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Table of Contents

1. Hunter Responsibility
2. Wildlife Conservation and Wildlife Management
3. Firearms
Hunting Heritage and Early Firearms History 21
Rifles 21
Shotguns 23
Cleaning and Storage 26
Ammunition 26
Questions and Answers about Steel Shot 29
Firearms Handling and Safety 32
Marksmanship and Shooting Fundamentals 37
4. Wildlife Identification
5. Game Care
6. Specialty Hunting
Introduction to Muzzleloading 53
Introduction to Handguns 56 _
Introduction to Bowhunting 58
7. Survival and First Aid
8. Water Safety
9. Special Concerns
Alcohol and Drugs 75
Turkey Hunting 75
Trapping 77
All Terrain Vehicles 78
Hunting Dogs 79
Resources
Glossary
4
13
20
45
48
52
62
69
75
82
83
I
3
Five Stages of a Hunter
Method
Stage
Shooter
Stage
Trophy
Stage
Limiting Out
Stage
Sportsman
Stage
-,
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9
2. Wildlife Conservation
and Wildlife Management-
Wo
r
. to l#arnytor
CIlrrying Capacity: of wildlife
habitat can throug!lout year
eonseriatio.,r The
4
WiSe uie" of
Extinct: No lqnger in existence. ,
tlabitai: The:bturlJ: envilbnme'tt of a
8nimal that supplies its needs: food, water.
space! andiFantltment*11
rMigratory: .Animals that leave the area in
Vi .. hich. they are . rais.e.d for th .. e wit;\ter. 'i ..,.:.gra
,ahlmals returh. in the spritfjr. ;;'1
Non-domesticated animals, including mam-
mals, birds and fish, which mayor may not be
hunted as controlled by law, are classified as wild-
life.
People and wildlife share the same environ-
ment. They both need food, water, and shelter.
These things make up habitat. People have
changed the habitat through building and devel-
opment, and this directly affects wildlife. People
must be responsible for these changes and strive
to create a healthy balance.
Wildlife is important. Do you enjoy the beauty
of an eagle? Have you ever watched an elk?
Wildlife shows the health of the animals'
habitat. Little or no wildlife means something
is wrong. How do hunters help? People buy
licenses and outdoor gear. They spend millions
of dollars. Programs for wildlife use part of this
money. Some of this money restores habitat.
There are laws about wildlife. Wildlife
agencies protect fish and game, and set the
rules about how our resources may be used. All
people must obey the laws.
Wildlife management creates a balance.
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Pittman-Robertson Act
Actually called the Federal Aid in Wildlife
Restoration Act, P-R was sponsored by Senator
Key Pittman (Nevada) and Representative A.
Willis Robertson (Virginia). President Franklin
Delano Roosevelt signed it into law in 1937.
It provides an excise tax on firearms, ammunition,
and archery equipment.
P-R money is available to the states to buy,
develop, maintain, and operate wildlife
management areas.
P-R money is available to states and is used for
surveys and research necessary to restore wildlife.
P-R money is available to states and is used to
finance Hunter Education. These programs reach
about 650,000 people a year.
People who never hunt benefit from P-R, too.
Wildlife management areas and wetlands are
useful to all nature lovers and watchers. Funds go
toward management of all species, game and non-
game alike.
Hunters' Dollars (U.S.)
Money Time How used
Sources Span
Hunting Since Budgets for state fish
licenses 1923 and wildlife agencies.
Excise taxes Since Wildlife restoration
on arms and 1937 projects. Hunter
ammunition Education.
Duck stamps Since Acquisition of
1934 wetlands for wildlife.
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History of Wildlife Management
Management of wildlife began in Europe.
Rulers owned the land. They had game keepers.
The keeper took care of the animals and kept
them healthy. There was no public hunting.
Only the ruler hunted. The keeper was his
guide.
American settlers began to use wildlife
habitat for space to build their homes. They did
not have hunting laws. Some hunters sold their
game in the towns. Too much of this led to a
decrease in wildlife. Because there were no
laws, the numbers of animals could not be
controlled. There were no more passenger
pigeons. (They became extinct.) Very few wild
buffalo remained.
People grew concerned about the wildlife.
They passed laws about them. Then the public
owned the wildlife. They were responsible for
them.
Wildlife management is wise use of the
outdoors. To understand it, you must study
animals. Animals can be grouped as shown in
the box.
Farm animals
Migratory game
Wilderness game
These animals stay in the
same area all year: They live
on a farm. Examples are
pheasants, quail, and
cottontail rabbits.
This wildlife leaves an area
for the winter and returns in
the spring. Ducks, geese, and
coots are examples.
These animals cannot live with
man. They live in the wilder-
ness. Examples are eagles,
bear, and wolves.
Wildlife Management
There are four basic ideas in wildlife
management.
1. It must be based on facts.
2. Man affects wildlife.
3. Management must help the habitat. It
cannot help only animals.
4. Conservation is wise use of resources.
Preservation is non-use of resources.
Preservation protects endangered animals. It
keeps them free from man. However, we cannot
control all problems. -
Life in the wild is hard and cruel. Sickness can
kill an entire herd. Animals might starve.
Animals kill other animals.
Wildlife Management Tools
1001 How Used Why Beneficial
Fire or In forests and brush- Creates new growth.
burning lands, to return area
to earlier stages.
Fertili- Primarily used in Creates more palatable
zation grassy areas. and nutritional foods.
Food plots For upland game and Creates winter food
some waterfowl. source.
Shelter For protection and Protects upland game,
belts nesting or cover. some big game, and
non-game.
Timber Opens canopy. Trees Creates grasses and
sales are cut to encourage weeds. Helpful to early
undergrowth. successional species .
Weather and amounts of food can lead to
problems. Cycles of growth lead to high birth
rates. Then there will be a high death rate.
An example of the dangers of preservation
happened in the Grand Canyon. President
Roosevelt was a hunter. He cared for animals.
He saw the large mule deer in this area. He
wanted part of the park for the deer alone.
Hunters were kept out. The number of
predators was made smaller.
The deer population grew. One winter there
was not enough food for them. They ate the
plants down very low. The plants could not
grow again. Some mule deer starved. Cowboys
tried to move the deer to a better feeding area.
Not even one deer would move. The deer stayed
in familiar, foodless areas. Many deer starved.
With fewer deer, the food supply could grow
again.
What can wildlife leaders do? They protect the
habitat. They control numbers of animals. They
know what the animals need. Sometimes they
need a new start. This can happen in federal
parks and forests. What do wildlife need? See the
chart.
Food
Cover
Water
Space
Arrangement
Each species needs certain kinds
and amounts of food.
Trees, brush, or a cave can protect
wildlife.
All wildlife need water. They find
it in lakes and ponds. There is
moisture in plants and food.
Animals need a certain amount of
area for living.
The food, cover, water, and space
must be close together.
Habitat is an area that supplies these things. It
is best in the spring. Most wildlife have their
young then. By summer their numbers are too
large for the supply of food. In the winter, there is
even less food. Animals begin to starve.
The balance between habitat and wildlife is
important. We can build or improve habitat.
Wildlife laws help these efforts.
Carrying Capacity
Any area can support only a certain number
of wildlife each year. How many animals is
that? The number is called carrying capacity.
For example, a gallon bucket holds only one
gallon. Too many wildlife is harmful to the
habitat. They hurt the food supply. Without
food, animals get sick or starve.
Slow changes affect habitat. New plants and
animals replace those that die or leave. Burning
and lumbering can create new growth. Wildlife
benefits from new growth.
The birth and death rates are important. Study
the lists shown.
Birth Rates Death Rates
1. This is the number of 1. This is the number of
animals born each animals that die each
year. year.
2. The birth rate is 2 . Causes of death
influenced by include:
o animal's health. o starvation.
o food supply. o climate.
o number of animals in o predators.
the area. o controlled hunting.
Informed Public Consent
The future of wildlife depends on people. They
must know the needs of animals. They must know
about wildlife programs.
Some people think sportsmen endanger
animals. This is not true. Only surplus wildlife
can be hunted. Game laws protect animals.
Wildlife programs need support. They need
funds. License fees pay for these programs. The
laws are tools of wildlife programs. Public
education about wildlife is necessary. Wildlife
and hunters both benefit from good
management programs.
15
The edge effect among the different habitat elements: food, water, space, cover, and arrangement.
ANNU.e.L pRoDUCnON
16
Carrying capacity is the
number of wildlife a habitat
can support.
Carrying Capacity
Ai
B
Surplus decreased due to:
I
I
! .# A Starvation
, , Disease/Parasites
Ii .\ Accidents
, Harsh
'\.. * Huntmg

1-

C

C
Spring I Summer I Fall I Winter
A Unrestricted production ifno limiting factors existed
B Average yearly game production
C Annual breeding stock
Hunters take animals from the annual surplus that
would be lost anyway
Carrying capacity of the land increases in early summer when
there is a lot of food and cover. This healthy habitat is soon
filled by the new broods of birds. In late summer, when the
population and the available food and cover reach their peak,
some birds begin to die.
HA81TAT

17
Words to Learn for'this Chapter
>;t\ction: The part of a firearm that loads, fires, and
'Clischarges the' bullet. There are five types: bolt,
lever, pump (slide), semi-automatic, and break
(hinge).
Ammunition: Any powder, shot, cartridge or
shell used in a flrearm.
The htbe that the bullet goes down when a
firearm is fired.
Binoculars: Field glasses used to identify game
by making it look larger.
Bolt action: A type of firearm that and
"unloads ammunition by working the bolt.
Bore: The measurement from one land to the
opposite land in a rifle barrel.
Break action: A type of firearm that opens at the
Shells are loaded by hand. This,kind can
come either asa single-shot or a double barrel.
Bree,cb: The part of a barrel at the end opposite to
the mUzzle:
galiber: The measurement of a rifle bore. Usually
'it is the distance betweerl' the lands.
Cartridge: A round of ammunition that includes
the primer, powder, case, and the bullet or shot.
Cartridges can be either rim-fire or centerfire.
Centerfire: A type of ammunition in which the
primer is in the center of the cartridge.
Chamber: The part of the bore into which a
cartridge is placed.
, "Choke:, The part of a shotgun at the muzzle that
controls the spread of the shot and its pattern.
J<P
20
,Damascus twist: The barrel of early firearms
made of steel ribbons welded together. They are
often weak and unsafe.
A which shoots a projectile by
burning gunpOwder.
Forearm: part of the stock under the barrel.
Fundamentals: Rules, laws, or facts which are a
basis for knowledge.
,Gauge: The, size of the bore of a gun. It is :t:neasured
'by the number of lead ba,lls the size of the bore
which weigh one pound.
Hammer safety: A type of shotgun It is a
small device that stops the firearm from firing if
the trigger is pulled
Land: The metal between the grooves in a fire
barrel.
Magazine: The part of a repeating firearm that
holds ammunition until it is ready to be fed into
the chamber. ;/411t/0,
Magnum: , A type of shots hell or cartridge that
,has more powder and shot in it than a standard
shotshell.
Marksmanship: Skill in placing a shot or hitting
a target.
Muzzle: The end ana smallest part' of a barrel.
Muzzleloader: A firearm that is loaded through
the muzzle instead of the breech.
Nipple: Part of percussion cap muzzle loaders;,.
which holds the percussion cap. When the cap is
W
!;
struck by the hammer, the ignition process is >
started.
Obstacle: Anything that gets in the way or
obstructs.
Pellets:Small, round oflead or steel
shot in a pattern. " , '
Percussion cap: A cap placed on the nipple under
the hammer of a muzzleloader. The cap explodes
when it is hit. This sends the flame to the main
powder charge, which &res the firearm.
Prevention: To stop or keep from doing
something.
Primer: A cap that sets fire to the powder when it
is struck by the firing pip.
Projectile: A is out of
firearm by force. /
Prone: Lying flat; the safest and most accurate
of the four rifle shooting positions.
Pump A type of firearm loads
unloads ammunition by pumping 'the forea
between shots.
Recoil: The kick back of a firearm when fired.
Repeater: A rifle tHat holds more than one
cartridge; and can ,.;fire several ,;'shots
reloading.
" 1et
Resistance: The power or ability to withstand or
to oppose. ,>
,Rifting: Grooves in the metal of barrel.
They make the bullet spin.
Rim-fire: A.type of ammunition in which the
primer is around the inside bottom rim of the case.
Semi-automatic: Aflrearm that fIres, ejects the
spent cartridge, and chambers a new cartridge
with a single pull of the trigger.
Shotshell: Shot and other parts of ammunition
for shotguns that come all together in a
or shelL
Shot: Pellets made oflead or steel that are fired by
atirearm.
Sight-in: '1b adjust a rifle's sights so that the bullet
l:tits a target a given range.
i', 4.0
Hunting Heritage and
Early Firearms History
The survival of early man depended on his
taking animals for food. He used tools like clubs,
rocks, and short spears. His hunting was done at
close range. It was very dangerous.
Slings or bows and arrows helped keep the
hunter a safe distance from the animal. The
hunter needed good eyes, aim, and the ability to
judge distance. These skills are still needed
today in many fields, including sport hunting.
A firearm is a tool which shoots a projectile by
burning gunpowder. The first gunpowder was
used in China to make firecrackers. It was called
black powder. Later hand cannons shot rocks or
bits of metal.
Firearms shot from the shoulder were used in
Europe 100 years before Columbus sailed for
America. The ammunition included lead balls
and shot. Lead balls were needed to bring down
large animals. Shot was used for small animals
and birds.
American improvements made the
muzzleloader more accurate. Americans used a
patched round ball. Later, percussion caps were
developed. More shots could be fired in a short
time. The Sharps rifle, a popular western firearm,
was a breech loader.
Many improvements happened between 1850
and 1890. Firearms became common tools. They
were named after the people who made them.
Examples were Sharps, Colt, and Winchester. The
Sights: Mechanical a
help in aiming. Includes open, peep, ana
l,
Sliding lever: A type of shotgun safety. It 'is a
small that stops the fuearm.from firing if
thetriggef is pulled accidenta:
1
!y. ;$/1 &%
Solvent: A liquid that can dissolve grease and
other substances. that can .;build up inside 411*
firearm.
The wood,!m or plastic frame
thefbarrel and action. It helps you get and' keep'**
. aim, and it absorbs recoil when you fIre.
Terrain: Portion of land.
Vehicle: Used for transportation, such as a car,
truck, sled, or cart. _
Waterfowl: Water birds, especitilly those that
swim, suc};t as ducks
Eye and frearing protection is recommended
for all firearms including muzzleloaders.
story of firearms is linked to the history of the
United States and Canada.
Rifles
Safe, responsible hunters learn how a firearm
works. What is the difference between a rifle and
a shotgun? What are the parts of a firearm? How
does each part work? This chapter will help you
answer those questions.
Rifles and shotguns look alike. Each has a
barrel, action, and stock. Differences are inside
the barrel and action.
When a bullet is fired, it goes down a tube. This
tube is called the barrel. A rifle-barrel is thicker
than a shotgun barrel. Grooves in the metal are
called rifling. The grooves make a bullet spin.
Spinning makes the bullet go straight and far.
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Firearms Parts
Part Purpose/Description
Action Part of a rifle which shoots the
bullet. The action loads, fires and
discharges the bullet.
Barrel
A bullet is fired through the bar-
rel.
Breech This is the part of the barrel at the
end opposite the muzzle.
Butt
The part ofthe stock which is held
against your shoulder.
Chamber The part of the bore into which a
cartridge is placed.
Comb/Cheekpiece The top ridge of the stock. If it is
raised, it is called a cheekpiece.
ForearmlForend The part of the stock under the
barrel.
Grip The smaller part of the stock
behind the receiver.
Muzzle This is the end of the barrel. The
muzzle is the smallest part of the
barrel.
Rifle Sights
All sights are on top ofthe barrel.
They are used to aim.
Open Sights These have front and rear parts.
The rear sight can be moved to
change where the bullet will hit.
Peep Sights These have front and rear parts.
The rear part is a peephole where
your eye will focus.
Telescopic Sights This type does not have a front
sight. The aiming points are inside
a telescope. It makes the target
appear closer, larger and brighter.
Safety
The safety should prevent the
fIrearm from fIring if the trigger is
pulled accidentally. The safety may
be a button, movable pin, thumb
lever, thumb hammer, or sliding
plate. A hard blow or dropping the
rifle could still cause it to fIre.
Stock The wooden, plastic or metal
frame that holds the barrel and
action. It helps you get and keep
your aim. It also absorbs recoil
when you fIre.
TriggerlTrigger The trigger is squeezed to start
Guard
the movements in the action. The
trigger guard protects the trigger
from accidental bumping.
22
Shotgun - Smoothbore
Rifle - Rifled bore
Bore Types
O l ~
Rifle Actions
Pump
Bolt
Break
Semi-automatic
Lever
The metal between the grooves is called a
land. The bore of a rifle is measured from one
land to the land opposite. The size of bullet
comes from this measurement.
What part of a rifle shoots the cartridge? The
action loads, fires, and discharges the bullet.
The five types of actions are pictured here.
A single-shot rifle holds and fires only one
cartridge'. A wise hunter learns to use this kind
first. A responsible hunter shoots' only one bullet
whenever possible.
Repeater is the name of a rifle that uses more
than one cartridge. It can fire several shots before
reloading. The cartridges are stored in the
magazine. All repeater rifles have a magazine.
Study the diagrams of rifle parts. Discuss the
purpose and safe use of each part.
Safe, responsible hunters know the parts of a
rifle. They know what each part does. This
helps hunters use a firearm safely. A safe
hunter controls the rifle's muzzle. He keeps his
fingers outside the guard and away from the
trigger until ready to shoot. You must handle
your rifle carefully and responsibly.
Safeties
Most rifles will have a safety. Safeties are
designed to prevent either the trigger or the
firing pin from moving. Safe hunters will
always know where the safety is on their
firearm. They will also know how it operates
before trying to load and use the firearm.
Handle the rifle safely even with the safety on.
Safeties are not foolproof. A hard blow like
dropping a rifle or a mechanical failure of the
safety could still cause the rifle to fire.
The illustration here shows typical types of
safeties.
Lever action rifles require extra care. While
cocking, the trigger is exposed. Keep fingers
outside the trigger guard during cocking. The
safe position is the half-cocked position. From the
half-cocked position, put your thumb firmly on
the hammer to hold it. Ease the trigger back until
the hammer releases. Lower it all the way. Then
Parts of a Bolt Action Rifle
Butt pad
pull it back to where it catches in the half cocked
position. Removing gloves helps keep a firm grip
on the hammer and prevents slips. Always point
the muzzle in a safe direct jon when operating the
hammer. Practice this often with an empty rifle.
The hunter should feel comfortable trying it with
a loaded rifle.
Remember, never substitute using a safety for
safe firearm handling.
Shotguns
A carefully chosen shotgun can be an all-
purpose firearm. It can be used for targets or for
Safety Locations
Safety
Safety
- - i = = ~ - - : /
___ =-====T'==-==-
Safety
Rear sight Front sight
Barrel
Muzzle
Forearm
23
many types of wildlife. How can a shotgun work for
both quail and deer? It has many possible shots hell
loads and choke choices. In this chapter, you will
learn what that means. You will see why the shot-
gun can have many uses.
A shotgun fires many pellets. These are made of
lead or steel and are called shot. The hunter shoots
these in a pattern at his target.
Have you hear the term "12 gauge shotgun?"
Gauge tells you the size ofthe bore ofthe gun. It is
measured by the number of lead balls equal to the
size of the bore which weigh one pound (.45 kg.) For
example, the 12 gauge takes a lead ball OfY12 pound.
The diameter of this ball is the same as the gauge of
that bore.
Shotguns have longer barrels than rifles. This
helps shooters hold and balance the gun better.
Longer barrels do not shoot farther. Modern
shotshells gain full speed in a 24-inch (60.94 cm.)
barrel. In longer barrels, the shot begins to slow
down.
It is easy to understand what a choke does. Just
compare it to the nozzle of a water hose. Wide open,
the nozzle sprays widely but does not reach far.
Nearly closed, the tight stream from the nozzle
travels far away. In shotguns, the choke squeezes
the shot and keeps it together longer.
Choke type causes shot patterns. Study the chart
on page 25. You will see the pattern each type of
choke causes.
What causes a shotgun to fire better patterns?
Parts of a Pump Action Shotgun
24
Butt
plate
Comb
Safety
Pump action
Trigger guard
Trigger
That information will help you be a more accurate
hunter. The experiment here will show what is best
for your shotgun.
Steel shot is required for all waterfowl hunting.
It prevents potential lead poisoning and keeps the
shot from contaminating the environment.
Shotgun Patterns
1. Get several 40-inch (101.6 cm) square sheets of
paper.
2. Draw a 30-inch (76.2 cm) diameter circle on each
sheet.
3. Fire at these targets from 40 yards (36.6 m) away.
4. Count the number of pellets in each shot size used.
6. Divide the number of holes in the circle by the
number of pellets used in that circle. This is t ~ e
percentage.
7. Use the shot size that gives the highest percentage.
What kind of action can a shotgun have? There are
many choices. Learn how each works. Study the
information below and the chart on actions. You can
decide which action you want.
The kinds of actions are break (hinge), bolt, pump
(slide), and semi-automatic.
Break action shotguns open at the breech. You
load shells by hand. This kind comes' as a single-
shot or double barrel. Double barrels have different
chokes in each barrel. One allows close
Ventilated rib Sighting bead
~
Barrel Muzzle
Forearm Tube plug
Magazine
tube
Shotgun Chokes and Patterns
For Lead Shot . effective range
. 40+ yards
FUll Choke
Full Choke
Modified Choke
terminal range
200+ yards
effective range
35 yards
terminal range
200+ yards
terminal range
200+ yards
Improved Choke
Cylinder Choke
Detail exaggerated for emphasis.
Shotgun Actions
Pump Action, single barrel repeater
c::=:J\
111I11I11111
Semi-automatic Action, single barrel repeater
Bolt Action, single barrel repeater
co-
Break Action, single barrel, single shot
7
-----
Break Action, side-by-side, double barrel
. Break Action, over-and-under, double barrel
25
shooting. The second barrel allows shots at a longer
distance.
Bolt action shotguns load the shells for you.
When you work the bolt, a shotshell goes into the
chamber. The empty shell comes out.
Pump action works like bolt action. The hunter
pumps the forearm between shots.
The semi-automatic does the loading and un-
loading for you.
When would you want each of these actions?
When you get only one or two shots, break or bolt
shotguns are good. Pump and semi-automatic ac-
tions are best for waterfowl hunting. Several shots
can be fired quickly.
A shotgun's safety may be a latch, sliding lever or
pin. A hammer safety is difficult to cock or lower
against a stiff spring. Point the shotgun in a safe
direction while moving the hammer. Remove gloves
or mittens. Then the hammer will have less chance
to slip.
Using a Shotgun as a Rifle
When would you use a shotgun like a rifle? In
some areas only shotguns are allowed. You can add
sights to a shotgun. This will provide help with
aiming and shooting.
Firearm Safety in the Home
Responsible gun handling is not limited to the
field. Firearm safety must also be practiced at home.
It is sad but true, that many people are injured or
killed in home firearm accidents. However, the
student who learns how to ~ n d l e guns safely in the
field can put that knowledge to good use at home.
Here are some guidelines to prevent home fire-
arm accidents:
Never show firearms to your friends without
adult supervision. If your friends come over after
school or on weekends and they ask to see a gun, be
sure to have your parent or another adult present.
Remember, you were once very curious about guns,
so it is natural that your friends will share that same
curiosity. Just remember, your hunter safety train-
ing has taught you things about safe gun handling
that your friends probably don't know. Also, they
may have questions about gun safety that only an
adult can answer. Even more important, the pres-
ence of an adult can discourage someone who is not
familiar with firearms from treating them like toys.
Use trigger locks. These are inexpensive
safety devices designed to fit around the trigger
26
guard of a rifle, shotgun or handgun to prevent the
gun from being accidentally fired. There are several
types oftrigger locks, and an acceptable substitute
is a padlock. Slip the locking "bar" through the
trigger guard behind the trigger. This will prevent
the trigger on most firearms from being depressed
far enough to allow the gun to accidently fire. There
are other locking devices available, as well. For
example, the Cable Lock is a gun safety device that
is similar to the cable you would use to lock up a
bicycle. Open the action of a shotgun or many bolt
action rifles, semi-automatic pistols or revolvers
and run the cable through the openings, then lock it.
This prevents the action from being closed on a live
cartridge and being accidentally fired.
Showing Firearms
Always keep the muzzle pointed in a -safe
direction. This rule applies equally to the home as
it does to the shooting range or in the field.
In the home there are some "extra" things to
consider, however. For example, if you live in a two-
story house, or in an apartment with neighbors
living upstairs or downstairs, you must be careful
about pointing the muzzle up or down. An accidental
discharge could send a bullet through your ceiling,
and your upstairs bedroom floor! This is the prime
reason that you never hand a firearm to anyone
without first checking to make certain that it is not
loaded. A good idea is to always try and keep the
muzzle aimed at an angle so that it is pointed at the
corner of the room where the ceiling or the floor
comes together with the wall. The reason for this is
that in these areas, there are usually several
crossbeams of wood, top and bottom, which support
the wall studs. These thick layers oflumber, usually
2 x 4s nailed together, can often stop an accidentally
fired bullet.
Always have the action open for display. If
you show firearms to a visitor, always open the
action first to make sure the gun is not loaded.
Only then do you hand it to your guest, and he or she
should keep the action open. This rule applies to all
guns, whether they are break-open shotguns, bolt-
action rifles or revolvers. And, when you hand over
a firearm to a visitor, keep the muzzle pointed in a
safe direction.
Cleaning and Storage
Why is it important to take care of your firearm?
You can help it last a life time with good care. ' This
means the firearm requires periodic inspection,
adjustment and service, as over a period of time,
parts can wear or break. The firearm manufacturer
can be contacted for recommended servicing.
A clean firearm is safest to use. Responsible hunters
clean and safely store their firearms. Your firearm
should be cleaned after each trip. Clean it even if you
did not fire it. Always make sure your firearm is
unloaded before you clean it. A good rule is, ''Take two
seconds to be safe instead of forever being sorry."
Brush dirt, sand, and leaves from the action and barrel.
Use solvent to clean the bore. Apply a light coat of oil
inside and out. Then your firearm is ready for storage.
Safe Storage
It is important to store your firearm in a safe, dry
place. A horizontal rack is fine. A cased firearm
should be muzzle down. This prevents cleaning fluid
and oil from settling into the action.
Do not leave a firearm in a closed case for a long
time. A closed case traps moisture. This could rust
your gun.
Never have a loaded firearm in your vehicle.
Learn the laws about traveling with a gun.
Store firearms and ammunition separately.
Remember one of the first rules you learned during
hunter education class. Always keep your firearms
unloaded and stored separately from ammunition
when not in use. In many homes, you will find
ammunition locked in a separate drawer or ammu-
nition locker, away from gun cabinets. In other
homes, the ammunition is simply placed in a sepa-
rate location. The result is the same: Guns and
ammunition are not immediately accessible in the
same place, and this reduces the possibility that
someone unfamiliar with guns could foolishly load a
firearm in the home and accidently fire that gun.
Many gun cabinets and gun safes have lockable
storage drawers for ammunition, and you should
remember to use those locks.
Some people take an additional safety precaution
with bolt-action rifles by removing the bolt and
locking it in a storage drawer as well.
The golden rule is: You can never be too safe about
storing or showing your firearms!
Arrows, Knives
Safety in the home goes beyond the safe storage of
firearms and ammunition. If, for example, you or a
member of your family is a bowhunter, it is very
important to store your hunting broadheads safely,
where visitors, and especially small children, can't
easily or accidentally find them.
Hunting broadheads are extremely sharp and,
when handled improperly, can cause severe cuts.
Therefore, they should be stored in containers de-
signed specifically for broadhead storage. These are
available at virtually any good archery shop or
sporting goods store that sells archery equipment.
These containers usually have a foam interior iIito
which the broadheads are gently inserted until they
are unable to rattle around loose. There should be a
lid that can be closed tightly. If you do not have such
a container, it's easy to make one by cutting a piece
of foam to fit a shoe box. Once your broadheads are
safely placed inside, close the lid and either tape it,
tie it or close it with heavy rubber bands.
Knives may also cause accidents when improp-
erly handled. When storing a hunting knife, it's a
good idea to wipe the blade with a thin coat of oil,
then put it in the sheath, snap the safety strap
closed, and put the knife in the same cabinet where
you store your firearms.
Many gun safes have shelves that are perfect for
this purpose. The oil will help prevent rusting that
can be caused by moisture that can't evaporate
through the leather, or even the nylon sheath
material.
Rimfire Cartridge
Hollow
a-r..--- bullet point
Crimp
dt--- Brass case
---Powder
:;w.-- Rim/primer
Shotgun Shell
Shot
Plastic
body
Wad
Brass


Centerfire
Cartridge
Bullet
-.:._r--- Crimp
Brass case
Smokeless
powder
Flash hole
Rim
Primer
27
Ammunition
What is ammunition? How does it work? Early
hunters used stones, spears, then black powder. In
1884 smokeless powder was developed. Smokeless
powder comes in flakes, pellets, strips, and other
shapes. It can be measured closely. This means that
each shotshell from the same box will shoot almost
the same.
Modern ammunition has four parts: the case,
primer, powder and bullet. Today's ammunition is
faster to load and more reliable. Cartridges make
rapid-firing possible. See the diagram on ammuni-
tion. This will show you the location of the primer,
powder, and bullet or shot.
There are two styles of primer in modern ammu-
nition. One is centerfire. The other is rimfire. Large
caliber rifles and all shotguns use centerfire am-
munition. This means the primer is in the center of
the cartridge. Rimfire ammunition is used only in
small caliber firearms. An example is the .22 caliber.
The primer is around the inside bottom rim of the
case.
Ammunition Safety
A safe hunter learns what to do and what not to do
with ammunition.
Safe hunters use the correct powder or ammunition
for their firearms. Caliber or gauge is stamped on the
barrel of most modern firearms. This is also stamped
on every box of ammunition and on the headstamp of
every cartridge or shotgun shell. Learn which size of
ammunition works for your firearm and be sure the
cartridge head stamp or shotgun shell stamp matches
exactly the markings on your firearm. Improper or
28
How a Firearm Fires
Cartridge in chamber.
Burning powder and gas expands,
pushing bullet out.
incorrect ammunition can destroy a gun and cause
serious injury to the shooter or to by-standers. Check
which size or load is proper for the game you hunt.
Study the chart on ammunition use. Go to a gunsmith
ifno markings exist or you are uncertain of the caliber.
A safe hunter takes care of powder supplies. They
are kept away from fire, cigarettes and sparks. A
responsible hunter knows laws about ammunition.
He keeps it cool, dry, and locked away from firearms
when not in use.
Good hunters know how far their firearms and
ammunition will shoot. They shoot at game within
that range. Know your target and what is behind it.
Modern shotguns fire more than the length of a
football field. A rifle shoots more than three miles
(4.83 km).
Careful hunters will not fire magnum shotshells
in a standard shotgun. Using incorrect ammunition
causes accidents. Safe hunters carry one size
ammunition. That prevents loading a larger shotshell
on a smaller one. Responsible hunters know a
Damascus twist firearm is very dangerous. They
avoid this firearm. When hunters know safe practices,
they enjoy hunting more.
How Ammunition Works
1. Your trigger releases the hammer.
2. The hammer drives a firing pin into the primer
area.
3. The primer explodes; this sets fire to the powder.
4. This fire causes very high gas pressure.
5. The gas pressure pushes the bullet or shot out of
the firearm barrel.
Firing pin strikes and primer
explodes, igniting powder.
e!!e rr"")
~ ~ ' ~ J : >
~ -
Bullet and escaping gases speed from
muzzle, causing noise.
Questions and Answers About Steel Shot
Exactly what iB the problem with lead Bhot?
The problem is called lead poisoning. Waterfowl are
most affected by this problem because these birds
spend most of their time feeding in marshes where
hunters shoot. They become poisoned when they
swallow the lead pellets that are left in the wetlands
from hunter's shotguns. As few as one lead pellet
can cause death in an adult mallard. National
estimates are that as many as two to three million
waterfowl die each year from lead poisoning. Preda-
tors which feed on poisoned birds may also be
affected.
What iB the Bolution to thiB problem?
The only way for hunters to solve this problem is to
stop using lead shot in waterfowl hunting. At this
time, the only available alternative is steel shot.
How doeB Bteel Bhot differ from lead?
Steel pellets are harder and rounder than lead
pellets. Steel pellets are not deformed as much
during loading and firing. They will fly truer than
lead. Since steel pellets weigh less, they will retain
less energy at any given range than the same size
lead shot. (See Chart 1.)
Then Bteel Bhot doeBn't perform as well as lead?
Not necessarily. Three factors determine perfor-
mance: roundness, speed and weight. Steel shot is
Chart 2
superior to lead in roundness and short range
speed, but not in weight. Ammunition manufac-
turers have adjusted for this difference in
weight with special wads and powders to attain
higher muzzle velocities. They also recommend
Chart 1
Steel Vs. Lead Shot*
Retained
Muzzle Energy
Shot Shot Velocity (Ft. Lbs.)
Type Wt. Size (FPS)
40Yds. -
Lead PI. 6 1330 2.3
Steel Pis 4 1365 2.5
Lead PI. 4 1330 4.4
Steel Pis 2 1365 4.4
Lead PI. 4 1260 4.1
Steel PI. 2 1275 4.1
Lead PI. 2 1260 7.0
Steel PI. BB 1210 8.3
Lead Fls BB 1260 13.0
Steel PI. BBB** 1375 11.1
Steel PI. T** 1375 13.5
Steel PI. F** 1375 19.2
Source SAAMI Exterior Balli. tics Table. adopted 4123181. Calculated. data - SAAMI
data not available. Chart compiled by Winchester Group/Olin Corporation. NOTE: Steel
.hot peJJeta two l izes larger than lead deHver comparable down ran", enel'l)' .
Chart2A
Shot Size Equivalence: Steel Vs. Lead
No.BB
No.2
No.2
No.4
No.4
No.6
No.6
, ... 2
..
.,",., .
Steel
Lead
.. Steel
., <J . .,.. Lead
... Steel
.... &
. , ., .J . .,.. Lead
--- .. Steel ,,,
For similar performance and range, use two sizes larger steel shot than would
normally be used with lead.
Steel
",.--....
" ...
Shot (B% \)
Pa
\ 1 I
ttern \1 l,.'
Steel shot pattern t ... - - .... 1
is more dense 1 :
and is smaller I 1
than the lead I 1
shot pattern. Per- 1 30 1
centages shown
here are approxi- ... ---... 1 ....
.... 1 1 ...
mate, as shot " 1 I'
/8 :l \
fired from 1 75% I
40 yards ' ,
with a \ I
\ I
full choke. ' /
,.... "
...... _--"
Lead
29
that hunters use two shot sizes larger in steel than they
would normally use in lead.(See Chart 2.) This gives
comparable retained energy at a similar range.
So, an 1 need to do is buy two shot sizes larger and
I'm OK?
No. Because it deforms less during loading and firing,
steel shot flies truer and usually patterns tighter. The
hunter will want to use a more open choke than he
would use with lead shot.(See Chart 2A.) Hunters should
sharpen their skills by shooting at clay targets before
going afield with steel shot. This will build confidence in
. the hunter's ability to make clean kills with steel.
Do 1 need to learn to "shoot differently" with steel
shot?
Usually a steel load starts out with higher speed than
a similar lead load, but slows down more quickly
because it is lighter. It loses its speed advantage
somewhere downrange, usually at about 40 yards. By
studying the numbers in Chart 3 you will see that the
difference in how much you should lead a bird with
steel and with lead is very small. In practice you can
forget the difference most of the time.
How can 1 judge the proper lead?
.. Estimating what is proper lead in a fraction of a second
on a passing bird is hard to do. Most field shooting
schools teach the swing through method of lead because
each shooter tends to see lead a little differently. The
only way to become good at judging proper lead is by
practicing good shooting techniques both in the field and
on clay targets.
ChartS
Remington LHd Shot Loads
Muzzle
Leads In Feet
Remington loadings Velocity Shot

lead Shot (ft. per sec.) Size 3Oyds. 40 yda.
12 Gauge 20/. Inch
Premier'" & 1330 6 5.0 7.3
Exp ........
Ozs.
PR12 & SP12
4 4.9 7.0
2 4.8 6.8
BB 4.6 6.5
1 have heard a lot about more cripples with steel
shot.
Yes, you probably have. But most studies show that a
hunter's skill and taking shots closer than 35 yards have
more to do with clean kills than whether a hunter uses
steel or lead shot. Practice with steel shot, judging
distance, and careful shot selection will give the hunter
more clean kills and fewer cripples.
But what about use on geese, when it's tough to get
that short shot?
Again, practice and knowledge payoff. The Oregon
Institute of Technology documented that steel shot in
size BB would penetrate all the way through a Canada
goose when breast shot at 40 yards. Chart 1 shows that
the steel BB has even more retained energy at 40 yards
than the lead No.2 shot. A well-placed shot and proper
shot selection make steel a lethal load. -
How about my shotgun barrel?
Most modern firearms should not be damaged by using
steel shot. New ammunition has a tough plastic casing
around the shot so it is completely covered during its
travel down the barrel. But to be sure, check with the
firearm manufacturer and get their specific
recommendations.
Can I reload with steel shot?
Reloading with steel can be done effectively. New
components are on the market that make it possible
to get acceptable results reloading steel shot. It is
necessary to follow the instructions exactly, and use
only the wads, powder, and primers recommended by
the component suppliers in reloading steel shot. Any
changes could cause dangerously high pressure levels
and result in personal injury and damage to shotguns.
Remington Steel Shot Loads
Muzzle Leads In Feet
Remington Loadings Velocity Shot
Steel Shot (ft. per sec.) Size 30 yd . 4Oyda.
12 Gauge 2.lnch
Steel Load 1365 6 5.2 7.7
11A1 Oz .
STL12
4 5.0 7.3
2 4.8 7.0
BB 4.7 6.7
Some of the infonnation appearing on this page is taken from the Remington publication "Shooting Steel Shot with Confidence. " reprinted courtesy Remington Arms Co. . Inc.
30
How Far Can You Shoot a Rifle?
Type
o Mile 1 Mile 2 Miles 3 Miles 4 Miles 5 Miles
22 Short
22LHV
22 LRHV
22 WIN. MAG.
222
243
270
7MMMAG.
30-30
30-06
300SAV
.
300H&H
308
338
35 REM.
.
45-70
o Mile 1 Mile 2 Miles 3 Miles 4 Miles 5 Miles
Maximum range at sea level. 0 Maximum range at 12,000 feet altitude. Reprint courtesy NSSF/SAAMI .
How Far Can You Shoot a Shotgun?
12 Gaup
oman_
For Shot
SiMa. Oft. 500 It. 1000 ft. 1500 ft. 2000 ft. 2500 ft. 3000 ft. 3500 ft. 4000 ft. 4500 ft. 5000 ft. 5500 ft.
No.9
No.71f1
No.6
~ ,
No. 5
No.4
No.2
No. 0
No. 00
Slug
oman_ . ~
1 oz. slug
410 slug
Oft. 500 ft. 1000 ft. 1500 ft. 2000 ft. 2500 ft. 3000 ft. 3500 ft. 4000 ft. 4500 ft. 5000 ft. 5500 ft.
Maximum range at sea level. o Maximum range at 12,000 feet altitude. Reprint courtesy NSSF/SAAMI .
31
Firearms Handling
and Safety
Safe, responsible fireanns handling is the most
important skill for hunters. Safe habits get rid of most
firearm accidents.
You can make a difference. You can help reduce
firearms accidents. The things you learn in Hunter
Education will help you. Since Hunter Education
began, the fireanns accident rate is lower in North
America. Hunter Education students learn the cause
and prevention of fireanns accidents.
How can you shoot safely? Always handle your
firearm properly. You need three habits:
1. Always control the muzzle of your firearm.
Point it safely. Keep your rmger off the trigger.
Keep the action open when not shooting. Insist
that all in your group handle fIrearms safely.
Real friends do not take dangerous chances.
2. Treat each firearm like a loaded firearm. Check
any fIrearm you hold. Is it unloaded? You need
to know! When a fIrearm changes hands, leave
the action open.
3. Be sure of your target and what is beyond.
Never shoot at a flash of color. Do not shoot at
a sound. Never shoot at a shape in a tree. Can
you tell the sex of your target? Sometimes laws
Shot Sizes
No. 9 8Y2 8 7Y2 6 5
SHOT SIZES




Diameter
in inches .08 .085 .09 .095 . 11 .12
BUCKSHOT e e e e
Diameter No. 4 No.3 No. 2 No. I
in inches .24 .25 .27 .30
4

.13
Use caution if your firearm fails to fire when the
trigger is pulled. Occasionally a cartridge or shotgun
shell may not flre. If this occurs, keep the muzzle
pointed in a safe direction for one minute and then
carefully open the action. A mechanical failure or a
broken part in the firearm may suddenly release the
hammer or flring pin causing the cartridge to fire.
Human mistakes cause accidents. Hunters must
know the causes of accidents. Then they can decide on
safe actions.
Prevention is the key to safe hunting. Every type
of accident can be prevented. Hunters must know and
follow the simple rules of the Ten Commandments of
Shooting Safety.
Hunters wearing blaze orange are highly visible
and less likely to be involved in vision-related hunting
accidents.
Major Causes of Accidents
Do hunters often have accidents? Less than .1 of
one percent of hunters have accidents. More
The danger of using wrong ammunition.
2 I BB T F
I
.15 .16 . 18 .20 .22

I .
I
No. 0 No. 00 No. 000
.32 .33 .36
Lead Pellets Per Ounce (Approx). Steel P.P.O. (Approx.)
Size
BB
2
4
5
32
Pellets Size Pellets Size
50 6 225 BB
87 7
1
/2 350 I
135 8 410 2
170 9 585 4
6
Check state or provincial regulations to determine IepI ammunition usage.
Pellets
72
103
125
192
315
Gauge and caliber
markings.
Ten Commandments of
Shooting Safety
1. Control the direction of your
firearm's muzzle. Carry your fIrearm
safely, keeping the safety on until
ready to shoot. Keep your finger off
the trigger until ready to shoot.
2. Treat every fIrearm with the same
respect due a loaded firearm.
3. Identify your target and what is
beyond it. Know the identifying
features of the game you hunt.
4. Be sure the barrel and action are
clear of obstructions and that you
have only ammunition of the proper
size for the firearm you are carrying.
5. Unload firearms when not in use.
Leave the actions open. Firearms
should be carried empty in cases to
and from shooting areas.
6. Never point a firearm at anything
you do not want to shoot. Avoid all
horseplay with a firearm.
7. Never climb a fence or tree, or jump a
ditch or log, with a loaded firearm.
Never pull a firearm toward you by
the muzzle.
8. Never shoot a bullet at a flat, hard
surface or water. During target
practice, be sure your backstop IS
adequate.
9. Store firearms and ammunition
separately beyond the reach of
children and careless adults.
10. Avoid alcoholic beverages or other
mood-altering drugs before or while
shooting.
accidents happen at home, work, or in other
sports. Most hunters in accidents are not Hunter
Education students. Responsible people take
Hunter Education. After their course, they get
their hunting licenses. They have learned
accident prevention.
Study the causes of accidents. This will help you
prevent them. There are three major causes of
accidents. They are: safety violations, hunter
judgment, and lack of skill. Below are some
examples. How would you prevent each accident
cause?
1. A firearm is moved around in a vehicle.
2. A firearm falls from its leaning place.
3. A hunter crosses an obstacle unsafely.
4. Horseplay.
5. A shooter cannot see his buddy.
6. A hunter is mistaken for game.
Think about the following safety rules. Why is
each one important?
1. Know where members of your group are.
2. Wear hunter orange.
3. Identify your target and beyond.
4. Learn to cross obstacles safely.
33
,
Heat Escape Lessening
lbsture (HELP) position
you reach your cooler or gas tank? Climb on it.
Wet, cold and windy weather reduces your body
heat. Shivering is an early sign of heat loss. Loss
of control of limbs and muscles signals advanced
hypothermia.
How can you recognize advanced hypothermia?
The victim looks bluish-white. He will have a
weak heartbeat. His breathing is shallow. The
body muscles become rigid. The victim may be
unconscious. This person needs dry clothing,
warmth and a doctor. Handle the person gently.
Every boat operator is responsible for safety.
That means your safety and the safety of your
group. Make everyone use a PFD. Follow all
safety rules. Do not allow horseplay. If the
weather changes, you are in charge. Be first to
suggest going to shore.
Learn more about boat safety. Know about
water safety. Many areas have boating and water
safety classes. Ask your instructor about them.
Hypothermia
Hypothermia means lowered body
temperature. It is a silent killer. It takes heat
from your inner body. You must know the signs of
hypothermia. Do you know what leads to
hypothermia? A responsible hunter knows these
causes.
Hypothermia can start in wet conditions. These
can be rain, snow, or sleet. Sweating or even
humidity in the air can chill you.
Wading sportsmen can fall into water. They get
soaked. This makes hypothermia more likely. A
boating accident could put you into the water. You
could lose your life in less than an hour from
hypothermia.
Moisture on brush and trees wets your clothing.
You could get soaked slowly. Good raingear will
keep you warm and dry.
Your own motions cause a breeze. Any wind can
cool down your body. A long, cold boat ride could
cause hypothermia. A light mist with a gentle
wind on a 45 degree day could cause hypothermia.
If you are wet and chilled, you are in danger.
Wind makes moisture evaporate from- your
body. This lowers body temperature. Study the
wind chill chart in this chapter.
People in poor physical shape may become
hypothermic. Your body does not keep as warm
when tired. Plan your hike well. Plan rest stops.
Think about the slowest person in the group. Eat
well. This helps your body stay warm. Drugs and
alcohol slow the body. Alcohol speeds the loss of
body heat. Keep your body warm. This prevents
hypothermia.
Often a victim does not recognize danger
signs. Oxygen has extra work to do in a cold
person. Oxygen to the brain is reduced. Then, it
is harder to understand what is happening. Do
not hunt alone. You may not see the signs of
hypothermia.
What happens to a person with hypothermia?
His body cannot make up for heat loss. He shivers.
He loses control of his arms and legs. He may
stumble or seem confused. The next step is muscle
spasms. Total loss of body control may follow.
Later the victim's skin turns bluish. His muscles
are rigid. His breathing and heartbeat are weak.
Hypothermia Prevention
Hypothermia can be prevented. Know its
causes. Use your head. Plan to avoid the causes.
You must stay dry. What steps do you take if you
get wet? Get out of the wind. Change into dry
clothing. Build a fire and get warm.
Avoid efforts which cause sweating and
tiredness. Set a good pace. Match the easy pace of
the slowest person. Dress in layers.
Carry protection from the wind. A light
raincoat keeps breezes from your body. Use a coat
which lets your body breathe.
71
Keep your head warm. The head, face, and neck
lose body heat fast. "If your feet are cold, put your
hat on," is a good rule. A bandanna will keep
your neck warm. You could tie it over your head.
This would keep your ears and sides of your face
warm. Wool mittens keep your hands warm. One-
finger or gun-slit holes let you shoot safely.
Proper clothing is important. Wool is very good.
It is quiet in the woods. It holds body heat well. A
wool/cotton blend is good for longjohns. Thermal
underwear with a fishnet pattern holds in air.
This keeps you warm.
Plan trips carefully. Do not tire yourself. In
cold, wet weather, eat well. Drink lots of warm
liquids. This helps keep you warm. Alcohol will
not keep you warm.
Find shelter from bad weather. Carry and use
your personal survival kit.
Always prevent hypothermia. It is difficult to
stop once started.
Hypothermia Treatment
You suspect symptoms of hypothermia. What
should you do? Prompt care is urgent. Stop heat
loss and regain body heat. Do not let things get
worse.
Get out of wet, windy weather. Get dry and
warm. Dry your wet clothing. Build a fire. Wring
out your outer clothing. Take otT inner wear. Put
outer wear back on. Wring inner layers. Dry them
by the fire. Then put on dry inner clothes. Now
dry the outer layers.
Hypothermia is a killer. The advanced stages
are very dangerous. Doctors treat these stages.
Getting soaked in driving rain can lead to
hypothermia.
72
You can learn about the first stages of
hypothermia. Take a first aid class before your
hunting trip. Learn to care for hypothermia.
Hypothermia Chart
Mild Moderate Severe
s
Shivering.
Listlessness.
Unresponsiveness.
y
Complaints of cold.
mental confusion,
Decreased pulse
m
Loss of
refusal to
and respiration.
p
coordination.
recognize problem.
Shivering stops.
t
Mental
Uncontrollable
0

shivering.
withdrawal and
Physical collapse.
m

Slurred speech.
S
apathy.

Stumbling.
F End exposure - Get out of wet, Treatment should
i get victim out of windy weather. Get be attempted only if
r cold and wet. dry and warm. victim cannot be
S
Replace wet Change
to dry
evacuated to a hos-
t
clothing with dry, clothes if available.
pital promptly for
A
or add insulation. Wrap in blankets
professional care.
Place victim in or sleeping bag.
In such a
i
Deliver warmth to
d
warm

If neither dry
the head and trunk
environment. clothes nor
of the body by
Offer warm liquids blankets are
application of warm
or food only if available. dry your
water bottles,
victim is fully
wet clothing one warmed blankets or
conscious. layer at a time. another warm body.
Water Survival Chart
Exhaustion or
If the Water Unconsciousness Expected Time
Temp. (OF) is ... Occurs In ... of Survival is ...
32.5 Under 15 Minutes Under 15-45 Minutes
32.5-40.0 15-30 Minutes 30-90 Minutes
40-50 30-60 Minutes 1-3 Hours
50-60 1-2 Hours 1-6 Hours
60-70 2-7 Hours 2-40 Hours
70-80 3-12 Hours 3-Indefinitely
over 80 Indefinitely Indefinitely
Wind Chill Index
Estimated Actual Thermometer Reading ("F)

50 I 40 I 30 I 20 I 10 I 0 1.10 20 30 40 I 50 60
Equivalent Temperature ("F)
Calm 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
5 48 37 27 16 6 5 15 26 36 47 57 -68
10 40 28 16 4 9 21 33 46 58 70 83 95
15 36 22 9 5 18 36 45 58 72 -85 99 112
20 32 18 4 10 25 39 53 67 82 96 110 124
25 30 16 0 15 29 44 59 14 88 104 118 133
30 28 13 2 18 33 48 63 79 94 109 125 140
35 27 11 4 20 35 49 67 82 98 113 129 145
40 26 10 6 21 37 53 -69 85 -100 116 132 148
(Wind speeds
LITILE DANGER INCREASING GREAT

little
(For properly clothed person I DANGER DANGER
additional
effed)
DANGER FROM FREEZING OF EXPOSED FLESH

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