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Answers PAPER 1
1. 6. 11. 16. 21. 26. 31. 36. A D D D C A C A 2. 7. 12. 17. 22. 27. 32. 37. A B C B A B A D 3. 8. 13. 18. 23. 28. 33. 38. A D D A B C B C 4. 9. 14. 19. 24. 29. 34. 39. B C A A B C B B 5. 10. 15. 20. 25. 30. 35. 40. A A B C C A A B

(e)
Percent O2 saturation of haemoglobin 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0

dissociation curve for myoglobin

PAPER 2
Part A
1. (a) K: Littoral L: Limnetic M: Aphotic (b) K is near the shore where the water is shallow and sunlight penetrates all the way to the bottom. K is the warmest zone of the lake. K supports a diverse community, such as algae, rooted and floating aquatic plants, snails, clams, insects, crustaceans, fish and amphibians. (c) Zooplankton (d) The rate of photosynthesis decreases and finally falls to zero when not enough sunlight penetrates the water. (e) The energy source is from dead organic matter and detritus which drift down from above. (f) In shallow lakes, sunlight reaches all the way to the bottom of the lake. 2. (a) Percentage of oxygen saturation of haemoglobin (%) PCO2 = 2 kPa PCO2 = 8 kPa Tissues at rest PO2 = 40 mmHg Active tissues PO2 = 20 mmHg (b) Hb
haemoglobin

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Partial pressure of O2 (mmHg)

75 35

55 20

+ 4O2

Hb(O2)4
oxyhaemoglobin

(f) Myoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen. 3. (a) Root hair cell (b) Increase the surface area for water absorption (c) (i) Osmosis (ii) Water potential in the soil is higher than the water potential of the cell sap in the root hair cell, so water enters the root hair cell by osmosis. (d) By active transport (e) Pathway 1: apoplast route Pathway 2: symplast route (f) Water is forced to move through the cytoplasm and vacuole only instead of through the cell wall because the Casparian strip lining the endodermal cell is impermeable to water, thus blocking the movement of water through the cell wall. 4. (a) P: sinusoid Q: hepatocytes/liver cells R: Kupffer cell S: canaliculus (b) To destroy old red blood cells/to ingest bacteria (c) Fluid in P: blood Fluid in S: bile (d) Glycogenolysis is a process where the liver converts glycogen back into glucose for energy which involves the hormone glucagon. Deamination is a process where excess amino acids are broken down in the liver. It involves the removal of the amino group to form ammonia which is converted into urea for excretion.

(c) As the partial pressure of carbon dioxide increases, the percentage of saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen decreases; the curve shifts to the right. (d) The rate of respiration increases. When the partial pressure of carbon dioxide increases, the blood pH decreases. The affinity of haemoglobin towards oxygen is lowered and more oxygen is released from haemoglobin to the body cells.

Part B
5. (a) An ecosystem comprises biotic components and abiotic components that mutually interact and function together to form a stable and balanced natural system. The biotic/living component of an ecosystem involves the living organisms that interact with each other in the ecosystem.

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The biotic components of an ecosystem comprise at least three trophic levels: producers (autotrophs), consumers (heterotrophs) and decomposers. Abiotic/non-living components include pH, light intensity, temperature, humidity, topography and microclimate. Abiotic components determine the population size and distribution of the biotic components. The energy flow in an ecosystem is continuous and produces an output of biomass and heat energy. Nutrients such as water, carbon, nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus are recycled by biogeochemical cycles. (b) A food chain shows a sequence of organisms through which energy is transferred in an ecosystem. Each stage in a food chain is known as a trophic level. The primary source of energy for all organisms is the Sun/solar energy. Primary producers/photosynthetic organisms trap 15% of light energy received for biomass production. When primary consumers/herbivores feed on plants/primary producers, energy is transferred from the first trophic level to the second trophic level. 90% of the energy assimilated by the plants is lost to the environment and only 10% is converted into biomass which is consumed by the herbivores. Thus, only 10% of the energy is transferred to the next trophic level. Further energy loss from the herbivores occur through respiration and excretion. When secondary consumers feed on the primary consumers, energy is transferred from the second to the third trophic level. Energy is also lost through respiration and excretion by the secondary consumers. Tertiary consumers feed on secondary consumers. There are seldom more than five trophic levels in a food chain. This is because large amounts of energy are lost at each trophic level. Each trophic level receives less energy than the level below it. At the fourth or fifth level, only a small amount of energy is left which is insufficient to support a further trophic level. This factor also limits the number of individuals in the higher trophic levels. 6. (a) Similarities between Platyhelminthes and Annelida Both are triploblastic animals. Both exhibit bilateral body symmetry Both are hermaphrodite both female and male reproductive organs are present in all adult worms. Differences between Platyhelminthes and Annelida Platyhelminthes Acoelomate Unsegmented Body is flattened dorsoventrally Have no internal or external skeleton body shape is determined and maintained by the outer epidermis (skin) and the internal muscles Have incomplete digestive system has mouth but no anus The excretory structures are the protonephridia or flame cells Outer body is covered by tegument Chaetae is absent Annelida Coelomate Metamerically segmented Elongated and round body Supported by a hydrostatic skeleton fluid in the coelom exerts a pressure against the body wall, keeping the body turgid Have complete digestive system with mouth and anus The excretory structures are the nephridia Outer body is covered by cuticle made up of collagen Chaetae is present except for leeches

Classes in Platyhelminthes: Class Cestoda; example: Taenia Class Trematoda; example: Fasciola Class Turbellaria; example: Planaria Class Monogenea; example: Dactylogyrus Classes in Annelida: Class Oligochaeta; example: Pheretima Class Polychaeta; example: Nereis Class Hirudinea; example: Hirudo (b) Differences between gymnosperms and angiosperms Gymnosperms Example: Pinus sp. (or any other example from any phylum) Sexual reproductive structure is the cone or strobilus Cone parts are arranged in spirals Ovules are not enclosed by an ovary Seeds are exposed Vessel elements absent in xylem tissues Angiosperms Example: Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Sexual reproductive structure is the flower Flower parts are arranged in whorls Ovules are enclosed by an ovary Seeds are enclosed by the fruit wall or pericarp Vessel elements present in xylem tissues

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Gymnosperms Companion cells absent in the phloem tissues No double fertilisation except in gnetophytes. However, it does not form the endosperm. Pollination is by wind Angiosperms Companion cells present in the phloem tissues Double fertilisation occurs and produces a triploid endosperm. Pollination is by various agents causing the blood to enter the glomerulus at a high hydrostatic pressure. This pressure forces almost all the contents of the blood out through the pores of the glomerulus into Bowmans capsule. However, blood cells and plasma proteins are too large to be forced out. The glomerular filtrate contains glucose, amino acids, vitamins, urea, uric acid, creatinine, ions and water. Selective reabsorption This process includes the reabsorption of useful substances from the glomerular filtrate within the renal tubules into the capillaries around the tubules. All glucose, amino acids and a large proportion of mineral salts are actively reabsorbed into the peritubular capillaries. 80% of water is reabsorbed by osmosis. Reabsorption into the surrounding blood capillaries starts in the proximal convoluted tubule and continues in the loop of Henle, the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct. Secretion Substances such as ammonium ions, hydrogen ions, potassium ions and some drugs are actively secreted into the proximal and distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts from the blood capillaries surrounding these tubules. The filtrate flows into the collecting duct as urine and contains water and excess mineral salts not required by the body along with the waste substances such as urea, ammonium ions, uric acid and creatinine. 8. (a) Lymphocytes have the ability to distinguish the cells of the body from the foreign cells or substances. This ability to distinguish self from non-self depends on the presence of a group of proteins called MHC antigens on cell membranes. MHC antigens are encoded by a segment of DNA called the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). Nearly all cells in the body carry MHC antigens that identity them as self. These cells are not attacked by the bodys immune system. Foreign cells or substances such as bacteria, viruses and transplanted organs or tissues carry foreign markers and are identified as non-self and are attacked by the immune system. (b) The humoral immune response involves the production of antibodies by B lymphocytes/ B cells. When a B cell recognises an antigen, it multiplies and differentiates to produce a large

7. (a) Structure of kidney: The renal capsule is a thin, outer membrane covering the kidney that helps to protect the kidney. The kidney has two distinct regions. The cortex is the outer region of the kidney while the medulla is the inner region of the kidney. The triangular-shaped divisions of the medulla of the kidney are called pyramids. The renal pelvis is a flat, funnel-shaped cavity that collects the urine into the ureter. The nephron is the basic functional unit of the kidney. The structure of the nephron is as follows: Bowmans capsule is a cup-like enlargement of renal tubules, composed of a layer of simple squamous epithelium. The glomerulus is a network of blood capillaries located inside Bowmans capsule. The proximal convoluted tubule is the first twisted region after the Bowmans capsule and is located in the cortex. The proximal convoluted tubule leads to a long, hairpin loop called the loop of Henle; the descending limb of the loop of Henle extends from the cortex down into the medulla while the ascending limb is directed upwards. The distal convoluted tubule is the second twisted portion of the nephron and comes after the loop of Henle. It is located in the cortex. The collecting duct is a long straight portion after the distal tubule. It is the open end of the nephron which extends from the cortex down through the medulla. (b) Wastes from metabolic processes such as urea, creatinine, excess water, sodium ions and chloride ions are excreted from the kidney in the form of urine. The formation of urine consists of three processes as follows: Ultrafiltration Metabolic wastes are transported through the blood to the kidney via the renal artery. The diameter of the efferent arteriole is narrower than that of the afferent arteriole,

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amount of plasma cells and a small amount of memory cells. The plasma cells produce antibodies which is specific to the antigen. The antibodies act on the antigens to destroy or inactivate the antigens. The memory cells remain in the body even after the infection is over. This allows a faster and greater response if the same antigen is encountered again in the future. The cell-mediated immune response involves T lymphocytes/T cells and antibodies are not produced. When a T cell recognises an antigen, the response depends on the type of T cell. There are three types of T cells: cytotoxic T cells also known as killer T cells, helper T cells and suppressor T cells. The function of killer T cells is to directly destroy the pathogen or infected cell by causing lysis of the cell membrane. The function of helper T cells is to produce chemicals that activate other T cells or B cells or promote their growth and multiplication. The role of suppressor T cells is to suppress the action of other lymphocytes after the infection is over. 9. (a) Characteristics of plasmid: Small size, which makes the plasmid easy to isolate and manipulate Circular DNA, which makes the DNA more stable during chemical isolation Contains origin of replication to allow the plasmid to replicate independently in the host Contains multiple cloning sites or unique restriction sites to allow the insertion of foreign DNA fragments Contains selectable genetic marker such as antibiotic resistance genes (example: ampR) and/or lacZ gene. Genetic markers allow for selection of host cells which have taken up the recombinant plasmid. Have the ability to express the target gene and can be amplified (Any 5 characteristics) Characteristics of the host cell: Microorganisms that grow well and for which a lot of genetic information is available Able to accept the recombinant plasmid by transformation process Able to maintain the recombinant plasmid from one generation to another Able to propagate easily for the amplification of the recombinant DNA Able to express the cloned gene (b) Transgenic plants Transgenic plants are genetically modified organisms (GMO). They are plants that have been genetically engineered, using recombinant DNA techniques to create plants with new characteristics. A transgenic plant contains a gene or genes which have been artificially inserted instead of the plant acquiring them through pollination. The inserted gene may come from another unrelated plant, or from a completely different species. The most commonly used vector is the crown gall bacterium, Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Genetically modified plants have been developed commercially to improve shelf life, disease resistance, herbicide resistance and pest resistance. For example, genes that provide resistance against herbicides have been successfully introduced into soybeans. Potential negative effects of recombinant DNA technology on health and environment In the production of transgenic bacteria, the bacteria may pass on its genes, including genes for resistance to antibiotics, to other bacteria. Modified microorganisms may escape from laboratories and become a health and environmental hazard. Antibiotic-resistant marker genes could be transferred from a food product to bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract. This could lead to the development of antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria, with adverse health consequences. The production of a target protein may involve a new biochemical pathway in the transgenic organism or affect an existing one. This may cause the production of proteins which are allergenic or toxic. Genetically modified plants with resistance to herbicides, disease and pests may spread out of control, threatening native species. The resistance genes may also be transferred to other plants producing superweeds. A large amount of herbicides would then be needed to control the superweeds thus adding to the toxicity of food and the environment. Genes from genetically modified organisms may be transferred to natural organisms, leading to unintended consequences.