Lecture notes Numerical Hydraulics

4-1

4 Computation of the free surface level in open channel flow

4.1 Basic equations
The computation of the free surface level in open channels is based on the continuity equation (4-1) and the Navier Stokes equation (4-2). u = 0 u + 1 u 2 4 u p + { g + 1 u { = 4 3 2 3 t { Druck Schwer advektive ibungs Re kraft kraft Beschleunigung kraft lokale Beschleunigung
(4-1)

(4-2)

We take the x-axis parallel to the channel axis and so we have u x u and the velocity components normal to the channel axis are neglected ( u y , u z 0 ). In this way, Eq. (4-2) simplifies to:

u u p z + u = g + u t x x x

(4-3)

Integration over the cross sectional area (with v = u ) leads to:

h p 0 lb v v + ' v = g t x x A
2

(4-4)

is a correction factor, which takes the velocity profile into account (note that v 2 v ). However, in the following we assume for simplicity that =1. This is also justified by the logarithmic profile. The level hp is defined as the sum of the channel bed level and the flow depth (z + h). The internal friction cancels out through integration. Only the friction at the channel bed remains, analogous to pipe flow, where only the friction at the wall remained after integration. When integrating the continuity equation over the cross section, one has to keep in mind that the free surface is a moveable boundary: Q A 0 + = x t q and for the case of a rectangular cross section with A = bh, b = const, q = 0:
( hv ) h + =0 x t
(4-6) (4-5)

The friction force per unit volume is defined as (Fig. 4-1):

4-2

Lecture notes Numerical Hydraulics

Fig. 4-1: Calculation of the friction force

f friction = with:

force 0 l b = = 0 , (Rhy = hydraulic radius) volume A Rhy

(4-7)

force = 0lbx volume = Ax

(4-8) (4-9)

For the frictional shear stress o one can use the following empirical relation:

0 =

Re, v 2 , with =

K Rhy

(Darcy Weisbach)

(4-10)

The loss of energy E can be interpreted as work done by the friction forces:
E = f friction x V
=>

E / V = 0 x Rhy

(4-11)

The slope of the energy line IE is then:

IE =

E / (V g ) x

1 v2 = = gRhy 4 Rhy 2 g

(4-12)

For the sake of clarity, in the following we consider a rectangular cross section. Using I S = z x , the continuity and momentum equations become:
v v h + v = g( I S I E ) g t x x h h v +v +h =0 t x x

(4-13)

These equations are known as the St.-Venant Equations (or shallow water wave equations). They can also be written in a more general form for generic cross sections as a function of Q and A.

Lecture notes Numerical Hydraulics

4-3

4.2 Steady state solution

4.2.1 Approximation
v h ,g << I S . For the steady state case we further write: x x

For the approximation we assume that v

v h = =0. t t From there it follows that the flow is uniform, i.e. the bed slope IS is equal to the slope of the energy line IE , that is, IS = IE. The slope of the energy line is defined as:

IE =

1 v2
8 Rhy g

(4-14)

and the velocity v becomes then: v= 8 gI S Rhy

(4-15)

This equation can also be formulated using the expression for the friction factor of Strickler, kstr, instead of (see hydraulics I). The uniform flow depth hN has to be determined iteratively. 4.2.2 Exact solution

The continuity equation for the steady case reads:

dv v dh = dx h dx
(4-16)

Inserting this equation into the steady state momentum equation yields:
v dv dh g(I S I E ) + g =0 dx dx
(4-17)

Dividing Eq. (4-17) by g and collecting the derivatives leads to:

dh v 2 1 = IS IE dx gh
With

(4-18)

v2 = Fr 2 (Fr = Froude number), Eq. (4-18) becomes: gh

(4-19)

dh I S I E = dx 1 Fr 2

The critical flow depth between sub- and supercritical flow state is realized when Fr = 1 and is expressed as:

4-4

Lecture notes Numerical Hydraulics

hgr = 3

Q2 b2 g

(4-20)

The Froude-number can also be written as a function of the critical flow depth as:
hgr Fr = h
2

(4-21)

Using Eq. (4-19) it is not difficult to calculate the free surface level numerically. When the flow is subcritical, the calculation is done from downstream towards the upstream direction, while for supercritical conditions it is the opposite, that is, one integrates the equation from upstream to downstream (i.e. in streamwise direction). Analyzing Eq. (4-19) it is possible to deduce the main evolution of the free surface level along the channel. As an example we consider a backwater flow in steady state conditions:

Fig. 4-2: Example of a free surface level profile (backwater upstream of a weir)

We start at a location in the upstream and choose a water depth that is somewhat greater than the uniform flow depth. (uniform flow = Normalabfluss) Moreover we consider the case hN > hgr (subcritical flow, mild channel slope). dh We obtain: > 0 , because both enumerator and denominator in Eq. (4-19) are greater than zero: dx 1 - Fr2 > 0, because the flow is subcritical (h > hgr and uniform flow is subcritical). IE < IS , because h > hN (IE = IS, when h = hN => IE > or < IS, when h < or > hN, respectively). Therefore, the flow depth increases in flow direction. In upstream direction the flow depth approaches the uniform flow depth. dh h hN : I S I E , 0 dx Thus, a typical backwater curve is obtained in this case. The numerical integration has to be done appropriately, from the backwater side towards the upstream direction.

Lecture notes Numerical Hydraulics

4-5

4.3 Non-steady state solution

The time-varying momentum and continuity equations are given in (4-13) for the case of a rectangular cross section. It is possible to apply the following approximations to the momentum equation:

v v h = v g + g(I S I E ) 14 24 3 t x x
1.Nherung: Kinematische Welle 1444 2444 3 2.Nherung: Diffusive Welle 144444 4 24 44444 3 Exakt: Dynamische Welle

(4-22)

4.3.1

1. Approximation: Kinematic wave

For the kinematic wave approximation we assume that v

v h v << gI S and further , << I S . x t x This implies that the slope of the energy line is equal to the bed slope (IE = IS). The discharge Q is then a function of the flow depth only, Q = Q(h(x)). Q Q h Q A into the continuity equation Inserting = + = 0 , one obtains: x h x x t dQ h h +b =0 dh x t
(4-23)

This corresponds to a wave equation: h h + c = 0 , with c = wave velocity where the apostrophe signifies the velocity relative to the t x (4-24) bed, i.e. c = v+c. The solution of the wave equation is a function of the type f(x-ct). The wave velocity is:
c' = dQ / dh b
(4-25)

Using the Strickler Ansatz we obtain

1/ 2 2/3 dQ / dh d (kstr I S bhRhy ) = = c' = b b dh Rhy 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 kstr I S Rhy 2 / 3 + kstr I S h Rhy 1/ 3 h 3

(4-26)

For a broad cross section the hydraulic radius is approximately equal to the water depth: Rhy h and the wave velocity c becomes then:
c'
5 5 2 1/ 2 k str I S h 2 / 3 = v i.e. c = v 3 3 3
(4-27)

4-6

Lecture notes Numerical Hydraulics

The water wave (pressure wave) is thus faster than a wave of dissolved matter, which propagates with the mean water velocity. A constant wave velocity is a valid approximation only for small amplitudes (wave heights). In general, the wave velocity is a function of water depth c = c(h). In particular, c is greater for greater flow depth. This leads to an overtaking and to a steepening of the wave front. Since the wave equation h + c ' h = 0 is of first order, only one boundary condition (inflow condition) is required.
t x

The propagation occurs only in positive x-direction and therefore no influence from the downstream side is possible. To take backwater into account a partial differential equation of at least second order is needed.
4.3.2 2. approximation: Diffusive wave
v v ,v << gI S t x

We use again the assumptions: and Eq. (4-22) becomes:

1 2 h v = I S I E , with I E = x 8 g Rhy
In this case, the discharge Q, which is contained via v in the expression for IE, is a function of both h the flow depth and its gradient: Q = Q h, . Inserting this condition into the continuity x h 1 Q equation + = 0 , one obtains: t b x

h 1 Q h 1 Q 2h + + 2 =0 t b h x b (h / x ) x
Equation (4-28) has the form of an advection-diffusion equation: h h 2 h + c ' D 2 = 0 t x x with the propagation velocity:
c' = 1 Q b h

(4-28)

(4-29)

(4-30)

and a diffusion coefficient: 1 Q 1 Q D= = b (h / x ) b (h / x )

(4-31)

For a channel with broad rectangular cross section (h = Rhy) we write the Strickler equation as:

Lecture notes Numerical Hydraulics h x Q 5 h 2h ubh = bu x 3 x 2( I S h x) x 2

4-7

Q = v h b = k str bh 5 / 3 I S

(4-32)

Insertion into the continuity equation leads to: h h 2 h + c ' D 2 = 0 t x x with

5 2 c ' = v or c = v 3 3

and
D= 3 ch 10 I S h x

D is always positive, because the energy slope I E = I S h x in flow direction is always positive. The wave now diffuses while propagating downstream. It is possible to include backwater effects via the downstream boundary condition. Nowadays it is absolutely feasible to numerically solve the full St. Venant equations. This will be discussed in a following chapter. The diffusive wave is an approximation, which is suitable for most practical cases. It is widely used in sewage network computations.