution at depth as a result of seasonal cyclic iron redox reac-
tions with quartz. However, Ohmoto (2003) has demonstrated
that the transfonnation of magnetite to hematite or vice versa
can also be achieved via a pH shift without a redox reaction.
Supergene processes are generally accepted by many re-
searchers (e.g., Morris 1980; Harmsworth et al., 1990; Taylor
et al., 2001; Clout, 2002; Dalstra and Guedes, 2004; Thome et
al. , 2004) to be responsible for the typical Pilbara Marra
Mamba martite-goethite ore and high phosphorous Brockman
martite-goethite ore, as well as final upgrading of high-grade
hematite ores. The Pilbara martite-goethite ores are inter-
preted to have an origin related to supergene processes be-
neath the Mesozoic-Tertiary weathering surface. They have
limited downdip extension below current outcrop, although a
few deposits (e.g. , West Angelas) extend downdip >250 m
(Harmsworth et al., 1990; Morris, 2002b). Harmsworth et al.
(1990) and Morris (2002b) suggested that simple supergene
leaching of silicates is locally responSible in high rainfall areas
for leaving a residue of both (martite) blue-dust ore in India
and friable quartz-hematite itabirite iron ores in the
Quadrilatero Ferrffero. However, most workers consider that
only the soft, high-grade hematite ore from the Quadrilatero
Ferrifero deposits formed by residual concentration due to re-
cent supergene leaching of carbonate and quartz from hard
itabirite protore (Cuedes et al., 2002; Pires, 2002; Ribeiro et
al., 2002; Spier et al., 2003; Rosiere and Rios, 2004). Another
example are the Sis hen-type deposits in South Africa, which
occur immediately below a major erosional unconformity and
667
BANDED IRON FORMAnON
HEMATITE
CARBONATES
SlUCATES
leachino
BLUE DUST I
+ +
ORES
MAGNETITE
SIUCA
T
r wpe<geoe enrichment -
r oxidation I metasomatic replacement
. by goethite
,
I
burial I
-..r HEMATITE-GOETHITE ORE regional metamorphism I
+
r mod;ty l..-r HEMATITE-RICH ORES
ordeh rahon
,
I
contact
l me

I VARIOUS ORE TYPES I Y MAGNETITE-RI HORES I

I surficial processes - eluvial concentration 1
t
"HARD CAP", "HYDRATED ZONE". "CRUSTAL ORE". "CANGA
A. System viewed in 3D
C. Transfer of Fe to anode
E. Transfer of Fe to anode
B. Electrochemical
cell 4.- + 0, 4{OH)-
Electrical
conductor (magnetite)
D. Transfer of Fe to anode
F. Final supergene ore body now
subject to leaching by groundwater
Flc. 16. Block diagram to explain the fonnation of supergene iron ore developed from BIF. From Morris (1998).
grade downward into unmineralized BIF. interpreted as pre-
Tertiary supergene ores (Beukes at aI. , 2(02).
Supergene ores and subsequent burial metamorphism
Supergene are subsequently overprinted by burial meta-
morphism was used by Morris (1980, 1985, 2(02) and
Hannsworth et aI. (1990) to explain the genesis of high-grade
microplaty hematite iron ores worldwide. Morris (1980) sug-
gested that some old martite-goethite supergene ores were
subjected to burial metamorphism to diagenetic levels
(-I00"C) and tl,at dehydration converted supergene metaso-
matic goethite either partially or totally to microplaty
668 CLOUT AND SiMONSON
hematite (Fig. 16). Exposure of microplaty hematite ore bod-
ies during the Mesozoic then resulted in the dissolut ion of
most of the unconvClicd goethite by ground water and partial
dissolution of hematite to leave a compact to highly porous
high-grade hematite are.
S1lpergelle-modified hypogene ores
There is currently widespread support for a h)lmgene-hy-
drothcrrnal origin for upgrading of iron formation to high-
grade hematite ore, especially for microplaty hematite de-
posits from Australia and hard, high-grade hematite deposits
from Brazil (Barley et ai. , 1989; Hagemann et aI., 1999; Oliver
and Dickens, 1999; Powell et aI. , 1999; Taylor et al., 2001;
Beukes et ai., 2002, Webb et aI., 2002, Spier ct aI. , 2003; Dal-
slTa and Cuedes, 2004; Hosiere and n ios, 2004; Thorne et aI. ,
2004). These models also include later modillcation of high-
grade hypogene hematite ore by recent upgrading.
Despite wide support for a h)11ogene Oiigin, there are con-
siderable differences between the various h}1)ogene models
proposed; these include combinations of ascending and/or
desccnding hydrothermal fluids that include warm basilMI
Soutnern
-
S"l<f F ... i!
r:
0 Mag''''tite-<ideri!C-
iroo alteration
Ascending basinal brmcs (150-25ifCj I dolerite
Stage Ie Late hypogene alteration
Wanin.,:. a.cending Nt,in:1l
brine(-120' C) I NW.trerlding dolerite
dike
brines and/or heated meteoric water (Barley et aI. , 1999;
Hagemann et al., 1999; Taylor et aI., 2001). The models differ
in the relative timing ofh)1Xlgene alteration and deformation,
the importance or universality of a carbonate protore, and the
t)1)e(s) of fluids responsible. Some of the key proponent mod-
els are presented below.
The Ilrst detailed model, presented by Barley et al. (1999),
Hagemann et al. (1999), and recently updated by Thorne et
a1. (2004), involves two-stage hydrothermal and supergene
processes; it is based on fluid inclusion, hydrothermal alter-
ation, and stable isotope studies at the North deposit in the
Pilbara. The earliest stage (la), hypogene altemtion involving
upward movement of hydrothermal brines (I S0"'- 250"'C),
tnmsformhl 35 wt percent Fe BIF to a magnetite-siderite-
iron silicate ElF with desilieifleation of the chert bands (Fig.
17). Stage Ib hypogene alteration resulted from ascending
basinal brines \vith higher temperatures (possibly up to
400"'C) that imhlCed hematite-ankerite-magneli te alteration
and finally the formation of microplaty hematite. The 300'" to
350C trapping temperatures proposed by Thome et a1.
(2004) for pseudosecondary fluid inclusions in stage Ib are
Ib hypogene alt erati on

r =nding brines (200-300' C)
Stage 2 Supergene alteration
Southern Ridge
I
Descending <hallOw mctcroic waters
100' C)
o Hema{i{e-ankeri{c-
magnetite alteration
I ' ....:W. trending doleri{e
Manite-micropl,uy
' goe{hi{e al'cmtion
I NW,uending dolerite
,
FIG. I i. Schematic block diagram from Thome et aJ. (2004) to explai n the stages of hypogene supergene alteration
for high.grade hematite ore fonnation at the North and Southern Ridge deposits. !l"lount Tom Price. A. Stage la, early hy.
pogene magnetite.sideri te-iron silieate formed by 150 to 251YC basinal brines. B. Stage Ib, early hYP3gene
hematite-ankerite-magnetite aheration formed by ascending 300 to 400"C hasinal hrines. C. Stage le, ble martite-rni-
eroplaty hemat ite-apat ite alteration formed by ascendi ng _ 120C basinal brines. D. Stage 2, supergene mart ite-microplaty
hemati te.goethite alteration fonned by de>l:ending metL"Qrie waters
too high for basinal fluids alone and are more likely to involve
a high-temperature magmatic component, although further
isotopic studies are required to demonstrate this. Stage 1c hy-
pogene alteration involved the interaction of low-tempera-
ture (-120C) ascending basinal brines that formed a
hematite-ankerite-magnetite assemblage; this resulted in dis-
solution of ankerite to leave a porous martite-microplaty
hematite-apatite assemblage. Finally, stage 2 involved super-
gene enrichment by descending meteoric waters (dOOC)
during the Tertiary, resulting in removal of residual ankerite
and apatite, goethite alteration, and the weathering of shale
bands (AI silicate BIF) to clays. Ion chromatography investi-
gations on inclusion fluids revealed that quartz-hematite
veins contain Na > Mg > Ca > K as major cations and that an-
ionic ratios such as Br/CI, IICI, and CIISO, show a close affin-
ity to Canadian Shield brines but are incompatible with ratios
for typical igneous and metamorphic fluids or seawater
(Hagemann et al., 1999; Taylor et al., 2001). Data on hydro-
gen and oxygen isotopes of inclusion fluids and oxygen iso-
topes of vein quartz at Southern Ridge suggest the involve-
ment of basinal brines and only a minor amount of meteoric
water late in the hydrothermal history (Hagemann et al. ,
1999). Hagemann et al. (in press) extended the work of
Thorne et al . (2004) by proposing a discrete model for the
genesis of worldwide high-grade hematite deposits involving
three end members based on the diversity of geolOgical and
geochemical features, tectonic setting, distinct hydrothermal
fluid source(s), and processes.
Taylor et al. (2001) presented a four-stage model for high-
grade hematite but with microplaty hematite formation from
meteoric water, as follows. Stage 1 involved initial upward
migration of reduced basinal brines that resulted in hydro-
thermal replacement of primary BIF silicates with siderite to
produce a magnetite-carbonate-apatite protore. This was fol-
lowed by deep circulation of oxygenated low-salinity meteoric
water, stage 2, that oxidized the siderite to rnicroplaty hematite
and magnetite to martite, to form microplaty hematite-mar-
tite-apatite-ankerite mineralization. However. since meteoric
water has a very low concentration of dissolved oxygen, this
would require Significant volumes of fluid. Stage 3 involved
leaching of carbonate and remaining silicates to microplaty
hematite-martite-apatite. Finally, apatite was leached during
stage 4 by supergene processes to form high-grade microplaty
hematite ore (Taylor et al. 2001; Dalstra et al. 2002). Taylor et
al. (2001) believe that the mineralizing process took place
during a period of uplift and extension that postdated the
Ophthalmian orogeny but before the end of the Proterowic,
since microplaty hematite ore at Channar was contact meta-
morphosed by a dolerite dike dated at 752 10 Ma.
Li et al. (1993), Martin et al. (1998), and Powell et al.
(1999) proposed a hypogene synorogenic hydrothermal
model for Pilbara microplaty hematite ore, envisioning min-
eralizing fluids as being derived from mixing of oxygenated
meteoric water with basinal fluid expelled from deeper levels
of a foreland basin during the regional compression phase of
the Ophthalmian orogeny (2.20--2.45 Ga). Oliver et al. (1998)
also invoked synorogenic interaction of deep-seated orogenic
fluids with descending supergene waters in Proterowic
times. Muller et al. (2005) suggest a maximum age for hypo-
gene iron ore mineralization in the Hamersley province of
between -2050 and 2000 Ma, eonstntined by PblPb dating of
baddeleyite which yielded 2008 16 Ma for a mafic dike
swarm that intrudes the Lower Wyloo Group, but older than
the Mount McGrath Formation which contains clasts of mi-
croplaty hematite mineralization.
Dalstra and Guedes (2004) proposed that all high-grade
hematite deposits form a coherent genetic group, and they
presented a model in which an early magnetite-carbonate-ap-
atite protore formed by hydrothermal depletion of silica in
the BIF and introduction of Ca-Fe-Mg carbonates by heated
alkaline brines, with subsequent supergene upgrading. From
mineral assemblages for hydrothermal carbonate protore,
Dalstra and Guedes (2004) suggested that the temperature of
ore formation varied over a wide range from high
(>400...,s00C) for magnetite-cummingtonite-siderite (e.g.,
Kivroy Rog in the Ukraine) to medium (300
o
_<400C) for
chlorite-talc (e.g., Mount Tom Price) to low 300C) for
hematite-dolomite (calcite; e.g., Caraji<).
Guedes et al. (2002) suggested that high-grade hematite
ores at the Caraji< N4E mine were derived from supergene
leaching and residual concentration of hematite during
weathering of hypogene hydrothermal carbonate-hematite
rock derived from siliceous itabirite. In contrast, Spier et al .
(2003) interpreted the carbonate as a primary constituent in
the sense that the carbonate-hematite rock originated as
dolomitic iron formation interbedded with siliceous itabirite.
This interpretation is supported by the gradational contact
between itabirite and the overlying Gandarela Formation,
which contains shallow-water carbonate sediments. Spier et
al . (2003) a1<o pointed ou! that, although there is evidence for
dolomitic protore at the Aguas Claras depoSit, there is no ev-
idence for a carbonate protore at the Pico depoSit, only
siliceous itabirite. Spier et al . (2003) further suggested that
supergene leaching produced both the soft high-grade
hematite ores and iron-rich itabirite from primary dolomitic
itabirite and siliceous itabirite, respectively, whereas the hard
high-grade hematite ores (<20% of reserves) -are of hy-
drothermal origin.
Rosiere and Rios (2004) presented a detailed study (sum-
marized above) of fluid inclusions in hematite and petro-
graphic evidence to support synorogenic formation of hard
massive and schistose high-grade hematite ores from the
Quadriliitero Fenifero. Rosiere and Rios (2004) defined four
stages of recurrent hypogene mineralization characterized by
three generations of hematite and a final schistose specularite
stage. The mineralizing fluids are thought to have evolved
over time from low-temperature, low- to medium-salinity flu-
ids that may represent meteoric water and were modified to
become high-salinity (4--10 wt % NaCI equiv) hydrothermal
fluids. The deformed and metamorphosed nature of the
QuadrilMero Fenifero deposits is in contrast to postmeta-
morphic un deformed high-grade hematite ores from the Pil-
bara (post-Ophthalmia orogeny).
In summary, distinct differences between ore deposits
make it very difficult to formulate a single unifying model.
For example, some deposits G'Ontain carbonate protore (e.g. ,
Mount Tom Price, Caraji<, Thabazimbi), whereas it is absent
in others (e.g., Mount Whaleback, Pico). Likewise, hypogene
mineralization is metamotphosed in some deposits or districts
(e.g., QuadriJatero Fenifero, Thabazimbi) but not others
(e.g., Pilbara andlor Hamer-dey ores, Carajas, and Krivoy
Rog). Moreover, a wide variety of fluid types, volumes, tem-
peratures, and sources have been invoked to explain different
hypogene mineralizations, e.g., basinal brines versus meteoric
water (Hagemann, 1999; Beukes et al ., 2002; Spier et al.,
2003; McLellan et al. , 2004; Rosiere and Rios, 2004; Hage-
mann et al., in press) or even magmatic fluids for Carajas
(Silva et al. , 2004; Lobato et al ., in press). The geochemical
processes thought to be involved in upgrading BIF to high-
grade hematite ore include early desilicification and carbona-
tion, followed by decarbonatization and hydrothermal re-
placement of magnetite to martite by oxidation (Hagemann et
al. , 1999; Powell et al ., 1999; Taylor et al. , 2001), or a pH shift
due to leaching of Fe" from magnetite (Ohmoto, 2003). Late
supergene leaching of residual gangue and goethite over-
printing are also key parts of the hypogene models.
Hypogene versus supergene origin with
subsequent burial metamorphism
Morris (2oo2a, b) interpreted the residual carbonates be-
neath the main Mount Tom Price deposit and associated
Southern Batter deposit to have been localized by postore
metasomatism of BIF and ore, whereas Kneeshaw and
Kepert (2002) and Kneeshaw et al. (2002) contend that car-
bonate protore is ahsent at Mount Whaleback, thus not sup-
porting the Taylor et al . (2001) model. Hagemann et al.
(1999) and Thome et al. (2004) suggest that the BIF at
Mount Tom Price underwent initial carbonate replacement of
chert by a basinal fluid, followed by conversion of iron s i ~
cates to proximal microplaty hematite are by hot oxidized
basinal brine. In contrast, Webb et al. (2002) suggested that
either BIF was affected only by the latter processes or the
carhonate alteration has yet to be found at Mount Whaleback.
Proponents of hypogene models cite the absence of carbon-
ate alteration from major deposits (e.g., Mount Whaleback,
Pico) as evidence that carbonatization is not a necessary pre-
cursor for the formation of large, high-grade hematite de-
posits (Spier et al., 2003; Hagemann et al ., in press).
Morris (2oo2a, b) cited a number of other problems with
the carbonate protore model of Taylor et al. (2001). These in-
clude the large amount of basinal fluid that would be required
to desiliciJY the BIF at Mount Tom Price, a time lag of some
600 m.y. between basinal fluid generation and BIF enrich-
ment, and the absence of microplaty hematite from the Marra
Mamba Iron Formation, which sits below a potential dolomite
aquifer, the Paraburdoo Member. These concerns are in part
countered by Taylor et al. (2002), who argued that hypogene
mineralization is later than that suggested by Morris (2oo2a),
and the specific role of the Paraburdoo Member in chanelling
fluids into the overlying Brockman Iron Formation.
Morris' (1980) model requires the chert in BIF to be re-
placed by goethite and subsequently metamorphosed to mi-
croplaty hematite. In arguing against the Morris (1980) su-
pergene-metamorphic model, Taylor et al. (2001) use simple
volume and assay calculations to suggest that iron has not
been added overall during the mineraliZing process, although
this assessment would be more definitive if immobile element
pairs and mass-transfer calculations were used. Taylor et al .
(2001) also argue that, according to the Morris (1980) model,
the magnetite-carbonate-apatite mineralization at Mount
Tom Price should not show a spatial relationship to high-
grade hematite mineralization, and that the high-phosphorus
carbonate-microplaty hematite mineralization should contain
remnant goethite, which is not observed. Moreover, fluid in-
clusion studies (Hagemann et al ., 1999; Spier et al ., 2003;
Webb et al. , 2003; Thome et al., 2004) indicate temperatures
of > 100C for ore formation and the presence of basinal
brines and modified meteoric water, neither of which fit with
the burial metamorphic origin for high-grade hematite ores at
_100C, as proposed by Morris (1980, 1985, 1993, 2oo2b).
Structural and hydrodynamic controls on are jomwtion
Many authors suggest that other relationships are also im-
portant in ore formation, including the presence of early, low-
angle normal Iystric faults (Taylor et al., 2001), fold hinges
with enhanced permeability and deep faults (Rosiere and
Rios, 2004), or other favorable structures able to serve as hy-
drothermal fluid conduits (Spier et al. , 2003); location of the
main ore bodies near the base of an iron fannation succession
in contact with black shales which cap underlying dolomitic
carbonates (Beukes et al., 2002); and the presence of imper-
meable shales and dolerites that acted as hydrolOgical seals to
focus ore formation (Beukes et al., 2002).
Processing and Products
are mineralogy and beneficiation
Iron jOn1Ultion ores: The majority of BIF and GIF ores re-
quire expensive fine grinding to 20 to 75 I'm in order to lib-
erate the iron oxides (magnetite or hematite) from silicate
(quartz, stilpnomelane, amphibole, chlOrite) or carbonate
(siderite, dolomite, ankerite) gangue. Taconites from North
America require extensive beneficiation of 30 to 35 wt per-
cent Fe feed to make fines (65-67 wt % Fe), blast furnace
pellet, or direct reduced iron feedstock grades (>68 wt % Fe;
Coyle, 1965; McKim, 1970; DeVaney, 1985). In taconites that
are easier tOJrocess. the ore and gangue minerals may be
coarse graine (0.05-2.0 mm) and low in porosity, and the ore
minerals may be relatively free of very fine 5 I'm) gangue
inclusions. They are primarily tl,e result of metamorphic re-
crystallization to relatively coarse grain size (Neal, 2000).
A measure of the ability of magnetite BIF and GIF to be
upgraded by simple grinding and magnetic separation is just
as essential at the evaluation stage of exploration as an assay.
This is because iron can also be tied up in silicates that are not
of economic value and the magnetite may be so fine grained
that it is uneconomic to grind and separate from gangue (Fig.
5D). Iron formations that lack coarse iron oxide grains (Fig.
5D) or contain very fine 20 I'm) gangue inclusions (Fig. 5A)
will either be subeconomic or marginal , even though the in
situ resource grade may exceed what is typically an attractive
45 wt percent Fe. In Figure 18, ore types 1 and 2 contain
massive magnetite micro bands and so easily reach >68 wt
percent Fe product grade after coarse grinding and magnetic
separation, whereas ore types 3 and 4 contain Significant fine-
grained disseminated magnetite in chert andlor silicate mi-
crobands, thus requiring much finer grinding to reach the
same product grade.
To date, few geolOgiC criteria have been published that help
to target exploration toward iron formation deposits with
72
70
Ore Type 1 & 2
68
CD
68
1ii
L
-
c
II.!'
. ~ .
.4
64 (I)
0
c
62
/Y'
41
0
0
c
60
(I)
Ii.
oreTypeV /
Ore Type 1 and 2
r/,
Ore Type 3
58
;ii:
56
/ Ore Type 3
... Ore Type 4

54
60 70 80
%-45 microns
90 100
FIG. 18. Change of Fe grade of concentrate with increasingly fine grinding for two-stage fme grinding of magnetite BIF
ore types. Mount Gibson deposit, Western Australia. Note that the Him shows increasing fineness of the grinding. Ore types
I and 2 contain massive magnetite and easily achieve >69 wt percent Fe grade with minimaJ grinding. whereas ore types 3
and 4 contain more disseminated fine-grained magnetite and require finer grinding. Davis tube magnetic separation test.
Adapted from Povey and Leather (1997),
coarse-grained or more abundant magnetite that will improve
economic processing characteristics. Further assessment of
iron formation genesis is required to better understand basin-
wide controls on thick iron oxide versus thinner gangue (sili-
cate and/or carbonate) deposition as well as the impact of
higher regional metamorphic grade.
For magnetite iron formation. the most low cost and effec-
tive method used for separation of magnetite from silicate
and/or carbonate gangue is low-intensity magnetic separation.
using cheap rotary permanent-magnet drums. At the Empire.
Hibbing. and Northshore mines in North America. the prin-
cipal separation techniques are magnetic separation and
minor reverse flotation that uses a cationic collector to float
liberated quartz and locked quartz-magnetite particles
(Coyle. 1965; Graber and Sundberg. 2(02). Size classification
using hydrocyclones is also required to remove the ultrafines
0.01 mm) that are rich in silicate gangue. At the Diao Jun-
tai magnetite mine in northeast China, a combination of
grinding. low-intensity magnetic separation to recover mag-
netite. wet high-intensity magnetite separation to recover
minor hematite. and reverse flotation is used to produce a
67.5 wt percent Fe concentrate from 29 to 30 wt percent Fe
feed.
In contrast, hematitic iron formation often requires more
extensive separation techniques. These mainly include wet
high-intensity magnetite separation to concentrate fine
(0.034l.08 mm) paramagnetic minerals including hematite;
spirals for gravity concentration of hematite; and hydrocy-
clones to remove gangue-rich ultrafmes. as well as reverse
flotation. Overall, hematite iron formation is more expensive
to beneficiate than magnetite iron formation. Cheaper wet
gravity separation techniques including spirals are an impor-
tant means of separating 0.05 to 1.0 mm low specific-gravity
quartz from well-liberated hematite at a number of mines. in-
cluding Wabush. Mont Wright. and Humphrey in Canada and
Dong Anshan in northeast China. These three hematite
mines from Canada are examples of intensely metamor-
phosed coarser grained taconites (BIF-GIF). where coarse
(specular) hematite and minor magnetite are the dominant
iron oxide minerals; hematite is relatively free of gangue in-
clusions. and thus high (>67 wt %) Fe grade concentrates can
be produced (Neal. 2(00).
High-grade hematite and fJUlrtite-goethite ores: Although
high-grade hematite and martite-goethite ores contain rela-
tively few iron-bearing minerals other than hematite and
goethite. complex ore and gangue textures and a large range
in porosity result in quite variable requirements for benefici-
ation compared to iron formation ores (Clout et aI . 1997).
The first stage of processing for high-grade hematite and
mamte-goethite ores is crushing and screening. The run-of-
mine ore is crushed then screened into lump and sinter fines.
After blasting. crushing. and screening. ores that are hard to
medium in relative physical strength produce about 40 to 60
wt percent lump and the remainder is fines. In contrast. fri-
able ores typically produce less than 30 wt percent lump.
Many high-grade microplaty hematite (e.g .. Mount Tom
Price. Mount Whaleback, South Middleback Ranges. Cara-
jas) and martite-goethite (e.g . Marandoo. West Angelas. Area
C. Koolyanobbing) deposits are of sufficient iron grade to re-
quire only crushing and dry screening before direct shipping
of lump and fine ores to customer steelworks. However. wet
beneficiation plants are required at some deposits in Brazil.
Australia. India. and South Africa to upgrade the ore to pro-
duce blast furnace-grade lump and sinter fines.
In martite-goethite and microplaty hematite deposits of
Australia. a high percentage of gangue occurs as thick (0.1-6
m) bands of soft and porous kaolinite-rich shale that are eas-
ily separated from hematite ore by selective mining. gravity
separation. or washing away of fme clay particles (Harms-
worth et aI .. 1990). Kaolinite-rich shale. an aluminous residue
from the breakdown of fine volcanic ash layers in the BIF
host, forms discrete bands intercalated within the ore.
In contrast, primary BIF carbonate is largely replaced by
goethite and is therefore much lower in alumina content
(Harmsworth et al., 1990). Gangue also occurs as either
coarse-grained (+100 /lm) kaolinite, traces of gibbsite, or
minor quartz (Clout, 2(02). There may also be appreciable
fine-grained 5/lm) kaolinite gangue derived from fine ash
layers interbedded with the ore minerals, as well as alumina,
silicon, or phosphorus interpreted to be either substituted
into the goethite crystal structure (Morris, 1985) or present as
submicron inclusions of as yet unidentified phases. Alumina
and silica substitution in vitreous goethite and especially
ochreous goethite is more common in the near-surface hy-
dration wne, especially surface hardcap, and is uneconomic
to upgrade (Clout, 2(02). The geolOgiC controls on hardcap
and its distribution are not well understood, and interpreta-
tion of shallow drill hole assay data is further complicated
where shales may be present with ore (Clout, 2(02).
Low-grade ores that require beneficiation vary from friable
quartz-rich supergene itabirite from the Quadrilatero Fer-
rifero in Brazil to ores with kaolinite- or gibbsite-rich shale
bands in Australia and India, respectively. Some martite-
goethite mineralization is uneconomic to upgrade due to the
presence of Significant alumina and silica locked within
goethite, or the presence of very fine 5/lm) intergrowths of
clay or quartz within goethite or hematite (Clout, 2002; Silva
et al., 2(02). Despite high (>50 wt %) Fe grades, some of
these ores cannot be upgraded even with grinding as fine as
that used for taconites. In contrast, the well-metamorphosed
itabirite-derived supergene hematite deposits in the
Quadrilatero F errifero have good beneficiation characteris-
tics because they are soft, contain very dense, liberated
hematite particles with low porosity and liberated quartz par-
ticles (Silva et al., 2002; Spier et al. , 2(03).
For fme ores (nominally <6.3 or 8.0 mm), jigs or dense
medium cyclones (DMC) using ferrosilicon suspensions are
used to treat the coarser (>1 mm) size fractions; spirals have
widespread application for the intermediate to finer fractions
(between 0.075-1 mm); wet high-intensity magnetite separa-
tion treat the intermediate to fine fractions (0.03-1 mm); hy-
drocyclones are most commonly used to remove very fine
0.02 mm) clay or quartz-rich ultrafines (Box et al., 1996;
Clout et al. , 1997; Bensley et al., 1999; Mason and McSpad-
den, 2002; Miller, 2(02). Jigs, dense medium cyclones, and
spirals are wet processes that separate on the basis of specific
gravity and remove quartz or shale from denser hematite and
goethite. Low-grade itabirite from the Quadrilatero Ferrifero
contains incompletely leached friable chert with residual
hematite and requires extensive beneficiation to make sinter
fines , blast furnace pellet feed, or direct reduced iron feed-
stock grades (de Araujo and Peres, 1995; Silva et al., 2(02).
Spirals, jigs, reverse flotation, and wet high-intensity mag-
netite separation are commonly used here as well to remove
well-liberated quartz, although some ore types do not respond
well to certain concentration methods (Silva et al. , 2002). For
example, in ore types containing quartz and gibbSite gangue,
gibbSite is not separated from hematite using reverse flotation.
For lump ores (6.3/8.0--31.5 mm) in Australia and South
Africa, cheap gravity techniques including jigs are commonly
used for porous ores, whereas more expensive wet dense-
medium separators using ferrosilicon suspensions in a rotary
drum work well with low-porosity feed (Warnock and Bens-
ley, 1996; Clout et al., 1997; Mason and McSpadden, 2(02).
These types of processes are ideally suited where thick
(>0.05-2 m) mesobands of high specific gravity hematite are
interbedded with low specific gravity shales (e.g., Dales
Gorge Member, Mount Tom Price mine, Asbestos Hills Sub-
group, Sishen deposit; Bitencourt et al. , 2002; Carney and
Mienie, 2(02). The distribution of shale (formerly fine ash)
and hematite in BIF is directly related back to the primary
iron formation and thus genetic controls on dominant iron-
oxide depoSition versus carbonate and/or silicate. The degree
of upgrading is dependent upon the presence of coarse (>10
mm) liberated gangue of lower specific gravity with dense lib-
erated hematite (limited supergene leaching), whereas sepa-
ration efficiency and recovery of expensive ferrosilicon media
may be adversely affected by high porosity (caused byexten-
sive supergene leaching; Clout et al. , 1997; Bitencourt et al.,
2(02). Separation efficiency is poor where supergene leach-
ing has resulted in highly porous hematite and goethite that
has a similar or lower specific gravity than either the BIF or
subgrade goethite. Alternatively, porous hematite results
from incomplete replacement of gangue by hematite during
ore formation prior to supergene leaching. Media recovery
may be low because the fine heavy media becomes trapped in
pores and so is lost to the process. This means that many
porous ores are unsuitable for processing by heavy media
(Clout et al., 1997).
Iron ore products and their uses
The principal use of iron ores is for the production of steel
from either a conventional blast furnace pig-iron route or
more directly from an electric arc furnace. Although there are
other routes for making steel from iron ores, blast furnaces
still account for >80 percent of world crude steel production
(Astier, 2003).
Beneficiated and high-grade lump iron ore, typically >62
wt percent Fe and between 6.3 and 31.5 mm in size, can be
directly added to a blast furnace. In contrast, high (>68 wt %
Fe) grade iron ore concentrates, pellets, or lump are reqUired
to undergo heating and direct reduction steps to convert
hematite to metallic iron before adding to an electric arc fur-
nace to make steel. MineralOgical and metallurgical studies by
Clout (2002), together with collaborative industry studies
(e.g., Box et al. , 2(02), have demonstrated that ore mineral-
ogy, texture, hardness, porosity, and petrolOgical characteris-
tics directly control lump physical and metallurgical quality in
the blast furnace.
High-grade and beneficiated martite-goethite and mi-
croplaty hematite lump iron ores can be fed directly to the
blast furnace, whereas fine 0.10 mm) concentrates or fine
ores must Hrst be agglomerated into pellets or sinter, respec-
tively, before they can be fed to the blast furnace. This is be-
cause Significant amounts of fine particles would simply block
the vital upflow of gases and/or be ejected from the top of the
blast furnace as dust. Iron ore sinter is produced by mixing of
Hne ores or concentrates, fluxes (limestone, burnt or hydrated
lime, dolomite, or serpentine), and fuel (coke, anthracite),
then granulated with water in a rotating drum and building a
layer 550 to 800 mm deep onto a horiwntal sinter machine
grate. The fuel is then ignited at the top of the layer using
burners and air is drawn down through the bed under suc-
tion, with solids finer than 1 mm melting at _1,300C and glu-
ing together the coarse> I-mm hematite. The sinter is subse-
quently cooled to form a porous hard solid, composed of
calcium ferrites and un melted hematite ore particles, which
physically resembles volcanic scoria and is crushed to 5 to 40
mm in size and fed directly to the blast furnace.
Magnetite concentrates produced from beneficiation of iron
formation ore are typically used to make blast furnace pellets
(e.g., T ~ d e n , United States). Magnetite concentrates are ideally
suited to making pellets that require fme O.045-mm) particle
size to agglomerate with water, binders, and fine fluxes in a r0-
tating drum or disk to form nOminally 10- to 15-mm-diameter
spherical green balls. The green balls are then heated up to
about 1,300C in a grate or kiln, with the exothermic oxidation
of ore magnetite to hematite during induration of pellets gen-
erating useable heat to help drive the process. The hematite
pellet product is much more easily reduced to metallic iron in
the blast furnace than magnetite. However, although not ideal,
Significant (>100 MtIyr) quantities of domestic magnetite con-
centrates produced in China are also used in sintering. In
Canada (e.g., Mont-Wright and Humphrey mines) and else-
where, hematite concentrates produced from beneficiation of
BIF andlor CIF ores are also used to make blast furnace and
direct reduced iron-grade pellets.
Although the majority of martite-goethite and high-grade
hematite fine iron ores (e.g., Pilbara, Australia; Coa, India;
Carajas and Quadrihltero Ferrifero, Brazil) are used for sin-
tering, smaller quantities are also used for blast furnace or di-
rect reduced iron-grade pellets. Some high-grade benefici-
ated lump is also used in direct reduced iron processes.
Concentrate, lump, and fine ore gangue mineralogy, as
well as minor and trace elements. can have an adverse effect
on their acceptability for making pellets or sinter and in the
blast furnace (Table 4). Elevated concentrations of alkali el-
ements reduce blast furnace refractory life, whereas elevated
TABLE 4. Effect of Deleterious Gangue and Minor andlor Trace Elements on Downstream Process Performance (modified from Clout, 1998)
DeleteriOUs
phase/element
Sideritic carbonates
ClaY' (>5%)
Alkalis (e.g., K,o
>0.09%, Na)
P(>O.08%)
Base metals (e.g .. Zn.
Ph >100 ppm) and
heavy metals
S'o.(>5%)
Mn (>0.9%)
Cu (> 100 ppm)
CI (>5OOppm)
S (>0.08%)
BF blast furnace
GeologiC control
Carbonate SIF or hydrothermal carbonate
alteration. extent of replacement andlor
leaching
Shale bands and AI suicate content of
BlF host
KtQ-BIF micas and rulpnomelane
Na hypersaline ground water
Apatite in 8IF. extent of supergene
leaching of P
BIF host. hydrothennal source
Shale bands and Al silicate content of BIF host
BIF and shale, extent of supergene leaching
Remobilization of Mn from impure dolomite
above or below mineralization. carbonate SIF
BIF host. hydrothennal source
Hypersaline ground water
SIF host. organiC S in hardcap or
near-surface mamte-goethite
Shale bands. ilmenite from
crosscutting intrusion
Process stage
Sintering and pelletizing
Sintering, pelletizing. BF
Meta] production
BF. sintering
Sintering. SF
Sintering. SF
Steelmaking
Sintering. steelmaking
production
Sintering. SF
Sintering, SF
Effects
Lowen strength of sinter and pellets due to
increased porosity once carbonates are calcined
(CO. driven off above I,OOO'C)
Lowers strength of sinter and pell ets due to
increased. meTt viscosity due to Alt03
Lowen melt temperature, corrosion of SF
refractory bricks
Removal cost
Removal oosts, especially reprocessing of base
and heavy metal -rich dusts
Higher levels progressively increase melt
viscosity hence increase fuel rates
Increases the amount of slag; increased
use of limestone since the ratio of
CaOlSiOi must be fIXed
Although some types of steel require Mn,
excess levels require dilution with low
Mn-bearing ores to maintain steel properties
Catalyses dioxin fonnation during sintering.
must be diluted with low Cu ores to maintain
steel quality
Increased dioxin (toxic) and N01 emissions,
reduces efficiency of electrostatic dust
precipitators and increases SF refractory wear
Increased SO, emissions and higher MgO levels
required to partition 5 into SF slag
Lower physical strength of pellets and sinter
674 CWUT AND SIMONSON
phosphorus increases steelmaking costs. TIght restrictions are
generally placed on maximum concentrations of these and
other elements in sinter fines, pellet feed, and hlast furnace
lump. Although blending with other ores can lower the con-
centration of certain deleterious elements, beneficiation is
the preferred method to reduce minor and trace elements to
a level acceptable to the market.
Discussion
Exploration significance of the
hypogene-hydrothemwl models
Models of supergene-modified hypogene mineralization
provide the iron are explorationist with new criteria to locate
high-grade iron ores. Favorable situations to target now in-
clude: (1) former conduits of fluid flow, e.g., where major or
secondary splay faults cut across iron formations (Taylor et a1.,
2(01), (2) fold hinges or other dilatant sites in iron formations
(Roserie and Rios, 2004), (3) iron formations above carbonate
aquifers (Taylor et a1., 2(01), (4) areas of carbonate alteration
of iron formations (Hagemann et a1., 1999, Taylor et a1., 2002,
Dalstra and Guedes, 2004), and (5) geochemical vectors ap-
plied to distal carbonate alteration that help to locate high-
grade are associated with proximal a1teration (Hagemann et
a1., 1999, Thome et a1., 2004). The intersection of structures,
especially faults , with iron formations provides specific areas
of interest, whereas carbonate alteration provides vectors to-
ward possible proximal high-grade mineralization.
Directions for future work
With the increasingly short supply for iron are, especially
for China, there is a need to improve our understanding of
the formation of iron ores to achieve better exploration tar-
geting, especially iron formation-hosted high-grade iron ores.
Five areas for future research related to the genesis of high-
grade are include studies to (1) improve our understanding of
the nature of the are fluids and their timing with respect to
deformation (e.g., Rosiere and Rios, 2004, Thome et a1.,
2004) across a larger number of deposits, (2) better under-
stand the role of regional and local structures in are forma-
tion, (3) differentiate the geochemical and O-H isotope
signatures of proximal versus distal mineralization and alter-
ation, (4) recognize evidence for the presence or absence of
substantial carbonate protore within proximal high-grade are,
and (5) elucidate the are formation process(es) where car-
bonate protore is absent.
Recent work has highlighted the importance of major fault
structures and deformational history in the origin of the high-
grade hematite deposits, although their exact role in hypo-
gene are genesis has received less detailed attention. How-
ever, Rosiere and Rios (2004) have set a new benchmark for
future studies by successfully plaCing fluid inclusion and al-
teration work into the complex deformational history of meta-
morphosed hard high-grade hematite ores in the
Quadrilatero Fenifero. Further studies are also required on
the role of structures in are formation in the Pilbara and else-
where. For example, in the Pilbara, the Mount Tom Price and
Mount Whaleback are bodies are localized around the South-
ern Batter and Mount Whaleback faults , respectively. Al-
though these faults have a normal sense of movement, they
have been interpreted variously as extensional normal faults
(Harmsworth et aI 1990), extensional faults, or reactivated
thrusts (Dalstra et a1., 2002, Taylor et a1., 2002, McLellan et
a1. , 2004) in a foreland fold-thrust belt or a compresSional set-
ting in a foreland basin (Powell et a1., 1999). Alternatively,
these normal faults could represent back thrusts in the hang-
ing wall of major regional thrusts, with are fluids being pref-
erentially focused through the back thrusts since they are
most likely to form more dilatant zones. The fluid fOCUSing
mechanism and the role of structures in the alteration of very
large volumes of iron formation need to be investigated fur-
ther, with an eye to quantifying the pathways and volumes of
the fluids responsible for (orming specific types of iron are
deposits.
For the supergene ores, including the soft hematite ores of
Brazil and the martite-goethite ores in Australia, new re-
search directions are required to extend the models devel-
oped by Morris (1980, 1985, 2002b). The most promising ap-
proaches will probably involve fluid inclusion studies and
detailed modeling to better understand the key influences
that drove fluid flow and factors that resulted in economic
versus subgrade mineralization.
Future exploration for iron formation ores needs to care-
fully consider the economic benefits that higher grades of
metamorphism present to their improved economic extrac-
tion. At the regional exploration phase, areas need to be
ranked on the basis of metamorphic grade, magnetite andlor
hematite grain size, and amount of gangue inclusions they
contain. Locally, sections of the iron formation stratigraphy
where magnetite andlor hematite meso- and micro bands are
more abundant are likely to be higher in iron content and so
be more attractive as exploration targets. Therefore, there
needs to be a greater research emphasiS on basin-wide analy-
sis of the depoSitional features of iron formations to better
predict the occurrences of more iron oxide-rich iron forma-
tion with coarse magnetite andlor hematite grain size.
Conclusions
Large iron are depoSits are all associated with stratigraphic
occurrences of a chemical sedimentary rock known as iron
formation, almost all of which were depoSited before 1.8 Ga.
Iron minerals in unenriched iron formations vary widely in
composition and abundance, reflecting nonrandom sedimen-
tary variations through geolOgiC time. Some magnetite-rich
iron formations are mineable (taconite-type are deposits),
but high-grade orebodies only occur where subsequent
events have upgraded iron formations , typically from 30 wt
percent Fe in an iron formation to 60 to 68 wt percent Fe in
high-grade ore. The two main types of high-grade iron are
depoSits, martite-goethite and high-grade hematite deposits,
both exhibit a diverse range in deposit characteristics and
genesis, but the high-grade hematite deposits show the
greatest diversity, including differences in ore textures, the
presence or absence of carbonate alteration, timing of hypo-
gene mineralization with respect to regional metamorphism,
hypogene fluid mineralization temperatures, and amounts of
basinal brines versus meteoric waters or magmatic fluids. In
the final analysiS, high-grade hematite deposits will only
form where an iron formation with the right textures and
iron-rich composition experiences the right sort of fluid flow,
675
e.g .. through a major fault. usually in conjunction with some
sort of regional deformation. In contrast. the genesis of su-
pergene martite-goethite and hematite deposits is more con-
sistent and less controversial; they are believed to involve re-
placement of gangue by goethite versus silicate and/or
carbonate leaching and residual concentration of hematite.
respectively.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank J. Hedenquist and J. Thompson (editors)
and r.articularly several reviewers. including D. Kepert. S.
Hass er, and S. Hagemann, for their constructive comments
that have greatly improved this paper. and C. Roserie for ed-
ucating JC on current details of Brazilian iron ore geology.
Fieldwork on iron formations and associated units by BMS
was funded by grants from the National Geographic Society.
National Science Foundation. and Oberlin College.
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