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\
|
=
m
cr
D
b
E z (forced buckling failure mode)
and
( )
2
4
1
|
|
\
|
=
m
cr
R
b
E (free buckling failure mode)
where:
cr
is the critical mean hoop compressive stress for buckling
z = number of supports on the circumference
( ) E = incremental modulus of elasticity of copper
b = conductor radial width
m
D = mean diameter of winding
m
R = mean radius of winding
Calculation using above formula for free buckling is pessimistic, as the windings are never
fully unsupported. In addition, the friction between cables or between cables and spacers
due to the axial clamping force improve the strength of the coil in regards to the buckling.
Strength against buckling benefits by any increase in conductor thickness, or equivalent
thickness if epoxy-bonding is involved, degree of hardness of the copper, and radial
compactness of the winding.Resin-bonded CTCs made of work hardened copper or copper
alloy constitute an excellent material for highly compressive stressed windings, especially if
the number of individual strands in the conductor is higher than the minimum of 5 or 7
strands.
Revision 0 - Date 21/11/2011 - Written by PRASENJIT PAUL page 9 / 17
To avoid both the situation we have to select number of axial spacers as follows :
( GECA method )
z > ( D
k
B )/300b for Copper
z > ( D
k
B )/230b for Aluminum
Where ,
B = [
t
*(D
k
)*(2 - k
n
)] / D
m
Axial Electromagnetic Forces :
The axial electromagnetic forces tend to compress the windings axially , if the windings are
symmetrically arranged and m.m.f uniformly distributed . They are due to the radial
component of the flux density vector . In a winding arrangement consisting of two windings
symmetrically arranged and characterized by uniform m.m.f distribution , the axial force per
unit length of conductor is a maximum in the conductors located at the winding ends ,
where the radial flux density component attains its highest value .
Windings having equal geometrical heights , uniform m.m.f. distribution , and being radially
aligned undergo axial forces mainly directed from the winding ends towards the middle of
the coils. By this arrangement , the inner winding located near to the core experience a
higher axial forces , owing to the higher amount of flux that re-close radially into the core
limb , compared with the outer winding .
A less rigorous formula than those used for the radial force calculation can be written for
total axial force per limb , F
ax
in kN affecting a pair of windings of a power transformer at
short circuit ( Refer fig.-9 )
Fig.-9 : Two-winding core-type transformer arrangement with geometrical data
In which :
Revision 0 - Date 21/11/2011 - Written by PRASENJIT PAUL page 10 / 17
H
w
is the geometrical average length of the windings [ m ]
D
m
is the mean diameter of the pail windings [ m ]
d is the width of the main duct [ m ]
a
1
,a
2
are the radial widths of winding 1 and 2 respectively [ m ]
K is the Rogowski factor , where ,
K = 1 ( d+a
1
+a
2
)/H
w
[ Valid fro ( d+a
1
+a
2
)/H
w
<= 0.25 ]
F
ax
is the sum of the compressions on both windings . Usually , about 2/3
rd
to 3/4
th
of this
force acts on the inner winding with about 1/3
rd
to 1/4
th
on the outer , depending upon the
proportions of the transformer .
Where two windings of equal length and uniform m.m.f. distribution are displaced axially
there is an axial thrust between the windings tending to increase the displacement . If the
axial displacement is expressed as a fraction of the winding length H
w
then the end
thrust F
s
developed by each of them can be determined as follows :
9 2 2
2
2
10 ) 2 (
) (
6 . 1
= k r D v
H
I N
F
m
w
r
S
[ kN ]
The end thrust can also be expressed as a function of the total radial force for the complete
winding,
rad
F by means of the approximate equation:
w
rad S
H
v
F F = 5 . 2 [kN]
Axial compressive force for Asymmetric winding with tap in outer coil
( M. Waters /J & P )
The value of the total axial compression force for both the winding also can be calculated
by ,
[ kN ]
Where ,
U is the rated kVA of per limb ,
H
w
is the winding height in mm
f is the frequency in Hz
Z
t
is the per unit impedance
Maximum compression in the inner winding is given by
F
cw
= 0.67xF
c
+ F
s
Where F
s
is the maximum end thrust calculated from Residual Ampere-turn method
as described in Table-1 for different winding and tap arrangement .
Revision 0 - Date 21/11/2011 - Written by PRASENJIT PAUL page 11 / 17
TABLE :1
Axial compressive stress on winding conductors
Winding conductors are subject to compression due to the axial force acting on the each
physical winding .
The axial compressive stress ,
cwi,
on the conductors material of winding i , is given by
cwi
=( F
cwi
/(*D
mwi
*C
c
))*10
-3
[ MPa ]
Applicable for disc and helical winding .
For layer-type windings , i. e. no radial spacers ,
cwi
=( F
cwi
/(C
c
z c))*10
-3
[ MPa ]
in the case of disc and helical windings with radial spacers,
where :
F
cw
is the maximum compressive force on winding i ,
C
c
is the quantity depending on winding conductors , as follows :
C
c
= pb for flat conductors
C
c
= g*((f-1)/2)*b for CTC conductor
and
p is the number of strands in winding radial width
b is the thickness of the conductor strands [m]
f is the number of strands in the CTC
g is the number of CTCs in winding radial width
D
mwi
is the average diameter of winding i . [m]
c is the radial spacer width [m]
Revision 0 - Date 21/11/2011 - Written by PRASENJIT PAUL page 12 / 17
z is the number of radial spacers on circumference
Axial compressive stress on winding conductors ( GECA practice )
For either winding , assuming an asymmetry factor of 1.8 ;
cwi
=
t
(
..
) log
e
[
.
] [N/mm
2
]
where ,
l
r
is the distance between edges of adjacent segment at D
m
D
mo
is mean diameter of the outer winding
D
mi
is the mean diameter of the inner winding
a is the radial dimension of the considered winding .
Maximum total stress in conductors are given as
max
=
cw
+
br
for without tap section in winding
and
max
=
cw
+
br
for with tap section in main winding
Stress due to axial bending of conductors between radial spacers
Due to the existence of a high radial component of magnetic flux density in the region of the
winding ends, there the winding conductors are subject to an axial load, which tends to bend
the conductors of disc and helical windings in the spans between consecutive radial spacers.
Refere fig.10
Fig. 10 : Conductor axial bending between spacer rows
The calculation of the axial bending stress cannot be performed by using a simple formula
based on the electrical and geometrical winding data. To be accurate, such calculation
requires that the local radial component of the magnetic flux density is known, for example by
running a leakage field calculation program.
The maximum axial bending stress on a conductor is:
2
2
2 h b
l F
aul
ba
=
where:
aul
F is the average axial force per unit length of conductor [ kN/m ]
Revision 0 - Date 21/11/2011 - Written by PRASENJIT PAUL page 13 / 17
l is the edge-to-edge distance between consecutive radial spacers [m]
b is the radial thickness of the strand [m]
h is the strand height if the conductor is a strand or twin conductor [m]
h is the height of the individual strand if the conductor is a non-bonded CTC [m]
h is twice the height of the individual strand if the conductor is epoxy-bonded CTC [m]
Tilting Stress
Tilting consists of the whole set of adjacent conductors within the radial width of the winding
turning in the same direction, whilst the next axially-adjacent set of conductors turns in the
opposite direction, building up a zig-zag pattern of conductors within the winding (refer Fig.
11). Thin conductors are more susceptible to tilting than thicker ones.
Paper turn insulation may be damaged due to excessive compressive stress on the
conductor/spacer interface or at the transpositions of strands in a multiple strand conductor
due to excessive compression and shear stress on turn insulation.
Fig.11 : Conductor Tilting
Tilting stress can be calculated by GECA calculation formula :
(
+ =
w z D
h
h q
b
mw
ctt
. . 3
54200
.
. 45
2 2
[ MPa ]
Where ,
q = 1 for all conductors & q = 1.5 for CTC conductor
w= width of the spacers
Alternatively
In respect of tilting, general consensus appears to have been reached as regards the
following formula of critical axial compressive force:
3
4 3
3
2
2
0 1
*
,
10
(
(
+
= K K
h
D b X n
K
D
h b n
E K F
mw eq
mw
eq
crt ax
where:
0
E = modulus of elasticity of copper = 1.1*10
5
N/mm
2
n = number of strands or twin conductors in winding radial width, in case of flat
conductors
Revision 0 - Date 21/11/2011 - Written by PRASENJIT PAUL page 14 / 17
= ( ) 2 1 f g in case of CTC, g being the number of CTC in the winding width
and f the number of CTC strands
eq
b = radial width of the strand in case of flat conductors
= twice the radial width of a single conductor of resin bonded twin conductors
= radial width of a single strand in case of non-bonded CTC
mw
D = mean diameter of winding
mw
D
z c
X
= spacer coverage factor for disc/helical wdgs; for layer wdgs X = 1.0
c = radial spacer width (in circumferential direction)
z = number of radial spacers on circumference
h = strand height if the conductor is a flat conductor
= twice the height of a single strand for two parallel strands in axial direction which
are paper covered together
= height of a single strand if the conductor is a CTC
= constant for conductor shape
= 1.0 for standard strand corner radius
= 0.85 for fully rounded strands or conductors
1
K = coefficient for the twisting term = 0.5
2
K = coefficient for the bedding term
= 45 for single and twin conductors
= 22 for non-bonded CTC
3
K = factor accounting for the copper work hardening degree (see Table 1)
4
K = factor accounting for dynamic tilting (see Table 2)
Table 1: Values of K
3
0.2
[N/mm
2
] K
3
Annealed 1.0
150 1.1
180 1.2
230 1.3
>230 1.4
Table 2: Values of K
4
Conductor type
Winding type
disc-helical layer
Strand or twin 1.4 1.0
Non-bonded CTC 2.0 1.2
Allowable axial force (stress) to prevent conductor tilting
The condition to prevent failure by conductor tilting is the following:
axcrt cw
F F <
Revision 0 - Date 21/11/2011 - Written by PRASENJIT PAUL page 15 / 17
Allowable axial bending stress between radial spacers of disc and helical windings
The stress due to bending of conductors between radial spacers should not exceed the 0.2%
proof stress,
0.2
,
of the conductor material.
Therefore:
2 . 0
ba
Calculation of Stresses on Insulation and Clamping Structure
Radial forces induce mechanical stresses on insulation components located both at the
inside of the hoop compressive stressed windings and at the outside of the tensile stressed
windings.The insulation parts subject to compressive stress, e.g. the axial sticks and
dowels, are made of hard pressboard or other suitable material capable of taking high
compression loads. As a general rule, they do not require any checks from stress point of
view.
Assumptions for insulation components and clamping structures
All electromagnetic forces are oscillatory at twice the power frequency and act on a
complex elastic system immersed in oil and consisting of a variety of materials, in particular
conductors, non-metallic materials provided for insulation and mechanical support
purposes, and a clamping structure made of steel, all of which have quite different
mechanical characteristics. The overall mechanical behaviour of such a composite structure
is very complex and highly influenced by the mechanical processes to which the various
parts have been subjected during the manufacturing stage and during their assembly and
final clamping. The electromagnetic forces acting on the winding conductors are
dynamically transmitted to the various parts. The result is that the actual forces applied to
the various parts may be quite different, both in magnitude and wave shape, from the
internally generated electromagnetic forces, depending on factors like internal friction,
elastic hysteresis of the materials, internal solid and viscous damping, and hydrodynamic
effects of oil motion. etc., as well as on the relationship between the excitation frequency
and the resonance frequency of the system.
In general, if proper manufacture, assembly and clamping procedures are adopted,
mechanical resonance frequencies of the structures result in excess of twice the power
frequency. As a consequence, in most of the cases a static approach is sufficient for
calculation purposes.
Additionally:
up wi
n
i
u
FE FS
=
=
1
= resultant force of all windings towards the upper yoke
down wi
n
i
d
FE FS
=
=
1
= resultant force of all windings towards the lower yoke
Revision 0 - Date 21/11/2011 - Written by PRASENJIT PAUL page 16 / 17
Stresses on insulation of layer / radial spacers of disc and helical windings
Axial forces cause compressive stresses on the turn insulation of layer windings and on
both turn insulation and radial spacers of disc and helical windings. The compressive stress
is equal to the axial compressive stress for the respective winding conductors calculated
using formula
3
10
=
c mwi
cwi
cwi
C D
F
=
c z C
F
c
cwi
cwi