PCT Lecture Notdfes PDF

SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL, MECHANICAL AND
MECHATRONIC SYSTEMS

LECTURE NOTES

48572 - Power Circuit Theory

Notes Prepared by: Dr Germane Athanasius
2
Contents
1 Power System - An introduction 7
1.1 Power system divisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.1 Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.2 Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.3 Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.4 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2 Power in single phase AC circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 Complex power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Three phase balanced circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4.1 Star or Y connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4.2 Delta or connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5 Power in three phase balanced circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6 Three phase power measurement using two wattmeter method . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.7 Power transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.7.1 Equivalent circuit of a transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.7.2 Three phase transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.8 Auto transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.8.1 Tap changing transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2 Per unit system and load modeling 23
2.1 Per unit system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.1 Changing the base of pu quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2 Power ow between two nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2.1 The static stability limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.2 Effect of reactive power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3 Load modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3.1 Variation with voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3.2 Variation with frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3.3 Models of loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3 Transmission line Impedance 29
3.1 Resistance of the transmission line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2 Inductance of single conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3
4 CONTENTS
3.2.1 Internal inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2.2 Inductance due to external ux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.3 Inductance of single phase two wire system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.4 Flux linkages of one conductor in a group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.5 Inductance of 3 phase systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.5.1 Conductors with symmetrical spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.5.2 Conductors with unsymmetrical spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.6 Inductance of stranded conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.7 Bundled conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.8 Double circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4 Transmission line capacitance 41
4.1 Capacitance of two wire conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.2 Potential difference in a multi conductor system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.3 Capacitance of three phase line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.4 The effect of earth on line capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.5 Capacitance of bundled conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.6 Capacitance of double circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5 Transmission line model 47
5.1 Short transmission line model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.2 Medium length line model or nominal model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.3 Long transmission line model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.4 Voltage and current waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.5 Surge impedance loading of the line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6 Symmetrical faults 55
6.1 Numerical example -1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.2 Determination of short circuit capacity (SCC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.3 Fault analysis using Z
bus
matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.4 Numerical example - 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7 Symmetrical components 65
7.1 Basics of symmetrical components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
7.2 Sequence impedance of a star connected load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.3 Sequence impedance of a transmission line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.4 Sequence impedance of Synchronous generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
7.5 Sequence network of a loaded Synchronous generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8 Unsymmetrical Faults 73
8.1 Single line to ground fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8.2 Line to line fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
8.3 Double line to ground fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
CONTENTS 5
8.4.1 Case 1: Balanced 3 phase fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8.4.2 Case 2: Single line to ground fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
8.4.3 Case 3: Line to line fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
8.4.4 Case 4: Double line to ground fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
8.5 Z
bus
matrix using symmetrical components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
8.5.1 Single line to ground fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
8.5.2 Line to line fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
8.5.3 Double line to ground fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
8.5.4 Line currents and bus voltages during fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
8.6.1 Case 1: Balanced three phase fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
8.6.2 Case 2: Single line to ground fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
8.6.3 Case 3: Line to line fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
8.6.4 Case 4: Double line to ground fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
9 Power system transients 91
9.1 Transients with AC source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
9.2 Re-striking voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
9.3 Double frequency transient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
9.4 Traveling waves on transmission lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
9.5 Traveling waves - open end line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
9.6 Traveling waves - short circuited line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
9.7 Line terminated through a resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
10 Transient Stability 105
10.1 Swing equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
10.2 Single machine on innite bus (SMIB) model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
10.2.1 Rotor angle response to sudden change in P
m
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
10.2.2 Equivalent single machine system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
10.3 Stability based on equal area criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
10.3.1 Stability during sudden input power change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
10.3.2 Stability during 3 phase fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
10.4 Numerical Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6 CONTENTS
Chapter 1
Power System - An introduction
Electrical energy is the most convenient and widely used form of energy. Electrical energy is
more efcient to generate, transport and to use compared with other forms of energy. With the
invention of power transformers, electrical energy can be transformed from one voltage level to
other without much difculty. This enabled long distance transmission of electrical energy at
high voltages with reduced transmission losses.
The generating stations are usually located near to the source of power required to drive the
prime movers. These locations often geographically well separated from the load centers or
consumers. The power generated from the generating centers are transmitted at high voltages to
the load centers where it is stepped down to low voltages suitable for use.
1.1 Power system divisions
Modern power system can be broadly divided into four areas:
Generation
Transmission
Distribution
Loads
A basic simple power system layout is shown in Figure 1.1.
1.1.1 Generation
Major power generation uses hyro, nuclear and thermal (coal and petro fuels). Turbines are
driven by these energy sources are known as prime movers and are used to drive the generators.
Generators generate 3 phase electrical power at 11 or 25 kV voltage level. Transmission of
power at the generation voltage for long distance in not feasible due to high transmission losses
and several other reasons. Therefore the generated power is stepped up to transmission voltage
usually 230 or 400 kV.
7
8 CHAPTER 1. POWER SYSTEM - AN INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.1: Simple power system layout.
1.1.2 Transmission
Step up transformers raise the voltage to 230 or 400 kV at the transmission end. Over head
transmission lines supported by transmission towers are used to transmit the power to the load
centers. The transmission lines carry the power over hundreds of kilometers. At the receiving
end the power is stepped down to distribution voltage levels
1.1.3 Distribution
At the receiving end electrical substations, power at transmission voltage levels are stepped down
to distribution voltage levels 11 or 33 kV. The stepped down voltages are distributed to load
centres through over head or underground cables. At the load centres distribution transformers
are used to step down the voltage further down to 440 / 220 V levels.
1.1.4 Loads
Electrical loads in the house hold or industries use single phase or three phase power. A three
phase and neutral 4-wire system is used to cater both single and three phase loads. Electrical
power from the distribution transformers reach houses / industries mostly through underground
cables.
1.2. POWER IN SINGLE PHASE AC CIRCUITS 9
1.2 Power in single phase AC circuits
Consider a single phase AC circuit shown in Figure 1.2. The instantaneous power is given by,
Figure 1.2: Power in single phase AC circuits.
p(t) = v(t)i(t) = V
max
cos (t +
v
) I
max
cos (t +
i
) (1.1)
Using the trigonometrical identity,
cos Acos B =
1
2
[cos (A B) + cos (A +B)] (1.2)
we get
p(t) =
1
2
V
max
I
max
[cos (
v
i
) + cos (2t +
v
+
i
)]
=
1
2
V
max
I
max
{cos (
v
i
) + cos [2 (t +
v
) (
v
i
)]}
=
1
2
V
max
I
max
[cos (
v
i
) + cos 2 (t +
v
) cos (
v
i
) + sin 2 (t +
v
) sin (
v
i
)]
= V I cos [1 + cos 2 (t +
v
)] +V I sin sin 2 (t +
v
) (1.3)
where V =
Vmax
2
and I =
Imax
2
are the rms values of voltage and current and =
v
i
. In
(1.3) the rst term represents the power ow into the circuit and the second term represents the
power absorbed during charging and discharging of the reactive elements in the circuit. Now let
us consider the rst term,
p
r
= V I cos +V I cos cos 2 (t +
v
) (1.4)
If we take the average power over a cycle the second term which is the oscillating power in the
circuit disappears leaving the average power as,
P = V I cos (1.5)
The termV I cos is the active or real power, cos is the power factor V I is the apparent power.
The second term of (1.3) is,
p
q
= V I sin sin 2 (t +
v
) (1.6)
This is the power consumed during charging and discharging of the reactive elements in the
circuit. If we take the average value of this power it will be zero. The amplitude of this oscillating
power is called the reactive power and is given by,
Q = V I sin (1.7)
Even though P and Q have the same units, to distinguish P is expressed in watts and Q in var.
1.3 Complex power
Consider the phasor diagram shown in Figure 1.3 in which current lags the voltage by an angle
since the load is inductive. If we take the complex product of the vectors,
Figure 1.3: Complex power in AC circuits.
V I
= V I(
v
i
) = V I
= V I cos +V I sin (1.8)
Using (1.5) and (1.7) we can write (1.8) as,
S = V I
= P +Q (1.9)
Equation (1.9) is a complex equation and the power represented by it is called complex power.
For leading power factors Q is negative and for lagging power factors Q is positive. Equation
(1.9) can be diagrammatically represented using power triangle as shown in Figure 1.3.
1.4. THREE PHASE BALANCED CIRCUITS 11
1.4 Three phase balanced circuits
Three phase AC system consists of three alternating voltages displaced by 120
0
by time. A 3
phase systemis said to balanced if all the three phase voltages have same amplitude and displaced
by 120
0
. In a three phase system with the phases termed as ABC, the sequence in which the
voltages reach their peak is ABC the system is said to have positive sequence if their order is
ACB then it is called negative sequence system as shown in Figure 1.4. If the amplitude of the
Figure 1.4: Three phase voltage sequence.
voltage is V
phase
then the positive sequence three phase voltages can be represented in polar form
as,
V
AN
= V
phase
0
0
, V
CN
= V
phase
120
0
and V
BN
= V
phase
240
0
(1.10)
There are two types of three phase connections are used star or Y connection and delta or
connection.
1.4.1 Star or Y connection
A three phase star connected system is shown in Figure 1.5. The common point N is called
neutral. The voltages V
AB
, V
BC
and V
CA
are line voltages and the voltages between line and
neutral V
AN
, V
BN
and V
CN
are phase voltages. In star connected system line current and the
phase current are equal since the same current ows in the line and individual phase. Using the
phasor diagram shown in Figure 1.6 the line voltages in terms of phase voltage are given by,
V
AB
= V
AN
V
BN
= V
phase
0
0
V
phase
240
0
=
3V
phase
30
0
V
BC
= V
BN
V
CN
= V
phase
240
0
V
phase
120
0
=
3V
phase
90
0
V
CA
= V
CN
V
AN
= V
phase
120
0
V
phase
0
0
=
3V
phase
150
0
(1.11)
Figure 1.5: Three phase star connected system.
From (1.11), for star connected system the line voltage is
3 times the phase voltage and leads

the set of phase voltages by 30
0
for positive sequence system.
1.4.2 Delta or connection
A three phase delta connected system is shown in Figure 1.7. The currents I
A
, I
B
and I
C
are line
currents and the currents I
AB
, I
BC
and I
CA
are phase currents. In delta connected system line
voltage and the phase voltage are equal. Using the phasor diagram shown in Figure 1.8 the line
currents in terms of phase currents are given by,
I
A
= I
AB
I
CA
= I
phase
0
0
I
phase
120
0
=
3I
phase
30
0
I
B
= I
BC
I
AB
= I
phase
240
0
I
phase
0
0
=
3I
phase
210
0
I
C
= I
CA
I
BC
= I
phase
120
0
I
phase
240
0
=
3I
phase
90
0
(1.12)
From (1.12), for delta connected system the line current is
3 times the phase voltage and lags

the set of phase currents by 30
0
for positive sequence system.
1.5 Power in three phase balanced circuit
Consider a balanced three phase system, the instantaneous phase voltages are given by,
v
AN
=
2V
phase
cos (t)
v
BN
=
2V
phase
cos
_
t 120
0
_
v
CN
=
2V
phase
cos
_
t 240
0
_
(1.13)
1.5. POWER IN THREE PHASE BALANCED CIRCUIT 13
Figure 1.6: Three phase line and phase voltages.
Figure 1.7: Three phase delta connected system.
If the respective phase currents lag the phase voltages by , we can write the instantaneous phase
currents as,
i
A
=
2I
phase
cos (t )
i
B
=
2I
phase
cos
_
t 120
0
_
i
C
=
2I
phase
cos
_
t 240
0
_
(1.14)
The net instantaneous three phase power is given by,
p
3phase
= v
AN
i
A
+v
BN
i
B
+v
CN
i
C
= 2V
phase
I
phase
cos (t) cos (t )
+ 2V
phase
I
phase
cos
_
t 120
0
_
cos
_
t 120
0
_
+ 2V
phase
I
phase
cos
_
t 240
0
_
cos
_
t 240
0
_
Figure 1.8: Three phase line and phase voltages.
Using the trigonometrical relation (1.2)
p
3phase
= V
phase
I
phase
[cos + cos (2t )]
+ V
phase
I
phase
_
cos + cos
_
2t 240
0
_
+ V
phase
I
phase
_
cos + cos
_
2t 480
0
_
three 2t terms will add up to zero. The instantaneous three phase power becomes
p
3phase
= 3V
phase
I
phase
cos = P
3phase
(1.15)
From (1.15) we can see that even though the individual single phase power is pulsating the three
phase power is constant. The three phase reactive and apparent power is given by,
Q
3phase
= 3V
phase
I
phase
sin
S
3phase
= 3V
phase
I
phase
= P
3phase
+Q
3phase
(1.16)
Three phase power in terms of line quantities is given by,
P
3phase
=
3V
line
I
line
cos
Q
3phase
=
3V
line
I
line
sin (1.17)
1.6 Three phase power measurement using two wattmeter method
Three phase power can be measured by three single phase wattmeters having current coils in
each line and potential coils connected across the given line and any common junction. Since
this common junction is completely arbitrary, it may be placed on one of the three lines, in which
case the wattmeter connected in that line will indicate zero power because its potential coil has no
voltage across it. Hence that wattmeter can be dispensed with, and three phase power by means
1.6. THREE PHASE POWER MEASUREMENT USING TWO WATTMETER METHOD 15
of only two single phase wattmeters having a common potential junction on any of the three lines
in which there is no current coil. This method is valid for both balanced and unbalanced circuits
with either the load or the source unbalanced.
Consider the circuit arrangement for the power measurement as shown in Figure 1.9
Figure 1.9: Two-wattmeter method circuit diagram.
Consider the phasor diagram shown in Figure 1.10 The wattmeter readings are given by,
Figure 1.10: Two-wattmeter method phasor diagram.
W
1
= V
AB
I
A
cos
_
+ 30
0
_
=
3V
phase
I
phase
cos
_
+ 30
0
_
W
2
= V
CB
I
C
cos
_
30
0
_
=
3V
phase
I
phase
cos
_
30
0
_
W
1
+W
2
= 3V
phase
I
phase
cos = P
3phase
W
2
W
1
=
3V
phase
I
phase
sin =
Q
3phase
3
P
3phase
= W
1
+W
2
and Q =
3 (W
2
W
1
) (1.18)
1.7 Power transformers
Transformers are used at different stages in a power system. The generated voltage usually at 11
or 25 kV is raised to transmission voltage of 230 - 750 kV and at the receiving end voltage is
reduced to distribution level 11 - 33 kV and further reduced to 400-220 V for house hold use.
1.7.1 Equivalent circuit of a transformer
The equivalent circuit of a transformer with primary voltage V
p
and secondary voltage V
s
is given
in Figure 1.11 In the gure, R
p
and R
s
are the resistances of primary and secondary windings
Figure 1.11: Transformer equivalent circuit
and X
p
and X
s
is the leakage reactances. R
c
and X
m
indicate the no-load loss and magnetis-
ing components of the transformer. E
p
and E
s
are the induced emfs in primary and secondary
windings. The voltage transformation ratio of the transformer is given by k =
Ep
Es
. The equiv-
alent circuit can be simplied by moving the parallel branch to the supply side and moving the
impedances to primary or secondary side. While moving the voltage, current and impedances
the voltage transformation need to be included by properly transforming the quantities. Figure
1.12(a) shows the equivalent circuit referred to primary side. Further simplication in the equiv-
alent circuit is made by neglecting the no-load branch as shown in Figure 1.12(b). Figure 1.13
1.7. POWER TRANSFORMERS 17
Figure 1.12: Transformer equivalent circuit referred to primary.
shows the equivalent circuit referred to secondary side.
Figure 1.13: Transformer equivalent circuit referred to secondary.
1.7.2 Three phase transformers
Three phase power transformers can be either connected in star or delta connection. Generally
transformer windings are connected internally in Y or formation. The large transformers are
usually constitute of three single phase transformer banks and connected externally in Y or
conguration. The different combinations are Y Y , , Y and Y . Depending on
the voltage level and other requirements a particular conguration is chosen.
Three phase transformers are represented using per phase equivalent circuits. The no-load
shunt path is neglected and only the winding resistance and leakage reactances are considered
while deriving the per phase equivalent. When working with Y conguration, the side is
represented by the equivalent Y formation and the neutrals are joined and the per phase equiva-
lent is worked out. The equivalent Y connected impedance is given by Z
Y
= Z
/3. The per

phase equivalent circuits referred to primary and secondary sides are given in 1.14(a) and (b).
Figure 1.14: Per phase equivalent circuit.
1.8 Auto transformers
A two winding transformer can be connected as an autotransformer as shown in Figure 1.15. The
working principle of the auto transformer is the same as the two winging transformer except that
the former is electrically connected. The autotransformer has an increased power rating when
compared with two winding transformer. The voltage, current and the power rating advantage
over two wing transformer are given by,
V
pau
V
sau
= 1 +
N
1
N
2
= 1 +k
I
pau
I
sau
=
1
1 +k
Power advantage P
adv
=
V A
pau
V A
2wind
= 1 +
1
k
(1.19)
The equivalent per unit impedance of the two winding and the auto transformer are related by,
Z
au
=
Z
2wind
P
adv
(1.20)
The advantage of using the autotransformer is that for the same power rating the autotransformer
requires less copper. But the insulation cost will be more because both windings need same level
of insulation.
1.8. AUTO TRANSFORMERS 19
Figure 1.15: Auto-transformer.
1.8.1 Tap changing transformers
In order to control the voltage at different levels of the power system and also to control the
reactive power ow, transformers are equipped with tap changing facility. Generally the tap
changing facility will provide a voltage variation 5 to 10 % of the rated voltage. The
primary or the secondary windings are provided with taps to alter the transformation ratio k
thereby altering the voltage. Based on the tap changing operation transformers are classied as
off load tap changing transformers and on load tap changing transformers (OLTCs). Off load tap
changing transformers require the transformer to be switched off while changing the taps and are
used where frequent voltage adjustments are not required. OLTCs permit tap changing without
switching off the load. Generally OLTCs operate under closed loop conditions which help to
maintain the voltage irrespective of changes in load variations.
Consider the power system shown in Figure 1.16, the generation voltage V
G
is stepped up
through OLTC and transmitted and at the receiving end it is stepped down by OLTC to the load
voltage level V
L
. The secondary voltage of the OLTC at the sending end is V
s
and the primary
voltage at the receiving end is V
r
. The tap positions of the OLTCs are T
s
and T
r
. The voltages
and impedances are referred to the high voltage side. The phasor diagram of the system is shown
in Figure 1.17. From the phasor diagram we can write,
|V
s
| |V
r
| +xy +yz
|V
s
| = |V
r
| +|I|R
eq
cos +|I|X
eq
sin (1.21)
We can write real and reactive power as,
P
r
= |V
r
||I| cos and Q
r
= |V
r
||I| sin (1.22)
Substituting in (1.21) we get,
|V
s
| = |V
r
| +
R
eq
P
r
+X
eq
Q
r
|V
r
|
(1.23)
We have V
s
= T
s
V
G
and V
r
= T
r
V
L
and substituting this in (1.23) we get,
T
s
|V
G
| = T
r
|V
L
| +
R
eq
P
r
+X
eq
Q
r
T
r
|V
L
|
T
s
=
1
|V
G
|
_
T
r
|V
L
| +
R
eq
P
r
+X
eq
Q
r
T
r
|V
L
|
_
(1.24)
Assuming the product T
s
T
r
1 and substituting in (1.23) we get,
T
s
=
1
|V
G
|
_
|V
L
|
T
s
+
R
eq
P
r
+X
eq
Q
r
|V
L
|
Ts
_
=
|V
L
| +T
2
s
(R
eq
P
r
+X
eq
Q
r
)
|V
G
||V
L
|T
s
T
2
s
[|V
G
||V
L
| (R
eq
P
r
+X
eq
Q
r
)] = |V
L
|
T
s
=
|V
L
|
|V
G
||V
L
| (R
eq
P
r
+X
eq
Q
r
)
(1.25)
Figure 1.16: Single line diagram of OLTC power system
1.8. AUTO TRANSFORMERS 21
Figure 1.17: Phasor diagram of OLTC power system
Chapter 2
Per unit system and load modeling
2.1 Per unit system
Power system operates at different voltage levels from generation to the distribution end. It
will be difcult to analyse the power system with different voltages especially when dealing
with impedances. To overcome this difculty per unit (pu) system is used. The power system
variables are expressed as a fraction or multiples of base quantities. While working with pu
system the voltage differences are eliminated. The per unit quantity of any variable is dened as,
Quantity in pu =
actual quantity
base value of the quantity
%pu = Quantity in pu 100% (2.1)
For example,
power pu =
actual power
base power
voltage pu =
actual voltage
base voltage
To arrive the pu values of voltage, current, volt-amperes and impedance, it is only necessary
to choose any of the two values as base values and other base values will get xed accordingly.
Generally the power of the largest generating unit in MVA and maximum operating voltage in
kV are selected as base values. It is not a hard and fast rule, depending on convenience the base
values can be selected. If we select Base kVA and Base kV, other base quantities are given by,
base current I
Base
(A) =
Base kVA
Base kV
base impedance Z
Base
() =
Base kV
I
Base
=
Base kV
2
1000
Base kVA
=
Base kV
2
Base MVA
23
24 CHAPTER 2. PER UNIT SYSTEM AND LOAD MODELING
Generally in power system analysis we work with per-phase models and equivalent circuits.
But for the power system line voltages and 3 phase power will be specied. The following
expressions relate these two.
pu phase voltage(in line-neutral Base) = pu line voltage(in line-line Base)
pu phase kVA(in per phase Base kVA) = pu 3 phase kVA(in 3 phase Base kVA)
2.1.1 Changing the base of pu quantities
Generally the manufacturers specify the equipments pu impedance, but these pu impedances of
all equipments need not be on the same base values. We need to convert them to the common
selected base for the analysis. The pu impedance is given by,
pu impedance =
actual impedance base kVA
(base kV)
2
1000
To convert to the new base,
Z
new base
= Z
old base
_
base kV
old
base kV
new
_
2
_
base kVA
new
base kVA
old
_
2.2 Power ow between two nodes
To analyse the power ow between two nodes, consider the nodes 1 and 2 as shown in Figure 1.1
If
12
= V
1
V
2
, then power leaving from 1 to 2 is given by,
Figure 2.1: Power ow between two nodes
S
12
= V
1
I
= V
1
Y
(V
1
V
2
)
= Y
_
|V
1
|
2
V
1
V
2
_
= Y
_
|V
1
|
2
|V
1
||V
2
| (cos
12
+ sin
12
)
= (g b)
__
|V
1
|
2
|V
1
||V
2
| cos
12
_
(|V
1
||V
2
| sin
12
)
(2.2)
The real and reactive power are given by,
P
12
= g
_
|V
1
|
2
|V
1
||V
2
| cos
12
_
b (|V
1
||V
2
| sin
12
) (2.3)
Q
12
= g (|V
1
||V
2
| sin
12
) b
_
|V
1
|
2
|V
1
||V
2
| cos
12
_
(2.4)
2.2. POWER FLOW BETWEEN TWO NODES 25
Power arriving at node 2 from 1 is given by,
S
21
= V
2
I
= V
2
Y
(V
1
V
2
)
= Y
_
V
2
V
1
|V
2
|
2
_
= Y
_
|V
1
||V
2
| (cos
12
sin
12
) |V
2
|
2
= (g b)
__
|V
1
||V
2
| cos
12
|V
2
|
2
_
(|V
1
||V
2
| sin
12
)
(2.5)
The real and reactive power are given by,
P
21
= g
_
|V
1
||V
2
| cos
12
|V
2
|
2
_
b (|V
1
||V
2
| sin
12
) (2.6)
Q
12
= g (|V
1
||V
2
| sin
12
) b
_
|V
1
||V
2
| cos
12
|V
2
|
2
_
(2.7)
The complex power lost between the nodes is given by,
S
loss
= S
12
S
21
= (g b)
_
|V
1
|
2
+|V
2
|
2
2|V
1
||V
2
| cos
12
_
(2.8)
If we neglect the resistance between the nodes and the reactance is given by X then g = 0 and
b =
1
X
. The real power transferred is given by substituting in (1.3) and (1.6).
P
12
= P
21
=
|V
1
||V
2
| sin
12
X
(2.9)
The reactive power transferred is given by substituting in (1.4) and (1.7).
Q
12
=
|V
1
|
2
|V
1
||V
2
| cos
12
X
Q
21
=
|V
1
||V
2
| cos
12
|V
2
|
2
X
(2.10)
From (1.9) the direction of real power ow depends on the value of
12
. If V
1
leads V
2
power
ows from node 1 to 2 otherwise from 2 to 1.
12
is known as power angle. The average reactive
power transferred is given by,
Q
ave
=
Q
12
+Q
21
2
=
|V
1
|
2
|V
2
|
2
2X
(2.11)
Equation (1.11) shows that the reactive power ows node with high voltage magnitude to the low
voltage node and it is independent of
12
. When V
1
= V
2
, there will be no average reactive power
transferred and the reactive power losses are supplied equally from both ends.
2.2.1 The static stability limit
Differentiating (1.3) with respect to
12
and equating to zero we get,
dP
12
d
12
= g|V
1
||V
2
| sin
12
b|V
1
||V
2
| cos
12
= 0
tan
12
=
b
g
=
X
R
(2.12)
If R = 0, the stability limit occurs at
12
=

2
and the maximum power transferred is given by
P
12max
=
|V
1
||V
2
|
X
if |V
1
| |V
2
| = V , then P
12max
=
|V |
2
X
(2.13)
Equation (1.13) shows that high voltage is required to transmit power over long distances with
high X.
2.2.2 Effect of reactive power
Because of inductive nature of transformers, transmission lines, induction motors and other in-
ductive loads large amount of inductive power is consumed. Even though reactive power does
not produce any useful work, still it has to be generated and transmitted which produces losses
and other economic difculties. The best way to get rid of this is to cancel the reactive power
by generating capacitive reactive power at the point where negative inductive reactive power is
generated. For this purpose capacitor banks and other equipments like synchronous condensers
and static var compensators are used through out the network.
2.3 Load modeling
Power system loads consists of motors, heaters, lighting and electronic equipments. Most system
loads are a mixture of different types. The loads vary in size (watts and vars), symmetry, daily
and seasonal variations, short term uctuations (e.g, welding machines, wood chip mills). Some
are nonlinear loads (e.g, rectiers and other power conversion equipments) which may produce
signicant harmonic currents. Most loads vary with voltage and frequency.
2.3.1 Variation with voltage
Let the variation in power be described by
P = k|V |
n
(2.14)
Consider a small change in voltage magnitude d|V |. The relative change is given by
d|V |
V
. A rst
order Taylors series approximation gives the change in power as,
dP
dP
d|V |
d|V | = kn|V |
n1
d|V | = n
P
|V |
d|V | (2.15)
Hence the relative change in power is given by,
dP
P
n
d|V |
|V |
(2.16)
A similar expression can be arrived for reactive power Q the value of exponent n may differ.
2.3. LOAD MODELING 27
2.3.2 Variation with frequency
Let the power P be a function of frequency f, P = g(f). Then for a small change in frequency
df using rst order Taylors series approximation we have,
dP
dP
df
d|f| (2.17)
and the relative change in power is given by,
dP
P

_
f
P
dP
df
_
df
f
(2.18)
2.3.3 Models of loads
Constant impedance load
Admittance Y =
1
Z
= g + b = constant (b is negative for inductive load). S = Y |V |
2
and
P = g|V |
2
and Q = b|V |
2
, therefore the value of n in (1.16) is 2, ie., a 1% drop in voltage
results in 2% drop in both P and Q.
Incandescent lighting load
The resistance of the light globes increases signicantly with increasing operating temperature,
therefore the exponent n < 2 in (1.14) and (1.16). A value of n = 1.6 is typical. Hence a drop
of 1% drop in voltage results in a 1.6% drop in P (drop in Q is negligible).
Fluorescent lighting load
The P, |V | relationship is more complicated than for the incandescent lamps but in the absence
of better information, n = 1.6 may be assumed.
Synchronous motor load
The speed of the motor is not affected by small changes of voltage but is proportional to fre-
quency. However, when the voltage drops too low the motor loses synchronism. As the me-
chanical load is unaffected by voltage, the electrical power P may also be assumed to remain
constant. Therefore the exponent n 0 in (1.14) and (1.16). Variation of P with frequency
depends on how the mechanical load varies with speed.
Induction motor load
Induction motor torque-slip characteristics give torque T s|V |
2
where s is the slip, but the
torque is actually a characteristic of the mechanical load. For example, if T is constant, the
s |V |
2
. In practice s < 0.05 at rated conditions. For s = 0.05, and we increase the voltage
by 1%. Then the new slip is given by 0.05 1.01
2
= 0.049. Speed of the motor is proportional
to (1 s), therefore with constant T the mechanical power is proportional to (1 s). Hence
the mechanical power increases by the ratio
10.049
10.05
, i.e., the mechanical power increases by only
0.105% for 1% voltage increase.
For an ideal motor (1s) is equal to the theoretical efciency, hence the improved efciency
at lower slip exactly compensates for the increased mechanical power, so that the electrical power
P remains constant in this ideal case. This is not quite so far a practical motor, particularly as
the torque varies with speed but we would generally be justied in assuming that the real power
P is independent of voltage for an induction motor. So n = 0 in (1.14) and (1.16) for P. This is
not true for the reactive power Q which increases with voltage (n > 0)
Chapter 3
Transmission line Impedance
The transmission line is characterised by its resistance, inductance and capacitance. The induc-
tance of the transmission line is the effect related to the emf induced on the conductor due to
changing ux caused by changing current. The capacitance is due to the charge created on the
conductors due to per unit potential difference between them.
Aluminium is used as conductor material because of lower weight, cheapness and large di-
ameter for the same resistance when compared with copper. Higher diameter reduces conduc-
tor surface voltage gradient which helps to reduce corona loss. Generally stranded aluminium
conductors are reinforced by steel is used. Aluminium alloy helps to improve the mechanical
properties of the conductor.
3.1 Resistance of the transmission line
The transmission line resistance causes power loss P
loss
during transmission. The effective re-
sistance R of the conductor is given by,
R =
P
loss
|I|
2
(3.1)
where I is the rms value of the current. The effective resistance will be equal to the dc resistance
of the conductor, if the current distribution is uniform across the conductor. With alternating
current the current distribution will not be uniform due to skin effect and this will increase the ac
resistance of the conductor. The dc resistance of the conductor is given by,
R
dc
=
l
A
(3.2)
The resistance of the conductor varies with the temperature as,
R
2
= R
1
T +t
2
T +t
1
(3.3)
where R
1
is the resistance at a temperature of t
0
1
C, R
2
is the resistance at a temperature of t
0
2
C
and T is the temperature constant whose value depends on the material of the conductor (T
29
30 CHAPTER 3. TRANSMISSION LINE IMPEDANCE
241 for hard drawn copper and T 228 for hard drawn aluminium). Also the resistance of the
conductor will increase due to spiralling of stranded conductors since it increases the length of
the conductor.
3.2 Inductance of single conductor
3.2.1 Internal inductance
Magnetic eld is created around a current carrying conductor. Consider a conductor of circular
cross section of radius r and carrying a current I as shown in Figure 1.1. The inductance of the
conductor is given by L =

I
where is the total ux linkage. Let us consider a circle of radius
Figure 3.1: Inductance of a conductor
x inside the conductor. Using Amperes law we can write,
_
2x
0
H
x
dl = I
x
(3.4)
where H
x
is the magnetic eld intensity around the circle, I
x
is the current enclosed by the circle.
On evaluating the integral (1.4) we get,
H
x
=
I
x
2x
(3.5)
If the current is uniformly distributed
I
x
=
x
2
r
2
I
3.2. INDUCTANCE OF SINGLE CONDUCTOR 31
substituting in (1.5) we get,
H
x
=
x
2r
2
I
If is the permeability of the conductor, the ux density is given by,
B
x
= H
x
=
x
2r
2
I
Let us consider a small ring around x with thickness dx. The ux d in an area dx unit length
of conductor is given by,
d = B
x
cross section area normal to the ux lines = B
x
dx
=
I
2r
2
x dx (3.6)
The ux linkages d corresponding the ux d is given by the product of d and the fraction of
current linked by it.
d =
x
2
r
2
d =
I
2r
4
x
3
dx
The net internal ux linkage of the conductor is given by ,
int
=
_
r
0
I
2r
4
x
3
dx =
I
8
(3.7)
If the relative permeability is 1, = 4 10
7
. Substituting in (1.7),
int
= =
I
2
10
7
L
int
=
1
2
10
7
H/m (3.8)
From (1.8) it can be seen that the internal inductance is independent of conductor radius r.
3.2.2 Inductance due to external ux
To nd the inductance due to external ux linkage , consider a conductor of radius r as shown in
Figure 1.2. Now we consider a circle of radius x outside the conductor. The ux at x links the
entire current I carried by the conductor since the circle of of radius x lies outside the conductor.
Therefore the equation 1.5 becomes,
B
x
= H
x
=
I
2x
Now let us work out the ux linkages between two points exterior to the conductor at a distance
of D
1
and D
2
from the center of the conductor. We shall consider a small incremental distance
Figure 3.2: Inductance due to external ux
dx where the ux linkage d
x
is equal to ux d
x
since d
x
links the entire current. Now the
ux over an area of width dx and unit length is given by,
d
x
= d
x
= B
x
dx 1 =
I
2x
Now the ux linkage between the points D
1
and D
2
is given by,
ext
=
_
D
2
D
1
I
2x
dx
=
I
2
ln
D
1
D
2
wb/m (3.9)
Now the inductance between the points D
1
and D
2
is
L
ext
=

ext
I
=

2
ln
D
1
D
2
H/m (3.10)
If the relative permeability is 1,
L
ext
= 2 10
7
ln
D
1
D
2
H/m (3.11)
3.3 Inductance of single phase two wire system
Consider a two wire single phase system with radius r
1
and r
2
and separated through a distance
D as shown in Figure 1.3. The current in conductor A is equal and opposite to that of B. Let
us consider the ux line produced by A. The ux lines beyond D need not be considered since
those ux lines links a net current of zero.
3.3. INDUCTANCE OF SINGLE PHASE TWO WIRE SYSTEM 33
Figure 3.3: Inductance of single phase two wire system
The net inductance due to internal and external ux using (1.8) and (1.11) is given by,
L
1
= L
int
+L
ext
=
1
2
10
7
+ 2 10
7
ln
D
r
1
= 2 10
7
_
1
4
+ ln
D
r
1
_
(3.12)
Similarly for the conductor B,
L
2
= 2 10
7
_
1
4
+ ln
D
r
2
_
(3.13)
The net inductance is given by,
L = L
1
+L
2
= 2 10
7
_
1
4
+ ln
D
r
1
+
1
4
+ ln
D
r
2
_
= 2 10
7
_
ln e
1
4
+ ln
D
r
1
+ ln e
1
4
+ ln
D
r
2
_
(3.14)
= 2 10
7
_
ln
D
r
1
+ ln
D
r
2
_
(3.15)
where r
1
= r
1
e
1
4
= 0.7788r
1
and r
2
= r
2
e
1
4
= 0.7788r
2
and are known as self-
geometric mean distance or geometric mean radius D
s
(GMR), the circle with radii r
1
or r
2
and
can be considered as the radius of ctitious conductor with no internal ux but with the same
inductance with a conductor of radius r
1
or r
2
.
If r
1
= r
2
, substituting in (1.14) we get,
L = 4 10
7
ln
D
r

3.4 Flux linkages of one conductor in a group
In the two wire system considered in 1.3, the inductance for conductors A and B can be expressed
using equation (1.14),
L
1
= 2 10
7
ln
1
r
1
+ 2 10
7
ln
D
1
L
2
= 2 10
7
ln
1
r
2
+ 2 10
7
ln
D
1
(3.16)
Now the ux linkages is given by,
1
= 2 10
7
ln
1
r
1
I
1
+ 2 10
7
ln
D
1
I
1
2
= 2 10
7
ln
1
r
2
I
2
+ 2 10
7
ln
D
1
I
2
(3.17)
Using the fact, I
1
= I
2
in (1.17),
1
= 2 10
7
ln
1
r
1
I
1
+ 2 10
7
ln
1
D
I
2
2
= 2 10
7
ln
1
D
I
1
+ 2 10
7
ln
1
r
2
I
2
(3.18)
Equation (1.18) can expressed in short as,
1
= L
11
I
1
+L
12
I
2
2
= L
21
I
1
+L
22
I
2
(3.19)
Equation (1.19) can be thought to be as an expression of ux linkages in terms of self and mutual
inductances and can be guratively expressed as shown in Figure 1.4. Equation (1.19) can be ex-
Figure 3.4: Self and mutual Inductance in two wire system
tended to a systemwith n conductors with currents, I
1
, I
2
, , I
n
so that I
1
+I
2
+ +I
n
= 0.
3.5. INDUCTANCE OF 3 PHASE SYSTEMS 35
Then the ux linkage of the i
th
conductor is given by,
i
= L
ii
I
1
+
n
j=1
L
ij
I
j
j = i
= 2 10
7
_
ln
1
r
i
I
i
+
n
j=1
ln
1
D
ij
I
j
_
j = i (3.20)
3.5 Inductance of 3 phase systems
3.5.1 Conductors with symmetrical spacing
We shall consider a three phase transmission system of unit length with conductors of equal
radius r and spaced symmetrically in the form of an equilateral triangle as shown in Figure 1.5.
Using (1.20) we can write the ux linkage as,
Figure 3.5: Conductors with symmetrical spacing
a
= 2 10
7
_
ln
1
r
I
a
+ ln
1
D
I
b
+ ln
1
D
I
c
_
(3.21)
For a balanced three phase system, I
a
+ I
b
+ I
c
= 0 and I
a
= (I
b
+ I
c
). Substituting in
(1.21),
a
= 2 10
7
I
a
_
ln
1
r
ln
1
D
_
= 2 10
7
I
a
ln
D
r
(3.22)
Because of symmetry
a
=
b
=
c
= and the inductance per phase is given by,
L
a
= 2 10
7
ln
D
r
= 0.2 ln
D
r
mH/km (3.23)
3.5.2 Conductors with unsymmetrical spacing
We shall consider a three phase transmission system of unit length with conductors of equal
radius r and spaced unsymmetrically as shown in Figure 1.6. Using (1.20) we can write the ux
Figure 3.6: Conductors with unsymmetrical spacing
linkage as,
a
= 2 10
7
_
ln
1
r
I
a
+ ln
1
D
12
I
b
+ ln
1
D
31
I
c
_
b
= 2 10
7
_
ln
1
r
I
b
+ ln
1
D
12
I
a
+ ln
1
D
23
I
c
_
c
= 2 10
7
_
ln
1
r
I
c
+ ln
1
D
31
I
a
+ ln
1
D
23
I
b
_
(3.24)
Expressing the currents in terms of symmetrical components we get,
L
a
=

a
I
a
= 2 10
7
_
ln
1
r
+ ln
1
D
12
a
2
+ ln
1
D
31
a
_
L
b
=

b
I
b
= 2 10
7
_
ln
1
r
+ ln
1
D
12
a + ln
1
D
23
a
2
_
L
c
=

c
I
c
= 2 10
7
_
ln
1
r
+ ln
1
D
31
a
2
+ ln
1
D
23
a
_
(3.25)
From (1.25), it can be seen that the inductance of the three phases will be unequal. To make
the inductance of the phases equal the conductors are transposed at equal intervals as shown
in Figure 1.7. Because of the transposition each conductors take all the three positions over
the entire transmission length. For the transposed line the inductance per phase is given by the
3.6. INDUCTANCE OF STRANDED CONDUCTORS 37
Figure 3.7: Transposition of conductors with unsymmetrical spacing
average inductance,
L =
L
a
+L
b
+L
c
3
=
2 10
7
3
_
3 ln
1
r
ln
1
D
12
ln
1
D
23
ln
1
D
31
_
a +a
2
= 1120
0
+ 1240
0
= 1
= 2 10
7
_
ln
1
r
ln
1
(D
12
D
23
D
31
)
1
3
_
= 2 10
7
ln
(D
12
D
23
D
31
)
1
3
r
= 2 10
7
ln
GMD
D
s
(3.26)
where GMD = (D
12
D
23
D
31
)
1
3
is the geometrical mean distance and D
s
= r
= re
1
4
is the
geometric mean radius.
3.6 Inductance of stranded conductors
We have derived expression for inductance of the solid conductors but in actual transmission
lines conductors are made up of strands. Stranded conductors offer better mechanical properties
and handling qualities. Let us consider a single phase system with stranded conductors p and
q. Let the conductor p have n strands and the conductor q have m strands and each strand have
an equal diameter as shown in Figure 1.8. If the total current is I, then current per strand in p
conductor is
I
n
and in q conductor is
I
m
. Using (1.20) we can write the ux linkage in strand 1 as,
1
= 2 10
7
I
n
_
ln
1
r
p
+ ln
1
D
12
+ ln
1
D
13
+ + ln
1
D
1n
_
2 10
7
I
m
_
ln
1
D
11
+ ln
1
D
12
+ + ln
1
D
1m
_
= 2 10
7
I ln
m
D
11
D
12
D
1m
n
_
r
p
D
12
D
13
D
1n
(3.27)
Figure 3.8: Stranded conductors
The inductance of strand 1 is given by,
L
1
=

1
I
n
= 2n 10
7
ln
m
D
11
D
12
D
1m
n
_
r
p
D
12
D
13
D
1n
(3.28)
Similarly the inductance of all individual strands in the conductor p can be found. The average
inductance of a strand in the conductor p is given by,
L
ave
=
L
1
+L
2
+ +L
n
n
(3.29)
The net inductance due all the strands in the conductor p is given by,
L
p
=
L
ave
n
=
L
1
+L
2
+ +L
n
n
2
= 2 10
7
ln
mn
_
(D
11
D
12
D
1m
) (D
n1
D
n2
D
nm
)
n
2
_
(D
11
D
12
D
13
D
1n
) (D
n1
D
n2
D
n3
D
nn
)
= 2 10
7
ln
GMD
GMR
1
(3.30)
where D
11
= D
22
= = r
p
. Using the similar procedure the inductance of the conductor
q can be obtained.
3.7 Bundled conductors
Conductors are bundled together as two or three or four depending on the requirement as shown
in Figure 1.9 in EHV transmission. Bundling of conductors offers have many advantages. Mainly
it reduces the inductance thereby the reactance of the transmission line which will increase the
power transfer capacity of the line. Also, bundling reduces the surface voltage gradient which
will in turn reduce corona loss, radio interference etc.,. The distance between the conductors is
maintained by using spacer-dampers.
3.8. DOUBLE CIRCUITS 39
Figure 3.9: Bundled conductors
If D
s
is the GMR of each conductor in a bundle and d is the distance between the conductors
then GMR equivalent for the bundled conductor is given by,
for double conductor bundle,
D
sbundle
=
_
D
s
d (3.31)
for three
D
sbundle
=
3
_
D
s
d
2
(3.32)
for four
D
sbundle
= 1.09
4
_
D
s
d
3
(3.33)
3.8 Double circuits
To increase the power transfer capacity double circuits are used. The phases are paralleled as
aa
, b b
and c c
. To balance reactance and thereby voltage drop conductors are transposed

within phases and also between phases at regular intervals. To nd the inductance we use (1.30).
Identical phases are grouped together and GMD between such phase group is given by,
D
AB
=
4
_
D
ab
D
ab
D
a
b
D
a
D
BC
=
4
_
D
bc
D
bc
D
b
c
D
b
D
AC
=
4
_
D
ac
D
ac
D
a
c
D
a
c
(3.34)
The equivalent GMD of a phase is given by,
GMD =
3
_
D
AB
D
BC
D
AC
(3.35)
GMR of each phase group is given by,
D
SA
=
_
D
sbundle
D
aa
D
SB
=
_
D
sbundle
D
bb
D
SC
=
_
D
sbundle
D
cc

Figure 3.10: Double circuit
where D
sbundle
is the GMR of each bundled conductor given by (1.31) to (1.33). Now GMR
per phase is given by,
GMR
P
=
3
_
D
SA
D
SB
D
SC
(3.36)
Inductance of the line per meter is given by,
L = 2 10
7
ln
GMD
GMR
P
(3.37)
Chapter 4
Transmission line capacitance
Capacitance of a transmission line is due to the potential difference between two conductors
separated by a dielectric medium usually air. Because of the alternating nature of the voltage
applied, there will be charging and discharging currents through the line capacitance. We can
compute the capacitance of the transmission line using Gausss law for electric eld which states
the total electric charge within a closed surface equals the total electric ux emerging from the
surface.
Let us consider a conductor of radius r carrying a charge of q coulombs. To nd the electric
eld intensity, we shall consider a cylindrical space of 1 m length at a distance x from the center
of the conductor as shown in Figure 1.1 The electric ux is assumed to be uniformly distributed
Figure 4.1: Potential difference between two points
on the surface of the cylinder and radially outward. The electric ux density is given by,
D
f
=
q
surface area
=
q
2x
(4.1)
The electric eld intensity is given by,
E =
D
f
permittivity of the medium
=
q
2
0
x
(4.2)
41
42 CHAPTER 4. TRANSMISSION LINE CAPACITANCE
where
0
= 8.8510
12
F/m is the permittivity of free space. The potential difference between
the cylinders of radius D
1
and D
2
is given by the work done in moving a unit charge from P
2
to
P
1
through the electric eld produced by the conductor and is given by,
v
12
=
_
D
2
D
1
Edx =
_
D
2
D
1
q
2
0
x
dx
=
q
2
0
ln
D
2
D
1
(4.3)
4.1 Capacitance of two wire conductor
Consider a two wire system shown in Figure 1.2. Let the charge on conductor a be q
a
and on on
conductor b be q
b
. Now let us consider the effect of charge q
a
alone and the interaction due to q
b
Figure 4.2: Capacitance of two wire conductor
and ground are neglected. The voltage between a and b is given by,
v
ab(qa)
=
q
a
2
0
ln
D
r
a
(4.4)
Now consider with charge q
b
,
v
ba(q
b
)
=
q
b
2
0
ln
D
r
b
(4.5)
since v
ba(q
b
)
= v
ab(q
b
)
we get,
v
ab(q
b
)
=
q
b
2
0
ln
r
b
D
(4.6)
Using superposition the potential difference between a and b due to both charges is given by,
v
ab
= v
ab(qa)
+v
ab(q
b
)
=
q
a
2
0
ln
D
r
a
+
q
b
2
0
ln
r
b
D
(4.7)
If q
b
= q
a
= q and r
a
= r
b
= r, then we get,
v
ab
=
q
0
ln
D
r
(4.8)
4.2. POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE IN A MULTI CONDUCTOR SYSTEM 43
The capacitance between a and b is given by,
C
ab
=
q
v
ab
=

0
ln
D
r
F/m (4.9)
If we assume the line voltage is twice the voltage between phase and neutral (if power is supplied
by a center tapped neutral earthed transformer). Then the capacitance to neutral or ground is
given by,
C
n
= C
an
= C
bn
= 2C
ab
=
2
0
ln
D
r
F/m (4.10)
4.2 Potential difference in a multi conductor system
Let us consider a system with n conductors with charges q
1
, , q
n
. If the system is balanced
the net charge is given by,
q
1
+q
2
+ +q
n
= 0 (4.11)
Using (1.7) we can write the potential difference between conductors i and j as,
v
ij
=
1
2
0
n
k=1
q
k
ln
D
kj
D
ki
for k = i, D
ii
= r
i
(4.12)
4.3 Capacitance of three phase line
Consider a balanced 3 phase system with unsymmetrical spacing as shown in Figure 1.3. The
conductors are transposed at regular intervals. Using (1.12) the voltage difference between con-
Figure 4.3: Capacitance of three phase line
ductor ab in Section 1 of the transmission line can be found as,
v
ab(1)
=
1
2
0
_
q
a
ln
D
12
r
+q
b
ln
r
D
12
+q
c
ln
D
23
D
13
_
(4.13)
for Section 2
v
ab(2)
=
1
2
0
_
q
a
ln
D
23
r
+q
b
ln
r
D
23
+q
c
ln
D
13
D
12
_
(4.14)
for Section 3
v
ab(3)
=
1
2
0
_
q
a
ln
D
13
r
+q
b
ln
r
D
13
+q
c
ln
D
12
D
23
_
(4.15)
The average voltage is given by,
v
ab
=
1
3 2
0
_
q
a
ln
_
D
12
D
23
D
13
r
3
_
+q
b
ln
_
r
3
D
12
D
23
D
13
_
+q
c
ln
_
D
12
D
23
D
13
D
12
D
23
D
13
__
=
1
2
0
_
q
a
ln
_
(D
12
D
23
D
13
)
1
3
r
_
+q
b
ln
_
r
(D
12
D
23
D
13
)
1
3
__
(4.16)
Similarly,
v
ac
=
1
2
0
_
q
a
ln
_
(D
12
D
23
D
13
)
1
3
r
_
+q
c
ln
_
r
(D
12
D
23
D
13
)
1
3
__
(4.17)
adding (1.16) and (1.17) and substituting q
b
+ q
c
= q
a
since the net charge for the balanced
system is zero, we get,
v
ab
+v
ac
=
1
2
0
_
2q
a
ln
_
(D
12
D
23
D
13
)
1
3
r
_
q
a
ln
_
r
(D
12
D
23
D
13
)
1
3
__
=
3q
a
2
0
ln
_
(D
12
D
23
D
13
)
1
3
r
_
=
3q
a
2
0
ln
GMD
r
(4.18)
where GMD = (D
12
D
23
D
13
)
1
3
is the geometrical mean distance. For a balanced 3 phase
system,
v
ab
+v
ac
= 3v
an
(4.19)
Combining (1.18) and (1.19) gives the capacitance to neutral as,
C
n
=
q
a
v
an
=
2
0
ln
GMD
r
F/m (4.20)
The charging current is given by
I
charging
= C
n
v
an
A/m (4.21)
4.4. THE EFFECT OF EARTH ON LINE CAPACITANCE 45
4.4 The effect of earth on line capacitance
The presence of earth affects the electric eld of the conductor. Let us consider a single conduc-
tor, when it is charged the earth acquires equal and opposite charge. The electric ux from the
conductor to ground will be perpendicular to the earths equipotential surface. In order to model
this, the effect of earth can be replaced by a ctitious conductor of the same size and shape of the
over head conductor lying below the surface of the earth at a depth equal to the height of the con-
ductor above the earth. Now if the earth is removed, the electric ux between the ctitious and
actual conductor represents the effect of the earth with earths surface as equipotential surface.
The ctitious conductor is referred as image conductor.
Let us calculate the capacitance of a 3 phase unsymmetrical system as shown in Figure 1.4.
If the charges on the conductors be q
a
, q
b
and q
c
then the charge on the image conductors be
Figure 4.4: Effect of earth on line capacitance
q
a
, q
b
and q
c
. As explained in Section 1.3, the voltage equation v
ab
can be written for three
sections of the transposed system and averaged over three sections. Now the equation for the
voltage v
ab
for section 1 can be written using (1.12) as,
v
ab
=
1
2
0
_
q
a
_
ln
D
12
r
ln
H
12
H
1
_
+q
b
_
ln
r
D
12
ln
H
2
H
12
_
+q
c
_
ln
D
23
D
31
ln
H
23
H
31
__
(4.22)
Similarly after getting the equations for other two sections of the line, average v
ab
can be found
out. v
an
can be obtained as explained in Section 1.3 through v
ab
and v
ac
. Now the capacitance to
neutral is given by,
C
n
=
2
0
ln
GMD
r
ln
_
3
H
12
H
23
H
31
3
H
1
H
2
H
3
_ F/m (4.23)
With reference to (1.20) and (1.23), we can see that due to the effect of earth the capacitance
increases. Generally the conductors are situated at a height well above the ground, so the effect
of earth can be neglected. But in the case of unbalanced system calculations the earth effect will
be important.
4.5 Capacitance of bundled conductors
As in the case of inductance calculations for bundled conductors described in Section 1.7, we
can nd the capacitance as,
C
n
=
2
0
ln
GMD
r
bundle
F/m (4.24)
The equivalent radius r
bundle
for different congurations as shown in Figure 1.9 are given by, for
double conductor bundle,
r
bundle
=
rd (4.25)
for three
r
bundle
=
3
rd
2
(4.26)
for four
r
bundle
= 1.09
4
rd
3
(4.27)
4.6 Capacitance of double circuit
Let us consider a double circuit line with transposed section as shown in Figure 1.10. We can
work out the capacitance similar to the inductance calculations in Section 1.8 as,
C
n
=
2
0
ln
GMD
GMR
bundle
F/m (4.28)
where GMR
bundle
=
3
R
a
R
b
R
c
and R
a
=
r
bundle
D
aa
, R
b
=
r
bundle
D
bb
and R
c
=
r
bundle
D
cc
.
Chapter 5
Transmission line model
The transmission line parameters evaluated for unit length of the line is used to arrive at the
transmission line model between sending and receiving ends. The line models are worked out
based on the length of the transmission line.
5.1 Short transmission line model
This model is used to study lines with length less than 80 km. Due to short length, the value of
capacitance is usually small and can be neglected without sacricing the accuracy. We include
only line resistance and inductance in the model as shown in Figure 1.1 If l is the length of the
Figure 5.1: Short transmission line model
line, r
l
the resistance per unit length and L
l
inductance per unit length. Then the net impedance
is given by,
Z
l
= R
l
+X
l
= l (r
l
+L
l
) (5.1)
If V
s
and V
r
are the per phase voltages at sending and receiving ends respectively, the sending
end voltage is given by,
V
s
= V
r
+Z
l
I
r
and I
s
= I
r
(5.2)
47
48 CHAPTER 5. TRANSMISSION LINE MODEL
writing (1.2) in matrix form,
_
V
s
I
s
_
=
_
1 Z
l
0 1
_ _
V
r
I
r
_
=
_
A B
C D
_ _
V
r
I
r
_
(5.3)
where A, B, C and D are called transmission line ABCD constants. This can be diagrammat-
ically represented as two port network as shown in Figure 1.2 The percentage regulation of the
Figure 5.2: Two port network model of a transmission line
transmission line is given by,
% voltage regulation =
|V
rnoload
| |V
rfullload
|
|V
rfullload
|
100% (5.4)
and the transmission line efciency is given by,
% =
receiving end power
sending end power
100% =
P
r
P
s
100% (5.5)
5.2 Medium length line model or nominal model
This model is suitable for representing transmission line of length from 80 km to 250 km. The
total capacitance of the line is divided into two equal parts and each part is lumped as single ca-
pacitance and added at sending and receiving ends as shown in Figure 1.3. If C is the capacitance
of the line per unit length and l the line length, then the shunt admittance is given by,
Y = (g +C) l (5.6)
where g is the conductance which is usually neglected. At the receiving end,
I
l
= I
r
+
Y
2
V
r
(5.7)
At the sending end,
V
s
= V
r
+Z
l
I
l
(5.8)
5.3. LONG TRANSMISSION LINE MODEL 49
Figure 5.3: Nominal model of a transmission line
substituting (1.7) in (1.8),
V
s
= V
r
+Z
l
_
I
r
+
Y
2
V
r
_
=
_
1 +
Z
l
Y
2
_
V
r
+Z
l
I
r
(5.9)
and
I
s
= I
l
+
Y
2
V
s
(5.10)
substituting from (1.8) and (1.9) in (1.10),
I
s
= I
r
+
Y
2
V
r
+
Y
2
__
1 +
Z
l
Y
2
_
V
r
+Z
l
I
r
_
= Y
_
1 +
Z
l
Y
4
_
V
r
+
_
1 +
Z
l
Y
2
_
I
r
(5.11)
Expressing (1.9) and (1.11) in matrix form,
_
V
s
I
s
_
=
_
1 +
Z
l
Y
2
Z
l
Y
_
1 +
Z
l
Y
4
_
1 +
Z
l
Y
2
_ _
V
r
I
r
_
=
_
A B
C D
_ _
V
r
I
r
_
(5.12)
We can represent (1.12) in terms of sending end quantities as,
_
V
r
I
r
_
=
_
D B
C A
_ _
V
s
I
s
_
(5.13)
5.3 Long transmission line model
For transmission line lengths exceeding 250 km, the lumped parameter models will not give
accurate results. Line models should be worked out with distributed parameters.
Figure 5.4: Model of a long transmission line
Let us consider a small section A B of length x of a long transmission line of length l at a
distance x from the receiving end as shown in Figure 1.4. The series impedance per unit length
be z = r +L and the shunt admittance be y = g +C. Voltage at A is given by,
V (x + x) = V
x
+zxI(x)
V (x + x) V (x)
x
= zI(x) (5.14)
When the limit x 0,
dV (x)
dx
= zI(x) (5.15)
At junction A,
I(x + x) = I
x
+yxV (x + x)
I(x + x) I(x)
x
= yV (x) (5.16)
Now taking the limits,
dI(x)
dx
= yV (x) (5.17)
Differentiating (1.15) with respect to x,
d
2
V (x)
dx
2
= z
dI(x)
dx
(5.18)
Substituting from (1.17) we have,
d
2
V (x)
dx
2
= zyV (x)
d
2
V (x)
dx
2

2
V (x) = 0 (5.19)
5.3. LONG TRANSMISSION LINE MODEL 51
where
2
= zy. The solution for the differential equation (1.19) is of the form,
V (x) = A
1
e
x
+A
2
e
x
(5.20)
where is known as the propagation constant and = + , where the real part is known
as attenuation constant and the imaginary part is known as phase constant. Now from (1.15)
I(x) =
1
z
dV (x)
dx
=

z
_
A
1
e
x
A
2
e
x
_
=
_
y
z
_
A
1
e
x
A
2
e
x
_
=
1
Z
c
_
A
1
e
x
A
2
e
x
_
(5.21)
where Z
c
=
_
z
y
is known as characteristic impedance. When x = 0, V (x) = V
r
and
I(x) = I
r
, substituting in 1.20 and 1.21,
V
r
= A
1
+A
2
Z
c
I
r
= A
1
A
2
A
1
=
V
r
+I
r
Z
c
2
A
2
=
V
r
I
r
Z
c
2
(5.22)
Substituting in (1.20),
V (x) =
_
V
r
+I
r
Z
c
2
_
e
x
+
_
V
r
I
r
Z
c
2
_
e
x
=
_
e
x
+e
x
2
_
V
r
+
_
e
x
e
x
2
_
Z
c
I
r
= cosh xV
r
+Z
c
sinh xI
r
(5.23)
Similarly,
I(x) =
1
Z
c
_
V
r
+I
r
Z
c
2
_
e
x
1
Z
c
_
V
r
I
r
Z
c
2
_
e
x
=
1
Z
c
_
e
x
e
x
2
_
V
r
+
_
e
x
+e
x
2
_
I
r
=
1
Z
c
sinh xV
r
+ cosh xI
r
(5.24)
To get V
s
and I
s
, substitute x = l in (1.23) and (1.24),
V
s
= cosh lV
r
+Z
c
sinh lI
r
I
s
=
1
Z
c
sinh lV
r
+ cosh lI
r
(5.25)
in matrix form
_
V
s
I
s
_
=
_
cosh l Z
c
sinh l
1
Zc
sinh l cosh l
_ _
V
r
I
r
_
=
_
A B
C D
_ _
V
r
I
r
_
(5.26)
From the values of ABCD constants given by (1.26) we can arrive the more accurate equivalent
-model of the system. We can express (1.26) in the form of -model equation given by (1.12)
as,
_
V
s
I
s
_
=
_
1 +
Z
l
Y
2
Z
l
Y
_
1 +
Z
l
Y
4
_
1 +
Z
l
Y
2
_
_
V
r
I
r
_
(5.27)
By equating the coefcients of A and B in (1.26) and (1.28) we get,
Z
l
= Z
c
sinh l
1 +
Z
l
Y
2
= cosh l
Y
2
=
1
Z
c
(cosh l 1)
sinh l
=
1
Z
c
tanh
l
2
(5.28)
The equivalent -model for long transmission line can be represented diagrammatically as shown
in Figure 1.5.
Figure 5.5: Equivalent -model of a long transmission line
5.4 Voltage and current waves
The instantaneous value of the voltage in equation (1.20) can be expressed in time domain as,
v(t, x) =
2A
1
e
x
cos (t +x) +
2A
2
e
x
cos (t x)
= v
1
(t, x) +v
2
(t, x) (5.29)
The voltage at a point along the transmission line is the sum of two waves v
1
and v
2
. As the
distance x increases v
1
increases and it is called incident wave. v
2
decreases as x increases and
is called reected wave. They behave like traveling waves along the line.
5.4. VOLTAGE AND CURRENT WAVES 53
Let us consider the reected wave, for the amplitude to be maximum,
t x = 2n and x =
t

2n
(5.30)
The speed or velocity of propagation of the wave is given by,
dx
dt
= v =

=
2f
(5.31)
For wavelength the distance x should produce a phase change of 2, using (1.30)
=
2
(5.32)
For lossless line r = 0 and g = 0, using =

zy we get,
=
LC (5.33)
and the characteristic impedance becomes,
Z
c
=
_
L
C
(5.34)
which is called surge impedance of the line. Combining (1.31) and (1.33) we get,
v =
1
LC
and =
1
f
LC
(5.35)
If we neglect internal ux linkage, and using (1.37) for L and (1.28) for C in (1.35) we get,
v =
1
0
and =
1
f
0
v 3 10
8
m/s and 6000 km for 50 Hz. (5.36)
For lossless line = and cosh x = cosh x = cos x and sinh x = sinh x = sin x.
Using these substitutions in (1.25), for a line under noload with I
r
= 0, we get
V
rnoload
=
V
s
cos l
(5.37)
under noload the current is capacitive line charging current and V
rnoload
V
s
. The value of V
r
increases with the total length of the line. If the receiving end is shorted, V
r
= 0, substituting
in (1.25) we get,
V
s
= Z
c
sin lI
r
I
s
= cos lI
r
(5.38)
5.5 Surge impedance loading of the line
Surge impedance loading (SIL) is the power delivered at rated voltage by a lossless line to a load
resistance whose value is equal to the surge impedance Z
c
=
_
L
C
. For a lossless line Z
c
is
purely resistive. The Figure 1.6 shows a transmission line connected to a resistance equal to its
surge impedance. The receiving end current is given by I
r
=
Vr
Zc
and the power corresponding
Figure 5.6: Surge impedance loading of a lossless transmission line
to SIL is given by,
P
SIL
= 3V
r
I
r
=
3V
2
r
Z
c
=
V
2
L
Z
c
VA (5.39)
Substituting for I
r
in terms of Z
c
in equations (1.23) and (1.24) and making trigonometrical
substitutions for lossless line gives,
V (x) = (cos x + sin x) V
r
= V
r
x
I(x) = (cos x + sin x) I
r
= I
r
x (5.40)
From (1.40), it can be seen that the voltage and current at any point is equal in magnitude and
are equal to the sending end values. With Z
c
the lines inductive reactive power cancels with
capacitive reactive power ie., L|I
r
|
2
= C|V
r
|
2
, which gives Z
c
=
_
L
C
. From (1.39), it is
clear that SIL varies with the square of the line voltage, so for 230 kV line SIL is approximately
150 MW and for 765 kV line SIL is approximately 2000 MW. If the load is above SIL shunt
capacitors may be needed to make up the reactive losses and shunt reactors if line load is less
than SIL.
Chapter 6
Symmetrical faults
Fault studies form an important part in power system analysis. The determination of fault current
is essential in nding the circuit breaker ratings, settings of protective relays and other protective
equipments. Most of the faults in the power system are unbalanced faults but the worst possible
fault current scenario is created by three phase symmetrical fault.
For fault calculations the resistance of the network and load current are usually neglected.
The generator reactance varies during fault. During rst few cycles of the fault, the sub-transient
reactance X
d
is effective and following that for another 20 - 30 cycles the transient reactance X
d
will be active and this will be followed by the steady state reactance X
d
. The selection of the
reactance to be used for the fault calculation depends on the application. For determining circuit
breaker ratings X
d
is used.
The balanced fault creates identical fault currents in all the phases so the fault analysis can
be done on per-phase system. Fault is represented as an addition of fault impedance Z
fault
at the
fault location. If Z
fault
= 0 then the fault is known as bolted or solid fault. Using Thevenins
equivalent circuit, the changes in voltages are obtained by short circuiting all sources. The steps
involved in fault calculation can be summarised below:
1. Pre-fault bus voltages at different buses are required from load ow
2. The network loads are converted into constant impedance Z
Li
=
|V
i0
|
2
S
L
, where V
i0
is the
pre-fault voltage at load bus and S
L
is the complex load value.
3. Thevenins equivalent circuit viewing from fault bus is obtained.
4. Using Thevenins circuit the changes in the bus voltages are obtained.
5. Bus voltages are obtained by the super position of change in bus voltage over pre-fault bus
voltage.
6. With bus voltages known all fault branch currents can be found.
55
56 CHAPTER 6. SYMMETRICAL FAULTS
6.1 Numerical example -1
Consider a simple power system shown in Figure 1.1. Generators are represented using transient
reactance and other reactance are expressed in pu values. Shunt capacitances and resistances are
neglected. A three phase fault is initiated with fault impedance Z
fault
= 0.15 pu at a) bus 1,
b)bus 2 and c)bus 3. Find the fault current, bus voltages and line currents.
Figure 6.1: Network for numerical example
Solution: a) Fault at bus 1
Let consider the pre-fault bus voltages as, V
10
= V
20
= V
30
= 1 pu. We shall insert the
fault impedance at bus 1 and inject the Thevenins voltage V
th
= V
10
at bus 1 and shorting the
generator sources as shown in Figure 1.2.
Figure 6.2: Circuit for Section a.
Reducing the parallel paths between 1-2 and 1-3-2,
Z
equ1
=
Z
12
(Z
31
+Z
23
)
Z
12
+ (Z
31
+Z
23
)
= 0.3733
Now the network reduces as shown in Figure 1.3. On further simplication of the network,
Z
11
=
(Z
equ1
+Z
G2
+Z
T2
) (Z
G1
+Z
T1
)
(Z
equ1
+Z
G2
+Z
T2
) + (Z
G1
+Z
T1
)
= 0.1808
6.1. NUMERICAL EXAMPLE -1 57
Figure 6.3: Circuit for Section a.
Now the fault current is given by,
I
fault
=
V
10
Z
11
+Z
fault
= 3.0228 pu
By current division I
G1
= 2.2774 pu, I
G2
= 0.7453 pu and I
G13
= 0.3478 pu.
The change in bus voltages is given by,
V
1
= 0 I
G1
(Z
G1
+Z
T1
) = 0.5466 pu
V
2
= 0 I
G2
(Z
G2
+Z
T2
) = 0.2683 pu
V
3
= V
1
+I
G13
Z
G13
= 0.4075 pu
The fault bus voltages are given by,
V
1
= V
10
+ V
1
= 0.4534 pu
V
2
= V
20
+ V
2
= 0.7317 pu
V
3
= V
30
+ V
3
= 0.5925 pu
The currents in different sections during fault are given by,
I
12
=
V
1
V
2
Z
12
= 0.3975 pu
I
23
=
V
2
V
3
Z
23
= 0.3478 pu
I
13
=
V
1
V
3
Z
31
= 0.3478 pu
Solution: b) Fault at bus 2
The solution is similar to for the case a) above. The fault and generator currents are given by,
I
fault
= 2.6536 pu; I
G1
= 0.9815 pu; I
G2
= 1.6721 pu
The change in bus voltages is given by,
V
1
= 0.2356 pu; V
2
= 0.6020 pu; V
3
= 0.4188 pu
V
1
= 0.7646 pu; V
2
= 0.3980 pu; V
3
= 0.5812 pu
I
12
= 0.5234 pu; I
23
= 0.4580 pu; I
13
= 0.4580 pu
Solution: c) Fault at bus 3
We shall insert the fault impedance at bus 3 and inject the Thevenins voltage V
th
= V
30
at bus
3 and shorting the generator sources as shown in Figure 1.4. To work out the impedance viewed
Figure 6.4: Circuit for Section c.
from fault, we shall convert the - connection between buses 1,2 and 3 to equivalent Y as
shown in Figure 1.5. Now solving the resultant series parallel combination we get the impedance
Z
33
= 0.3463. Now the fault current is given by,
I
fault
=
V
30
Z
33
+Z
fault
= 2.0149 pu
By current division I
G1
= 1.1317 pu and I
G2
= 0.8832 pu. The change in bus voltages
is given by,
V
1
= 0 I
G1
(Z
G1
+Z
T1
) = 0.2716 pu
V
2
= 0 I
G2
(Z
G2
+Z
T2
) = 0.3180 pu
V
3
= I
fault
Z
fault
V
30
= 0.6978 pu
6.2. DETERMINATION OF SHORT CIRCUIT CAPACITY (SCC) 59
Figure 6.5: Circuit for Section c.
V
1
= V
10
+ V
1
= 0.7284 pu
V
2
= V
20
+ V
2
= 0.6820 pu
V
3
= V
30
+ V
3
= 0.3022 pu
I
12
=
V
1
V
2
Z
12
= 0.0662 pu
I
23
=
V
2
V
3
Z
23
= 0.9495 pu
I
13
=
V
1
V
3
Z
31
= 1.0654 pu
6.2 Determination of short circuit capacity (SCC)
Determination of fault current at a bus will help us to nd the interrupting capacity of the circuit
breaker and bus bar current carrying capacity required.
The fault current in pu is given by
I
faultpu
=
V
fb0
X
fb
(6.1)
where V
fb0
is the rated pu voltage at fault bus and X
fb
is the pu reactance to the point of fault.
The resistances are neglected hence the computed fault current gives the worst scenario. The
base current is given by,
I
base
=
S
baseMV A
10
3
3V
basekV
(6.2)
Now the fault current is given by,
I
fault
= I
faultpu
I
base
=
_
V
fb0
X
fb
__
S
baseMV A
10
3
3V
basekV
_
(6.3)
Now SCC is given by,
SCC =
3V
Lfb
I
fault
10
3
MVA (6.4)
where V
Lfb
is the line voltage at fault bus in kV. Substituting from (1.3),
SCC =
V
fb0
S
baseMV A
X
fb
V
Lfb
V
basekV
MVA (6.5)
If V
Lfb
= V
basekV
then,
SCC =
V
fb0
S
baseMV A
X
fb
MVA (6.6)
and if V
fb0
= 1
SCC =
S
baseMV A
X
fb
MVA (6.7)
6.3 Fault analysis using Z
bus
matrix
The fault analysis procedure given in the previous numerical example is suitable only for small
networks. It will become more complex if we have to deal with large networks. For large
networks fault analysis is made simple and straight forward using the Z
bus
matrix method.
To analyse the fault we need the impedance matrix of the system. We represent all the
voltages and impedances in pu values. The generator voltages are given by the voltage behind
the reactance X
d
or X
d
or X
d
. The transmission line is represented by equivalent -model. The
load is modelled as equivalent constant impedance as given by Z
Li
=
|V
i0
|
2
S
L
, where V
i0
is the
pre-fault voltage at load bus and S
L
is the complex load value.
Let us consider a n bus systemand a three phase fault is initiated at the k
th
bus. If the pre-fault
voltages of all buses are arranged as a vector given by,
V
bus0
= [V
10
, V
20
, , V
k0
, , V
n0
]
T
(6.8)
6.3. FAULT ANALYSIS USING Z
BUS
MATRIX 61
If the impedance between the fault point and the ground is Z
fault
, we can nd the change in
bus voltages due to fault current I
kfault
using Thevenins circuit method given in the previous
numerical example. If we arrange the change in bus voltages as a vector,
V
bus
= [V
1
, V
2
, , V
k
, , V
n
]
T
(6.9)
The bus voltage during fault is given by,
V
busfault
= V
bus0
+ V
bus
(6.10)
We can get the admittance matrix Y
bus
of the network using the nodal current equation as,
I
bus
= Y
bus
V
bus
(6.11)
From the Thevenins circuit, current entering all the buses are zero except the bus which has the
fault. The current I
kfault
is leaving the fault bus hence to be denoted negative. Under fault
conditions for the the Thevenins circuit we can write the nodal equations as,
_
_
0
.
.
.
I
kfault
.
.
.
0
_
_
=
_
_
Y
11
Y
1k
Y
1n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Y
k1
Y
kk
Y
kn
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Y
n1
Y
nk
Y
nn
_
_
_
_
V
1
.
.
.
V
k
.
.
.
V
n
_
_
(6.12)
In short notations,
I
busfault
= Y
bus
V
bus
V
bus
= Z
bus
I
busfault
(6.13)
where Z
bus
= Y
1
bus
is the system impedance matrix. We get the bus voltages during fault as,
V
busfault
= V
bus0
+Z
bus
I
busfault
(6.14)
In the expanded form as,
_
_
V
1fault
.
.
.
V
kfault
.
.
.
V
nfault
_
_
=
_
_
V
10
.
.
.
V
k0
.
.
.
V
n0
_
_
+
_
_
Z
11
Z
1k
Z
1n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Z
k1
Z
kk
Z
kn
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Z
n1
Z
nk
Z
nn
_
_
_
_
0
.
.
.
I
kfault
.
.
.
0
_
_
(6.15)
Since we have only one entry in the current vector the k
th
equation becomes,
V
kfault
= V
k0
Z
kk
I
kfault
(6.16)
From Thevenins circuit we have,
V
kfault
= Z
fault
I
kfault
(6.17)
Equating (1.16) and (1.20) we have,
I
kfault
=
V
k0
Z
kk
+Z
fault
(6.18)
To get the fault current we need only Z
kk
and Z
fault
. Now the fault voltage at the i
th
bus is given
by,
V
ifault
= V
i0
Z
ik
I
kfault
= V
i0
Z
ik
Z
kk
+Z
fault
V
k0
(6.19)
With all fault bus voltages known we can nd the current between bus i and j as,
I
ijfault
=
V
ifault
V
jfault
z
ij
(6.20)
where z
ij
is the impedance between buses i and j.
6.4 Numerical example - 2
Consider the power system given in numerical example-1. We shall try to solve for the fault
current, bus voltages and currents using Z
bus
method for the fault at bus 3 case.
The admittance matrix for the three bus system shown in Figure 1.6 can be written as,
Figure 6.6: Network for numerical example -2
Y
bus
=
_
_
_
1
Z
G1
+Z
T1
+
1
Z
12
+
1
Z
13
_

1
Z
12
1
Z
13
1
Z
21
_
1
Z
G2
+Z
T2
+
1
Z
21
+
1
Z
23
_

1
Z
23
1
Z
31
1
Z
32
_
1
Z
31
+
1
Z
32
_
_
_
=
_
_
0 8.0952 0 +1.4286 0 +2.5000
0 +1.4286 0 6.7063 0 +2.5000
0 +2.5000 0 +2.5000 0 5.0000
_
_
6.4. NUMERICAL EXAMPLE - 2 63
The Z
bus
is given by,
Z
bus
= Y
1
bus
=
_
_
0 +0.1808 0 + 0.0888 0 + 0.1348
0 +0.0888 0 + 0.2268 0 + 0.1578
0 +0.1348 0 + 0.1578 0 + 0.3463
_
_
The various bus voltages are given by,
V
1fault
= V
10
Z
bus
(1, 3)
Z
bus
(3, 3) +Z
fault
V
30
= 0.7284
V
2fault
= V
20
Z
bus
(2, 3)
Z
bus
(3, 3) +Z
fault
V
30
= 0.6820
V
2fault
= V
30
Z
bus
(3, 3)
Z
bus
(3, 3) +Z
fault
V
30
= 0.3022
The bus currents during fault are given by,
I
12
=
V
1fault
V
2fault
Z
12
= 0.0662 pu
I
23
=
V
2fault
V
3fault
Z
23
= 0.9495 pu
I
13
=
V
1fault
V
3fault
Z
31
= 1.0654 pu
Chapter 7
Symmetrical components
Method of symmetrical components helps to reduce the complexity involved in analysing un-
balanced polyphase system. In a balanced, unbalanced fault conditions can lead to unbalanced
voltages and currents.
Using Fortescues theorem, an unbalanced system of n phases can be resolved into n sys-
tems of balanced phasors of equal length and these phasors are called symmetrical components
of original phasors. The analysis of unbalanced system using symmetrical components involves,
nding the responses of individual elements of the symmetrical components and applying super-
position principle to get the overall response.
7.1 Basics of symmetrical components
Using symmetrical components three unbalanced phasors of 3 phase system can be resolved into
3 balanced system of phasors.
i) Positive sequence: Displaced by 120
0
, equal in magnitude and has the same phase se-
quence as the unbalanced system.
ii) Negative sequence: Displaced by 120
0
, equal in magnitude and has opposite phase se-
quence as the unbalanced system.
iii) Zero sequence: Zero phase displacement and equal in magnitude.
The symmetrical components are diagrammatically represented in Figure 2.1. The superscripts
1, 2, 0 are used to represent positive, negative and zero sequences respectively. Let us dene a
vector operator a = 1120
0
which performs 120
0
counterclockwise rotation, so that,
a = 1120
0
= 0.5 +0.866
a
2
= 1240
0
= 0.5 0.866
so that 1 +a +a
2
= 0 (7.1)
65
66 CHAPTER 7. SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Figure 7.1: Symmetrical components
Using the above we can dene positive sequence as,
V
1
a
= V
1
a
0
0
= V
1
a
V
1
b
= V
1
a
240
0
= a
2
V
1
a
V
1
c
= V
1
a
120
0
= aV
1
a
(7.2)
Similarly we can dene the negative sequence as,
V
2
a
= V
2
a
0
0
= V
2
a
V
2
b
= V
2
a
120
0
= aV
2
a
V
2
c
= V
2
a
240
0
= a
2
V
2
a
(7.3)
The zero sequence is dened as,
V
0
a
= V
0
b
= V
0
c
(7.4)
We can get back the original unbalanced system from the symmetrical components as follows:
V
a
= V
0
a
+V
1
a
+V
2
a
V
b
= V
0
b
+V
1
b
+V
2
b
V
c
= V
0
c
+V
1
c
+V
2
c
(7.5)
Using the set of equations (2.2) to (2.4) we can write (2.5) as,
_
_
V
a
V
b
V
c
_
_
=
_
_
1 1 1
1 a
2
a
1 a a
2
_
_
_
_
V
0
a
V
1
a
V
2
a
_
_
(7.6)
7.1. BASICS OF SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 67
In short form as,
V
abc
= A V
012
(7.7)
where A is the symmetrical component transformation matrix. From (2.7) we can write
V
012
= A
1
V
abc
(7.8)
where
A
1
=
1
3
_
_
1 1 1
1 a a
2
1 a
2
a
_
_
(7.9)
Using (2.8) and (2.9) we can write,
_
_
V
0
a
V
1
a
V
2
a
_
_
=
1
3
_
_
1 1 1
1 a a
2
1 a
2
a
_
_
_
_
V
a
V
b
V
c
_
_
(7.10)
ie.,
V
0
a
=
1
3
(V
a
+V
b
+V
c
)
V
1
a
=
1
3
_
V
a
+aV
b
+a
2
V
c
_
V
2
a
=
1
3
_
V
a
+a
2
V
b
+aV
c
_
(7.11)
Similarly we can write for currents as,
I
0
a
=
1
3
(I
a
+I
b
+I
c
)
I
1
a
=
1
3
_
I
a
+aI
b
+a
2
I
c
_
I
2
a
=
1
3
_
I
a
+a
2
I
b
+aI
c
_
(7.12)
From (2.12) for ungrounded three phase system the sum of the phase currents is zero hence no
zero sequence current. But for grounded system zero sequence current ows between neutral
and ground.
Apparent 3 phase power can be expressed as symmetrical components as,
S
3
= V
abcT
I
abc
=
_
AV
012
_
T
_
AI
012
_
= V
012T
A
T
A
I
012
(7.13)
Since A
T
= A and A
T
A = 3 substituting in (2.13),
S
3
= 3
_
V
012T
I
012
_
= 3V
0
a
I
0
a
+ 3V
1
a
I
1
a
+ 3V
2
a
I
2
a
(7.14)
7.2 Sequence impedance of a star connected load
Consider the three phase Y connected system shown in Figure 2.2, the neutral current I
n
is given
by,
I
n
= I
a
+I
b
+I
c
= I
012
a
+I
012
b
+I
012
c
=
_
I
0
a
+I
0
b
+I
0
c
_
+
_
I
1
a
+I
1
b
+I
1
c
_
+
_
I
2
a
+I
2
b
+I
2
c
_
= 3I
0
a
(7.15)
The voltage across neutral and ground is given by,
Figure 7.2: Star connected load
V
ng
= I
n
Z
ng
= 3I
0
a
Z
ng
(7.16)
The voltage drop with respect to ground is given by,
_
_
V
a
V
b
V
c
_
_
=
_
_
V
an
V
bn
V
cn
_
_
+
_
_
V
ng
V
ng
V
ng
_
_
= Z
s
_
_
I
a
I
b
I
c
_
_
+ 3I
0
a
Z
ng
(7.17)
in (2.17) replacing with symmetrical components we get,
A
_
_
V
0
a
V
1
a
V
2
a
_
_
= Z
s
A
_
_
I
0
a
I
1
a
I
2
a
_
_
+ 3I
0
a
Z
ng
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
(7.18)
Multiplying both sides with A
1
,
_
_
V
0
a
V
1
a
V
2
a
_
_
= Z
s
_
_
I
0
a
I
1
a
I
2
a
_
_
+ 3I
0
a
Z
ng
A
1
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
(7.19)
= Z
s
_
_
I
0
a
I
1
a
I
2
a
_
_
+ 3I
0
a
Z
ng
_
_
1
0
0
_
_
(7.20)
7.3. SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE OF A TRANSMISSION LINE 69
From (2.19) we can write,
V
0
a
= (Z
s
+ 3Z
ng
) I
0
a
= Z
0
a
I
0
a
V
1
a
= Z
s
I
1
a
= Z
1
a
I
1
a
V
2
a
= Z
s
I
2
a
= Z
2
a
I
2
a
(7.21)
where Z
0
a
is the zero sequence impedance, Z
1
a
is the positive sequence impedance and Z
2
a
is the
negative sequence impedance. This can be diagrammatically shown in Figure 2.3
Figure 7.3: Sequence impedance
7.3 Sequence impedance of a transmission line
Consider a section of a transmission line shown in Figure 2.4. If we assume the line as perfectly
symmetrical, the self inductance of all phase are equal and is denoted as Z
s
and the mutual
inductance between phases as Z
m
and the mutual inductance between phase and neutral as Z
an
.
We can write Kirchhoffs voltage loop equation for the section of the line as follows:
_
_
V
an
V
an
V
bn
V
bn
V
cn
V
cn
_
_
=
_
_
Z
s
Z
an
Z
m
Z
an
Z
m
Z
an
Z
m
Z
an
Z
s
Z
an
Z
m
Z
an
Z
m
Z
an
Z
m
Z
an
Z
s
Z
an
_
_
_
_
I
a
I
b
I
c
_
_
+
_
_
Z
an
Z
n
Z
an
Z
n
Z
an
Z
n
_
_
I
n
(7.22)
But I
n
= (I
a
+ I
b
+ I
c
) substituting in (2.22) we get,
_
_
V
an
V
an
V
bn
V
bn
V
cn
V
cn
_
_
=
_
_
Z
s
+Z
n
2Z
an
Z
m
+Z
n
2Z
an
Z
m
+Z
n
2Z
an
Z
m
+Z
n
2Z
an
Z
s
+Z
n
2Z
an
Z
m
+Z
n
2Z
an
Z
m
+Z
n
2Z
an
Z
m
+Z
n
2Z
an
Z
s
+Z
n
2Z
an
_
_
_
_
I
a
I
b
I
c
_
_
_
_
V
aa
V
bb
V
cc
_
_
=
_
_
V
an
V
an
V
bn
V
bn
V
cn
V
cn
_
_
=
_
_
Z
ss
Z
mm
Z
mm
Z
mm
Z
ss
Z
mm
Z
mm
Z
mm
Z
ss
_
_
_
_
I
a
I
b
I
c
_
_
(7.23)
Figure 7.4: Transmission line section
where Z
ss
= Z
s
+ Z
n
2Z
an
and Z
mm
= Z
m
+ Z
n
2Z
an
. Now replacing (2.23) with
symmetrical components,
A
_
_
V
0
aa
V
bb
1
V
cc
2
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
_
Z
ss
Z
mm
0 0
0 Z
ss
Z
mm
0
0 0 Z
ss
Z
mm
_
_
+
_
_
Z
mm
Z
mm
Z
mm
Z
mm
Z
mm
Z
mm
Z
mm
Z
mm
Z
mm
_
_
_
_
_
A
_
_
I
0
a
I
1
b
I
2
c
_
_
(7.24)
Multiplying (2.24) with A
1
,
_
_
V
0
aa
V
bb
1
V
cc
2
_
_
= A
1
_
_
_
(Z
ss
Z
mm
)
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
+Z
m
_
_
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
_
_
_
_
_
A
_
_
I
0
a
I
1
b
I
2
c
_
_
(7.25)
on simplication,
_
_
V
0
aa
V
bb
1
V
cc
2
_
_
=
_
_
Z
ss
+ 2Z
mm
0 0
0 Z
ss
Z
mm
0
0 0 Z
ss
Z
mm
_
_
_
_
I
0
a
I
1
b
I
2
c
_
_
=
_
_
Z
0
I
0
a
Z
1
I
1
b
Z
2
I
2
c
_
_
(7.26)
where Z
0
= Z
ss
+ 2Z
mm
= Z
s
+ 2Z
m
+ 3Z
n
6Z
an
is the zero sequence impedance,
Z
1
= Z
ss
Z
mm
= Z
s
Z
m
is the positive sequence impedance and Z
2
= Z
ss

Z
mm
= Z
s
Z
m
is the negative sequence impedance.
7.4. SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR 71
7.4 Sequence impedance of Synchronous generator
Generators positive sequence reactance is given by X
d
, X
d
or X
d
. But the negative sequence
reactance does not vary during transients and is approximately equal to X
d
. The zero sequence
reactance is approximately equal to the leakage reactance of the machine.
7.5 Sequence network of a loaded Synchronous generator
Consider a synchronous machine with generated voltage E
a
per phase on a balanced load condi-
tions as shown in Figure 2.5. Applying KVL we can get the phase voltage to neutral as,
Figure 7.5: Loaded Synchronous generator
_
_
V
an
V
bn
V
cn
_
_
=
_
_
E
a
Z
ph
I
a
E
b
Z
ph
I
b
E
c
Z
ph
I
c
_
_
I
n
_
_
Z
n
Z
n
Z
n
_
_
(7.27)
The neutral current is given by I
n
= I
a
+I
b
+I
c
, substituting in (2.27) we get,
_
_
V
an
V
bn
V
cn
_
_
=
_
_
E
a
E
b
E
c
_
_
_
_
Z
ph
+Z
n
Z
n
Z
n
Z
n
Z
ph
+Z
n
Z
n
Z
n
Z
n
Z
ph
+Z
n
_
_
_
_
I
a
I
b
I
c
_
_
(7.28)
In short
V
abcn
= E
abc
Z
abc
I
abc
To get the symmetrical components,
AV
012
abcn
= AE
012
abc
Z
abc
AI
012
abc
(7.29)
multiplying (2.29) by A
1
,
V
012
abcn
= E
012
abc
A
1
Z
abc
AI
012
abc
(7.30)
where
A
1
Z
abc
A = A
1
_
_
_
Z
ph
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
+Z
n
_
_
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
_
_
_
_
_
A
=
_
_
Z
ph
+ 3Z
n
0 0
0 Z
ph
0
0 0 Z
ph
_
_
=
_
_
Z
0
0 0
0 Z
1
0
0 0 Z
2
_
_
(7.31)
Since the generated emf is balanced there will be only positive sequence voltage, therefore
E
012
a
=
_
_
0
E
a
0
_
_
(7.32)
_
_
V
0
an
V
1
an
V
2
an
_
_
=
_
_
0 Z
0
I
0
a
E
a
Z
1
I
1
a
0 Z
2
I
2
a
_
_
(7.33)
Chapter 8
Unsymmetrical Faults
8.1 Single line to ground fault
Consider a unloaded 3 phase synchronous generator shown in Figure 3.1. The neutral of the
machine is grounded through a impedance Z
ng
. Consider a phase to ground fault between phase
a and ground through fault path impedance Z
fault
. During fault we can write,
Figure 8.1: Single line to ground fault
V
an
= Z
fault
I
a
and I
b
= I
c
= 0 (8.1)
For these conditions the symmetrical components are given by,
_
_
I
0
a
I
1
a
I
2
a
_
_
=
1
3
_
_
1 1 1
1 a a
2
1 a
2
a
_
_
_
_
I
a
0
0
_
_
(8.2)
I
0
a
= I
1
a
= I
2
a
=
1
3
I
a
(8.3)
73
74 CHAPTER 8. UNSYMMETRICAL FAULTS
Similarly we can express the phase voltage V
an
in terms of symmetrical components and substi-
tuting from (2.30) along with (3.2) we get
V
an
= V
0
a
+V
1
a
+V
2
a
3Z
fault
I
0
a
= E
a
_
Z
0
+Z
1
+Z
2
_
I
0
a
I
0
a
=
E
a
Z
0
+Z
1
+Z
2
+ 3Z
fault
(8.4)
and the fault current is given by
3I
0
a
= I
a
=
3E
a
Z
0
+Z
1
+Z
2
+ 3Z
fault
(8.5)
Equations (3.2) and (3.5) can be diagrammatically represented as in Figure 3.2
Figure 8.2: Single line to ground fault - sequence network
8.2 Line to line fault
Let us consider a line to line fault between phase b and c on a generator operating under no load
conditions as shown in Figure 3.3. During fault we can write
V
bn
V
cn
= Z
fault
I
b
, I
b
+I
c
= 0 and I
a
= 0 (8.6)
We can write the symmetrical components of current including (3.6) as,
_
_
I
0
a
I
1
a
I
2
a
_
_
=
1
3
_
_
1 1 1
1 a a
2
1 a
2
a
_
_
_
_
0
I
b
I
b
_
_
(8.7)
(8.8)
8.2. LINE TO LINE FAULT 75
Figure 8.3: Line to line fault
From (3.7) we get,
I
0
a
= 0
I
1
a
=
1
3
_
a a
2
_
I
b
I
2
a
=
1
3
_
a
2
a
_
I
b
(8.9)
From (3.9) we can write
I
1
a
= I
2
a
(8.10)
Using symmetrical components we have
V
bn
V
cn
=
_
a
2
a
_ _
V
1
an
V
2
an
_
=
_
a
2
a
_ _
E
a
Z
1
I
1
a
+Z
2
I
2
a
_
Using (3.6) and (3.10) we get,
Z
fault
I
b
=
_
a
2
a
_ _
E
a
_
Z
1
+Z
2
_
I
1
a
Z
fault
3I
1
a
(a a
2
)
=
_
a
2
a
_ _
E
a
_
Z
1
+Z
2
_
I
1
a
I
1
a
=
E
a
Z
1
+Z
2
+Z
fault
_
a a
2
_ _
a
2
a
_
= 3 (8.11)
The phase currents are given by,
_
_
I
a
I
b
I
c
_
_
=
_
_
1 1 1
1 a
2
a
1 a a
2
_
_
_
_
0
I
1
a
I
1
a
_
_
(8.12)
(8.13)
Fault current is given by,
I
b
= I
c
=
_
a
2
a
_
I
1
a
Equation (3.11) can be diagrammatically represented as in Figure 3.4
Figure 8.4: Line to line fault - sequence network
8.3 Double line to ground fault
For fault condition shown in Figure 3.5, during fault condition we can write,
V
bn
= V
cn
= Z
fault
(I
b
+I
c
) and I
a
= I
0
a
+I
1
a
+I
2
a
= 0 (8.14)
expressing the voltages in symmetrical components,
V
bn
=
_
V
0
an
+a
2
V
1
an
+aV
2
an
_
(8.15)
V
cn
=
_
V
0
an
+aV
1
an
+a
2
V
2
an
_
(8.16)
Since V
bn
= V
cn
, from (3.15) and (3.16) we get V
1
a
= V
2
a
. Now we have from (3.14),
V
bn
= Z
fault
(I
b
+I
c
)
V
0
an
+a
2
V
1
an
+aV
2
an
= Z
fault
_
I
0
a
+a
2
I
1
a
+aI
2
a
+I
0
a
+aI
1
a
+a
2
I
2
a
_
V
0
an
+
_
a
2
+a
_
V
1
an
= Z
fault
_
2I
0
a
I
1
a
I
2
a
_
= 3Z
fault
I
0
a
V
0
an
V
1
an
= 3Z
fault
I
0
a
(8.17)
Substituting from (2.30),
Z
0
I
0
a
E
a
+Z
1
I
1
a
= 3Z
fault
I
0
a
I
0
a
=
E
a
+Z
1
I
1
a
Z
0
+ 3Z
fault
(8.18)
Figure 8.5: Double line to ground fault
From (2.30) and using V
1
an
= V
2
an
,
E
a
Z
1
I
1
a
= Z
2
I
2
a
I
2
a
=
E
a
Z
1
I
1
a
Z
2
(8.19)
Substituting (3.18) and (3.19) in (3.14) we get,
E
a
+Z
1
I
1
a
Z
0
+ 3Z
fault
+I
1
a

E
a
Z
1
I
1
a
Z
2
= 0
I
1
a
=
E
a
Z
1
+
Z
2
(Z
0
+3Z
fault)
Z
2
+Z
0
+3Z
fault
(8.20)
We can nd I
2
a
and I
0
a
by substituting for I
1
a
in (3.18) and (3.19). Using the symmetrical compo-
nents the value of fault current is found to be,
I
fault
= I
b
+I
c
= 3I
0
a
(8.21)
The sequence impedance for the double line to ground fault can be expressed as in Figure 3.6.
Consider the 3 bus power system shown in Figure 3.7 with two generators. The generator
and transformer congurations are indicated in the diagram. The neutrals of the generator are
grounded through 0.3 pu reactors. The generators are not loaded and running at rated frequency
and voltage with their emfs in phase. The system sequence impedance data in 100 MVA base is
Figure 8.6: Line to line fault - sequence network
Figure 8.7: 3 bus 2 machine network
given in Table 3.1. If the following different types of fault appears in bus 3 with Z
fault
= 0.12
pu, nd the fault current I
fault
.
Case 1: Balanced 3 phase fault
Case 2: Single line to ground fault
Case 3: Line to line fault
Case 4: Double line to ground fault
We shall derive the sequence impedances of the equivalent Thevenins circuit. To get the
positive sequence impedance, we convert the connection between bus 123 to Y connec-
tion as in Figure 3.8. Now solving the resultant series parallel combination we get the pos-
itive sequence impedance Z
1
33
= 0.2546. The negative sequence impedance is given by
Z
2
33
= Z
1
33
= 0.2546. We have to create the zero sequence diagram considering the trans-
Equipment Voltage (kV) X
1
X
2
X
0
G
1
25 0.14 0.14 0.04
G
2
25 0.16 0.16 0.06
T
1
25/220 0.15 0.15 0.15
T
2
25/220 0.15 0.15 0.15
Line 1-2 220 0.14 0.14 0.3
Line 2-3 220 0.22 0.22 0.65
Line 1-3 220 0.2 0.2 0.35
Table 8.1: Power system parameters.
Figure 8.8: Positive sequence circuit reduction
former congurations into account as shown in Figure 3.9 As in the positive sequence case we
shall convert the connection between bus 123 to Y connection and then solve the parallel
series combination of the resulting impedances to get the Thevenins zero sequence equivalent
Z
0
33
= 0.3716.
8.4.1 Case 1: Balanced 3 phase fault
The fault current I
fault
is given by,
I
fault
=
V
30
Z
1
33
+Z
fault
= 2.6695 pu
= I
fault
I
base
= I
fault
BaseMV A 10
3
3 BasekV
= 700.5790
0
Figure 8.9: Negative sequence circuit reduction
8.4.2 Case 2: Single line to ground fault
During single line to ground fault, I
0
a
= I
1
a
= I
2
a
and using 3.4,
I
0
fault
=
V
30
Z
1
33
+Z
2
33
+Z
0
33
+ 3Z
fault
= 0.8059 pu
Using 3.5 the fault current is given by,
I
fault
= 3I
0
fault
= 2.4177 pu
8.4.3 Case 3: Line to line fault
Using 3.9 and 3.11 we can write
I
0
fault
= 0
I
1
fault
=
V
30
Z
1
33
+Z
2
33
+Z
fault
= 1.5893 pu
I
2
fault
= I
1
fault
= 1.5893 pu
(8.22)
The fault phase currents are given by,
_
_
I
faulta
I
faultb
I
faultc
_
_
=
_
_
1 1 1
1 a
2
a
1 a a
2
_
_
_
_
I
0
fault
I
1
fault
I
2
fault
_
_
=
_
_
0
2.7528
2.7528
_
_
pu =
_
_
0
722.4185
722.4185
_
_
A
8.5. Z
BUS
MATRIX USING SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 81
8.4.4 Case 4: Double line to ground fault
Using (3.18) to (3.20) we can nd,
I
1
fault
=
V
30
Z
1
33
+
Z
2
33
(Z
0
33
+3Z
fault)
Z
2
33
+Z
0
33
+3Z
fault
= 0.5821 pu
I
2
fault
=
V
30
Z
1
33
I
1
fault
Z
2
33
= 2.2549 pu
I
0
fault
=
V
30
Z
1
33
I
1
fault
Z
0
33
+ 3Z
fault
= 1.6728 pu
The fault phase currents are given by,
_
_
I
faulta
I
faultb
I
faultc
_
_
=
_
_
1 1 1
1 a
2
a
1 a a
2
_
_
_
_
I
0
fault
I
1
fault
I
2
fault
_
_
=
_
_
0
3.4015 +0.8732
3.4015 +0.8732
_
_
pu =
_
_
0
3.5118165.6
0
3.511814.4
0
_
_
pu
The fault current is given by,
I
fault
= I
faultb
+I
faultc
= 1.7463 pu = 458.293490
0
A
8.5 Z
bus
matrix using symmetrical components
To make the unbalanced fault calculations simpler, we can use the Z
bus
method. Using the
symmetrical component approach the Z
bus
matrix can be decomposed into zero, positive and
negative sequence Z
bus
matrices. If the location of the fault is a k
th
bus, we can get the Thevenins
impedances referred in Figures 3.2, 3.4 and 3.6 for different fault conditions from the sequence
bus matrix as Z
0
kk
, Z
1
kk
and Z
2
kk
. Now we shall see how this approach can be applied to different
fault conditions.
8.5.1 Single line to ground fault
Let us consider a fault between phase c and ground in K
th
bus as shown in Figure 3.10(i). Now
using equations (3.3) to (3.5) we write the symmetrical components of the fault current as,
I
0
fault
= I
1
fault
= I
2
fault
=
V
k0
Z
0
kk
+Z
1
kk
+Z
2
kk
+ 3Z
fault
(8.23)
where V
k0
is the pre-fault K
th
bus voltage and Z
0
kk
, Z
1
kk
and Z
2
kk
are the kk
th
element of the
positive, negative and zero sequence bus impedance matrices.
Figure 8.10: Unsymmetrical faults
8.5.2 Line to line fault
Consider the line to line fault as shown in Figure 3.10(ii). Using equations (3.9) to (3.11) we
have
I
0
fault
= 0
I
1
fault
= I
2
fault
=
V
k0
Z
1
kk
+Z
2
kk
+Z
fault
(8.24)
8.5.3 Double line to ground fault
Consider the double line to ground fault as shown in Figure 3.10(iii) at k
th
bus. Using equations
(3.18) to (3.20) we have
I
1
fault
=
V
k0
Z
1
kk
+
Z
2
kk
(Z
0
kk
+3Z
fault)
Z
2
kk
+Z
0
kk
+3Z
fault
I
2
fault
=
V
k0
Z
1
kk
I
1
fault
Z
2
kk
I
0
fault
=
V
k0
+Z
1
kk
I
1
fault
Z
0
kk
+ 3Z
fault
(8.25)
8.5.4 Line currents and bus voltages during fault
Using (2.33), we can nd the symmetrical components we can nd the i
th
bus voltage as,
_
_
V
0
ifault
V
1
ifault
V
2
ifault
_
_
=
_
_
0 Z
0
ik
I
0
fault
V
i0
Z
1
ik
I
1
fault
0 Z
2
ik
I
2
fault
_
_
(8.26)
Knowing the various bus voltages using (3.26) we can nd the currents in different bus sections.
The current in bus i, j is given by,
I
0
i,jfault
=
V
0
ifault
V
0
jfault
z
0
ij
I
1
i,jfault
=
V
1
ifault
V
1
jfault
z
1
ij
I
2
i,jfault
=
V
2
ifault
V
2
jfault
z
2
ij
(8.27)
where z
0
ij
, z
1
ij
and z
2
ij
are the sequence components of the impedance between buses i and j.
Using the symmetrical component transformation matrix A we can get the phase voltage and
currents.
Now we shall solve the faulty power system shown in Figure 3.7 using Z
bus
method. As the rst
step we shall nd the admittance matrices. The positive sequence admittance matrix is given by,
Y
1
bus
=
_
_
_
1
Z
1
G1
+Z
1
T1
+
1
Z
1
12
+
1
Z
1
13
_

1
Z
1
12
1
Z
13
1
1
Z
1
21
_
1
Z
1
G2
+Z
1
T2
+
1
Z
1
21
+
1
Z
1
23
_

1
Z
1
23
1
Z
1
31
1
Z
1
32
_
1
Z
1
31
+
1
Z
1
32
_
_
_
=
_
_
0 15.5911 0 + 7.1429 0 +5.0000
0 +7.1429 0 14.9141 0 +4.5455
0 +5.0000 0 + 4.5455 0 9.5455
_
_
The zero sequence admittance matrix is given by,
Y
0
bus
=
_
_
_
1
Z
0
G1
+Z
0
T1
+Zng
+
1
Z
12
0
+
1
Z
0
13
_

1
Z
0
12
1
Z
13
0
1
Z
0
21
_
1
Z
0
T2
+
1
Z
0
21
+
1
Z
0
23
_

1
Z
0
23
1
Z
0
31
1
Z
0
32
_
1
Z
0
31
+
1
Z
0
32
_
_
_
=
_
_
0 8.2313 0 + 3.3333 0 +2.8571
0 +3.3333 0 11.5385 0 +1.5385
0 +2.8571 0 +1.5385 0 4.3956
_
_
The positive sequence bus impedance matrix Z
1
bus
is is given by,
Z
1
bus
=
_
Y
1
bus
_
1
=
_
_
0 +0.1707 0 +0.1275 0 +0.1501
0 +0.1275 0 +0.1737 0 + 0.1495
0 +0.1501 0 +0.1495 0 + 0.2546
_
_
The zero sequence bus impedance matrix Z
0
bus
is is given by,
Z
0
bus
=
_
Y
0
bus
_
1
=
_
_
0 +0.2143 0 +0.0844 0 + 0.1688
0 +0.0844 0 +0.1242 0 + 0.0983
0 +0.1688 0 +0.0983 0 + 0.3716
_
_
The negative sequence bus impedance matrix Z
2
bus
is is given by,
Z
2
bus
= Z
1
bus
Now we can analyse different fault conditions.
8.6.1 Case 1: Balanced three phase fault
For balanced three phase fault negative and zero sequence currents are absent, so we can write
the fault sequence current as,
I
012
fault
=
_
_
0
V
30
Z
2
bus
(3,3)+Z
fault
0
_
_
=
_
_
0
0 2.6695
0
_
_
pu
We assume the pre-fault bus voltages as 1 pu. Now the fault current is given by,
I
abc
fault
=
_
_
1 1 1
1 a
2
a
1 a a
2
_
_
_
_
0
0 2.6695
0
_
_
=
_
_
2.6695 90
0
2.6695150
0
2.669530
0
_
_
pu
Negative and zero sequence voltages are absent for balanced three phase fault. Now the fault
voltages are given by,
V
1fault
= V
10
Z
1
bus
(1, 3)I
012
fault
(2) = 0.5992 pu
V
2fault
= V
20
Z
1
bus
(2, 3)I
012
fault
(2) = 0.6009 pu
V
3fault
= V
30
Z
1
bus
(3, 3)I
012
fault
(2) = 0.3203 pu
Fault current in different bus section corresponding to phase a is given by,
I
21fault
=
V
2fault
V
1fault
z
1
12
= 0.0122 90
0
pu
I
13fault
=
V
1fault
V
3fault
z
1
13
= 1.3943 90
0
pu
I
21fault
=
V
2fault
V
1fault
z
1
12
= 1.2753 90
0
pu
8.6.2 Case 2: Single line to ground fault
The symmetrical components of fault current is given by (3.23),
I
1
fault
=
V
30
Z
1
bus
(3, 3) +Z
2
bus
(3, 3) +Z
0
bus
(3, 3) + 3Z
fault
= 0 0.8059 pu
I
0
fault
= I
2
fault
= I
1
fault
I
abc
fault
=
_
_
1 1 1
1 a
2
a
1 a a
2
_
_
_
_
0 0.8059
0 0.8059
0 0.8059
_
_
=
_
_
2.4177 90
0
0
0
_
_
pu
The symmetrical components of bus voltage during fault can be found using (3.26),
V
012
1fault
=
_
_
0 Z
0
bus
(1, 3)I
0
fault
V
10
Z
1
bus
(1, 3)I
1
fault
0 Z
2
bus
(1, 3)I
2
fault
_
_
=
_
_
0.1360
0.8790
0.1210
_
_
pu
V
012
2fault
=
_
_
0 Z
0
bus
(2, 3)I
0
fault
V
20
Z
1
bus
(2, 3)I
1
fault
0 Z
2
bus
(2, 3)I
2
fault
_
_
=
_
_
0.0792
0.8795
0.1205
_
_
pu
V
012
3fault
=
_
_
0 Z
0
bus
(3, 3)I
0
fault
V
30
Z
1
bus
(3, 3)I
1
fault
0 Z
2
bus
(3, 3)I
2
fault
_
_
=
_
_
0.2995
0.7948
0.2052
_
_
pu
The bus voltages during fault is given by,
V
abc
1fault
=
_
_
1 1 1
1 a
2
a
1 a a
2
_
_
_
_
0.1360
0.8790
0.1210
_
_
=
_
_
0.62200
0
1.0076 120.74
0
1.0076120.74
0
_
_
pu
V
abc
2fault
=
_
_
1 1 1
1 a
2
a
1 a a
2
_
_
_
_
0.0792
0.8795
0.1205
_
_
=
_
_
0.67980
0
0.9800 117.9
0
0.9800117.9
0
_
_
pu
V
abc
3fault
=
_
_
1 1 1
1 a
2
a
1 a a
2
_
_
_
_
0.2995
0.7948
0.2052
_
_
=
_
_
0.29010
0
1.0503 124.4
0
1.0503124.4
0
_
_
pu
The symmetrical components of bus currents during fault can be computed using (3.27),
I
012
21fault
=
_
_
V
012
2fault
(1)V
012
1fault
(1)
z
0
12
V
012
2fault
(2)V
012
1fault
(2)
z
1
12
V
012
2fault
(3)V
012
1fault
(3)
z
2
12
_
_
=
_
_
0.1894 90
0
0.0037 90
0
0.0037 90
0
_
_
pu
I
012
13fault
=
_
_
V
012
1fault
(1)V
012
3fault
(1)
z
0
13
V
012
1fault
(2)V
012
3fault
(2)
z
1
13
V
012
1fault
(3)V
012
3fault
(3)
z
2
13
_
_
=
_
_
0.4670 90
0
0.4209 90
0
0.4209 90
0
_
_
pu
I
012
23fault
=
_
_
V
012
2fault
(1)V
012
3fault
(1)
z
0
23
V
012
2fault
(2)V
012
3fault
(2)
z
1
23
V
012
2fault
(3)V
012
3fault
(3)
z
2
23
_
_
=
_
_
0.3389 90
0
0.3850 90
0
0.3850 90
0
_
_
pu
The current in different bus sections during fault is given by,
I
abc
21fault
=
_
_
1 1 1
1 a
2
a
1 a a
2
_
_
_
_
0.1894 90
0
0.0037 90
0
0.0037 90
0
_
_
=
_
_
0.1967 90
0
0.1857 90
0
0.1857 90
0
_
_
pu
I
abc
13fault
=
_
_
1 1 1
1 a
2
a
1 a a
2
_
_
_
_
0.4670 90
0
0.4209 90
0
0.4209 90
0
_
_
=
_
_
1.3089 90
0
0.0461 90
0
0.0461 90
0
_
_
pu
I
abc
23fault
=
_
_
1 1 1
1 a
2
a
1 a a
2
_
_
_
_
0.3389 90
0
0.3850 90
0
0.3850 90
0
_
_
=
_
_
1.1089 90
0
0.0461 90
0
0.0461 90
0
_
_
pu
8.6.3 Case 3: Line to line fault
I
0
fault
= 0;
I
1
fault
=
V
30
Z
1
bus
(3, 3) +Z
2
bus
(3, 3) +Z
fault
= 0 1.5893 pu
I
2
fault
= I
1
fault
= 0 +1.5893 pu
I
abc
fault
=
_
_
1 1 1
1 a
2
a
1 a a
2
_
_
_
_
0
0 1.5893
0 +1.5893
_
_
=
_
_
0
2.7528180
0
2.75280
0
_
_
pu
V
012
1fault
=
_
_
0 Z
0
bus
(1, 3)I
0
fault
V
10
Z
1
bus
(1, 3)I
1
fault
0 Z
2
bus
(1, 3)I
2
fault
_
_
=
_
_
0
0.7614
0.2386
_
_
pu
V
012
2fault
=
_
_
0 Z
0
bus
(2, 3)I
0
fault
V
20
Z
1
bus
(2, 3)I
1
fault
0 Z
2
bus
(2, 3)I
2
fault
_
_
=
_
_
0
0.7624
0.2376
_
_
pu
V
012
3fault
=
_
_
0 Z
0
bus
(3, 3)I
0
fault
V
30
Z
1
bus
(3, 3)I
1
fault
0 Z
2
bus
(3, 3)I
2
fault
_
_
=
_
_
0
0.5954
0.4046
_
_
pu
V
abc
1fault
=
_
_
1 1 1
1 a
2
a
1 a a
2
_
_
_
_
0
0.7614
0.2386
_
_
=
_
_
10
0
0.6745 137.8
0
0.6745137.8
0
_
_
pu
V
abc
2fault
=
_
_
1 1 1
1 a
2
a
1 a a
2
_
_
_
_
0
0.7624
0.2376
_
_
=
_
_
10
0
0.6757 137.7
0
0.6757137.7
0
_
_
pu
V
abc
3fault
=
_
_
1 1 1
1 a
2
a
1 a a
2
_
_
_
_
0
0.5954
0.4046
_
_
=
_
_
10
0
0.5266 161.7
0
0.5266161.7
0
_
_
pu
I
012
21fault
=
_
_
V
012
2fault
(1)V
012
1fault
(1)
z
0
12
V
012
2fault
(2)V
012
1fault
(2)
z
1
12
V
012
2fault
(3)V
012
1fault
(3)
z
2
12
_
_
=
_
_
0
0.0072 90
0
0.007290
0
_
_
pu
I
012
13fault
=
_
_
V
012
1fault
(1)V
012
3fault
(1)
z
0
13
V
012
1fault
(2)V
012
3fault
(2)
z
1
13
V
012
1fault
(3)V
012
3fault
(3)
z
2
13
_
_
=
_
_
0
0.8301 90
0
0.830190
0
_
_
pu
I
012
23fault
=
_
_
V
012
2fault
(1)V
012
3fault
(1)
z
0
23
V
012
2fault
(2)V
012
3fault
(2)
z
1
23
V
012
2fault
(3)V
012
3fault
(3)
z
2
23
_
_
=
_
_
0
0.7592 90
0
0.7592 90
0
_
_
pu
I
abc
21fault
=
_
_
1 1 1
1 a
2
a
1 a a
2
_
_
_
_
0
0.0072 90
0
0.007290
0
_
_
=
_
_
0
0.0126180
0
0.01260
0
_
_
pu
I
abc
13fault
=
_
_
1 1 1
1 a
2
a
1 a a
2
_
_
_
_
0
0.8301 90
0
0.830190
0
_
_
=
_
_
0
1.4378180
0
1.43780
0
_
_
pu
I
abc
23fault
=
_
_
1 1 1
1 a
2
a
1 a a
2
_
_
_
_
0
0.7592 90
0
0.7592 90
0
_
_
=
_
_
0
1.3150180
0
1.31500
0
_
_
pu
8.6.4 Case 4: Double line to ground fault
I
1
fault
=
V
30
Z
1
bus
(3, 3) +
Z
2
bus
(3,3)(Z
0
bus
(3,3)+3Z
fault)
Z
2
bus
(3,3)+Z
0
bus
(3,3)+3Z
fault
= 0 2.2549
I
1
fault
=
V
30
Z
1
bus
(3, 3)I
1
fault
Z
2
bus
(3, 3)
= 0 +1.6728
I
0
fault
=
V
30
Z
1
bus
(3, 3)I
1
fault
Z
0
bus
(3, 3) + 3Z
fault
= 0 +0.5821
I
abc
fault
=
_
_
1 1 1
1 a
2
a
1 a a
2
_
_
_
_
0 2.2549
0 +1.6728
0 +0.5821
_
_
=
_
_
0
3.5118165.6
0
3.511814.4
0
_
_
pu
V
012
1fault
=
_
_
0 Z
0
bus
(1, 3)I
0
fault
V
10
Z
1
bus
(1, 3)I
1
fault
0 Z
2
bus
(1, 3)I
2
fault
_
_
=
_
_
0.0983
0.6614
0.2512
_
_
pu
V
012
2fault
=
_
_
0 Z
0
bus
(2, 3)I
0
fault
V
20
Z
1
bus
(2, 3)I
1
fault
0 Z
2
bus
(2, 3)I
2
fault
_
_
=
_
_
0.0572
0.6629
0.2501
_
_
pu
V
012
3fault
=
_
_
0 Z
0
bus
(3, 3)I
0
fault
V
30
Z
1
bus
(3, 3)I
1
fault
0 Z
2
bus
(3, 3)I
2
fault
_
_
=
_
_
0.2163
0.4259
0.4259
_
_
pu
V
abc
1fault
=
_
_
1 1 1
1 a
2
a
1 a a
2
_
_
_
_
0.0983
0.6614
0.2512
_
_
=
_
_
1.01090
0
0.5044 135.2
0
0.5044 135.2
0
_
_
pu
V
abc
2fault
=
_
_
1 1 1
1 a
2
a
1 a a
2
_
_
_
_
0.0572
0.6629
0.2501
_
_
=
_
_
0.97020
0
0.5359 138.2
0
0.5359138.2
0
_
_
pu
V
abc
3fault
=
_
_
1 1 1
1 a
2
a
1 a a
2
_
_
_
_
0.2163
0.4259
0.4259
_
_
=
_
_
1.06810
0
0.2096180
0
0.2096180
0
_
_
pu
I
012
21fault
=
_
_
V
012
2fault
(1)V
012
1fault
(1)
z
0
12
V
012
2fault
(2)V
012
1fault
(2)
z
1
12
V
012
2fault
(3)V
012
1fault
(3)
z
2
12
_
_
=
_
_
0.136890
0
0.0103 90
0
0.007690
0
_
_
pu
I
012
13fault
=
_
_
V
012
1fault
(1)V
012
3fault
(1)
z
0
13
V
012
1fault
(2)V
012
3fault
(2)
z
1
13
V
012
1fault
(3)V
012
3fault
(3)
z
2
13
_
_
=
_
_
0.337390
0
1.1777 90
0
0.873790
0
_
_
pu
I
012
23fault
=
_
_
V
012
2fault
(1)V
012
3fault
(1)
z
0
23
V
012
2fault
(2)V
012
3fault
(2)
z
1
23
V
012
2fault
(3)V
012
3fault
(3)
z
2
23
_
_
=
_
_
0.244890
0
1.0772 90
0
0.799190
0
_
_
pu
I
abc
21fault
=
_
_
1 1 1
1 a
2
a
1 a a
2
_
_
_
_
0.136890
0
0.0103 90
0
0.007690
0
_
_
=
_
_
0.134190
0
0.139096.4
0
0.139083.6
0
_
_
pu
I
abc
13fault
=
_
_
1 1 1
1 a
2
a
1 a a
2
_
_
_
_
0.337390
0
1.1777 90
0
0.873790
0
_
_
=
_
_
0.033390
0
1.8427164.6
0
1.842715.4
0
_
_
pu
I
abc
23fault
=
_
_
1 1 1
1 a
2
a
1 a a
2
_
_
_
_
0.244890
0
1.0772 90
0
0.799190
0
_
_
=
_
_
0.0333 90
0
1.6697166.7
0
1.669713.3
0
_
_
pu
Chapter 9
Power system transients
Transients in voltage and current occurs in power system during faults or switchings due to the
presence of inductance or capacitance in the network. The transients occurs due to the fact
that the current in an inductor and voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously.
Also in a network the energy produced should be equal to the energy consumed and energy
stored. During transients voltages due to natural frequency of oscillations are superimposed
on the fundamental frequency oscillations. To understand the transient phenomenon we shall
consider a simple RLC circuit as shown in Figure 1.1. The instantaneous current is given by,
Figure 9.1: RLC transients.
91
92 CHAPTER 9. POWER SYSTEM TRANSIENTS
i(t) =
v(t)
Z
on taking Laplace,
I(s) =
V
s
1
R +Ls +
1
Cs
=
V
s
Cs
RCs +LCs
2
+ 1
=
V
s
1
L
s
2
+
R
L
s +
1
LC
=
V
L
1
(s +a b) (s +a +b)
=
V
2bL
_
1
(s +a b)

1
(s +a +b)
_
(9.1)
where,
a =
R
2L
and b =
_
R
2
4L
2

1
LC
Taking inverse Laplace of (1.1) we get,
i(t) =
V
2bL
_
e
(ab)t
e
(a+b)t
(9.2)
Three cases of solutions for i(t) will arise depending on the value of b
Case -1
If
R
2
4L
2
>
1
LC
, then b is real, then the expression for current will be,
i(t) =
V
2
_
R
2
4L
2

1
LC
L
_
e
R
2L
+
q
R
2
4L
2

1
LC
t
e
R
2L
q
R
2
4L
2

1
LC
t
_
(9.3)
The resulting current wave form is shown in Figure 1.2.
Case -2
If
R
2
4L
2
=
1
LC
, then b is zero, then the expression for current will be,
i(t) =
V
L
te
R
2L
t
(9.4)
The resulting current wave form is shown in Figure 1.3.
9.1. TRANSIENTS WITH AC SOURCE 93
Figure 9.2: Waveform for case 1.
Case -3
If
R
2
4L
2
<
1
LC
, then b is imaginary, then the expression for current will be,
i(t) =
V
2L
_
R
2
4L
2

1
LC
e
at
2 sin
_
2
_
R
2
4L
2
+
1
LC
_
t (9.5)
The resulting current wave form is shown in Figure 1.4. When b is positive or zero, the variation
is non oscillatory but produces an oscillatory response when b is imaginary as shown in Figure
1.4. Because of the presence of capacitance in the circuit energised by DC source, current will
die down to zero.
9.1 Transients with AC source
Consider a RL circuit energised with AC source as shown in Figure 1.5. When the switch is
Figure 9.5: RL circuit energised with AC source
closed the current in the circuit is given by,
I(s) =
V (s)
Z(s)
= V
m
_
cos
s
2
+
2
+
sin
s
2
+
2
_
1
R +Ls
=
V
m
L
_
cos
s
2
+
2
+
sin
s
2
+
2
_
1
s +
R
L
=
V
m
L
_
cos
(s +a) (s
2
+
2
)
+
sin
(s +a) (s
2
+
2
)
_
(9.6)
where a =
R
L
. On further simplication and taking inverse Laplace we get,
i(t) =
V
m
(a
2
+
2
) L
_
cos
_
e
at
+
a
sin t cos t
_
+ sin
_
a cos t + sin t ae
at
_
_
(9.7)
9.2. RE-STRIKING VOLTAGE 95
(1.7) can be further simplied as,
i(t) =
V
m
L
a
2
+
2
_
sin (t + ) sin ( ) e
at
=
V
m
R
2
+
2
L
2
_
sin (t + ) sin ( ) e
at
where = tan
1
L
R
, (9.8)
The wave form represented by (1.8) is shown in Figure 1.6. The rst term of (1.8) represents
Figure 9.6: RL RL transient waveform
the state state sinusoidal component and the exponentially decaying component is represented
by the second term. The time constant of decay is given by,
1
a
=
L
R
. Substituting t = 0 in
(1.8), gives that at t = 0, transient and steady state components are equal. Since the transient
component is negative the net current at t = 0 is zero in this case. The transient component will
be zero is switching is done at the instant when = tan
1 L
R
. The transients will be maximum
if =
pi
2
and the resultant net current will be twice the peak steady state current.
9.2 Re-striking voltage
Re-striking voltage is the voltage across the circuit breaker terminals due to transients immedi-
ately after the circuit is opened. The system can be represented as shown in Figure 1.7. The
generator is represented by a constant voltage source behind the internal inductance L. The ca-
pacitance to ground of the busbars, bushings etc., are lumped as C. For the analysis following
assumptions are made:
Figure 9.7: Circuit to nd re-striking voltage
1. The fault is solid without arcing.
2. The magnitude of the positive sequence impedance is assumed to be constant for the period
in which the over voltage is to be determined.
3. The effects of saturation and corona are neglected which will tend to reduce the over volt-
ages.
4. The charging current of the transmission line before the fault and the load currents are
neglected.
5. The current interruption takes place at current zero when the voltage passes through max-
imum value.
6. The system is assumed to be lossless.
Current cancelation method is used for the analysis, which means that the voltage across the
circuit breaker contacts after it opens is given by the product of the current during fault and the
impedance of the network between the circuit breaker contacts shorting the voltage sources. The
fault current is given by,
I(s) =
V (s)
Z(s)
=
V
m
s
1
Ls
(9.9)
9.3. DOUBLE FREQUENCY TRANSIENT 97
V
m
is used since the fault interruption occurs at current zero. Now the impedance across circuit
breaker terminals is given by,
Z
0
(s) =
Ls.1/Cs
Ls + 1/Cs
=
Ls
LCs
2
+ 1
=
s/C
s
2
+ 1/LC
v(s) = I(s)Z
0
(s) =
V
m
s
1
Ls
s/C
s
2
+ 1/LC
=
V
m
s
1
LC
1
s
2
+ 1/LC
= V
m
_
1
s

s
s
2
+ 1/LC
_
v(t) = V
m
(1 cos
0
t) (9.10)
where
0
=
1
LC
or f
0
=
1
2
LC
and f
0
is the natural frequency of oscillation.
The variation of re-striking voltage is shown in Figure 1.8. v(t) is the re-striking voltage and
Figure 9.8: Variation of re-striking voltage
has its rst peak when
0
t = or
1
LC
= or t =
LC (9.11)
and the peak value is 2V
m
.
9.3 Double frequency transient
Double frequency transients can be explained using the circuit in Figure 1.9. L
1
and C
1
are
the inductance and capacitance on the generator side and L
2
and C
2
are the inductance and
capacitance on the load side. When the circuit breaker operates, the load is completely isolated
Figure 9.9: Double frequency transient
from the generator and the two halves of the circuit behave independently. Before the switch
operates, the voltage across the capacitors is given by,
V
c
= V
L
2
L
1
+L
2
(9.12)
Generally L
2
> L
1
and therefore the capacitor voltage will be slightly less than the source
voltage at any time. When the current passes through zero value, the voltage is at its maximum.
When the circuit breaker interrupts the current at its zero, the capacitor C
2
will oscillate with L
2
at a natural frequency of
f
2
=
1
2
L
2
C
2
(9.13)
and C
1
will oscillate with L
1
at a natural frequency of
f
1
=
1
2
L
1
C
1
(9.14)
Therefore opening of the switch will result in double frequency transients in this circuit.
9.4 Traveling waves on transmission lines
When analysing the long transmission lines we need to consider distributed line parameters
model of the transmission line. Consider a long lossless transmission line with a inductance
L and capacitance C per unit length as shown in Figure 1.10. When the switch S is closed the
voltage does not appear instantaneously at the receiving end. At the instant of closure, L
1
acts
as open circuit and C
1
as closed circuit. At this instant the next section cannot be charged as
the voltage across C
1
is zero. So C
2
cannot be charged until C
1
is charged to some value and
this will take some nite time. Similarly the successive sections build voltage gradually. This
gradual build up of voltage over the transmission line conductors can be regarded as though a
voltage wave is traveling from one end to other and the gradual charging of the capacitor is due
to the associated current wave.
9.4. TRAVELING WAVES ON TRANSMISSION LINES 99
Figure 9.10: Distributed parameter model.
Suppose the wave after time t has traveled through a distance x. Consider a distance dx
which is traveled by the waves in time dt. The electrostatic ux is associated with the voltage
wave and electromagnetic ux with the current wave. The electrostatic ux which is equal to the
charge between the conductors of the line upto a distance x is given by,
q = V Cx (9.15)
and the current is given by,
I =
dq
dt
= V C
dx
dt
= V Cv (9.16)
where v is the velocity of the traveling wave. Similarly the electromagnetic ux linkage is given
by,
= ILx (9.17)
The voltage is given by the rate of ux linkage,
V = IL
dx
dt
= ILv (9.18)
From (1.16) and (1.18) we get,
V
I
=
I
V
L
C
V
2
I
2
=
L
C
V
I
=
_
L
C
= Z
c
(9.19)
where Z
c
is known as the surge impedance of the transmission line. Again from (1.16) and (1.18)
we get,
V I = V ILCv
2
v =
1
LC
(9.20)
The expressions for line inductance and capacitance are given by,
L = 2 10
7
ln
d
r
C =
2
ln
d
r
(9.21)
Substituting (1.21) in (1.20) with free space constant values will give v as 3 10
8
m/s which
the velocity of light. Because of resistance and leakages the typical value for the velocity of
transmission wave is 250 m/s.
9.5 Traveling waves - open end line
Consider an open ended line of length l and characteristic impedance Z as shown in Figure 1.11.
When the line is switched the traveling waves voltage V and current I are related by
V
I
= Z. We
Figure 9.11: Traveling waves - open end line.
shall consider an elementary length dx at the open end of the transmission line. When the wave
reaches the open end, the current becomes zero, therefore the electromagnetic energy stored in
the length dx,
1
2
LI
2
dx, vanishes and is transformed into electrostatic energy
1
2
Cv
2
dx, where v is
the change in voltage due to this transformation. Now we have
1
2
LI
2
dx =
1
2
Cv
2
dx
_
v
I
_
2
=
L
C
or v = IZ = V (9.22)
Because of this change the net voltage at the open end is V + V = 2V . The wave which
starts to travel towards the open end when the switch is closed can be regarded as incident wave
9.6. TRAVELING WAVES - SHORT CIRCUITED LINE 101
and after the wave reaches the open end, the rise in voltage V could be considered due to a wave
which is reected at the open end with coefcient of reection unity and the actual voltage at the
open end could be considered as the refracted or transmitted wave which is the sum of incident
and reected waves.
Now let us consider the current wave, upon reaching the open end the current becomes zero,
which can be regarded as a reected wave of magnitude I traveling back towards the sending
end. The variation of current voltage waves over the length of the line is explained in Figure
1.12. After the voltage and current waves are reected back from the open end, they reach the
Figure 9.12: Voltage and current waves - open end line.
source end, the voltage over the line becomes 2V and the current is zero. The voltage at the
source end cannot by more than V , therefore a voltage wave of V and the current wave of I
is reected back into the line. It can be seen from Figure 1.12, after the waves have traveled over
a distance of 4l both voltage and current waves become zero leaving the line in its state before
the application of voltage and the cycle repeats.
9.6 Traveling waves - short circuited line
Consider a short circuited line of length l as shown in Figure 1.13. When the switch S is closed,
a voltage wave of magnitude V and current wave of magnitude I start traveling towards the
Figure 9.13: Traveling waves - short circuited line.
shorted end. Since the voltage at the shorted end is zero, the electrostatic energy vanishes and
transformed into electromagnetic energy, so we have,
1
2
CV
2
dx =
1
2
Li
2
dx
V = iZ or i =
V
Z
= I (9.23)
This means the increase in current is I A. Because of this the reected current from the shorted
end will be 2I. Since the voltage at the shorted end is zero, a voltage wave of magnitude V
could be considered to be reected back with coefcient of reection unity as shown in Figure
1.14. It is seen from the Figure 1.14, that the voltage wave periodically reduces to zero after it
has traveled through a distance of twice the length of the line whereas after each reection at
either end the current is build up by an amount I. Theoretically, the reection will be innite and
therefore the current will reach innite value. But practically in an actual system the current will
be limited by the resistance of the line and the nal value of the current will be I =
V
R
, where
R is the resistance of the line.
9.7 Line terminated through a resistance
Consider a line with surge impedance Z terminated through a resistance R as shown in Figure
1.15. There will be either current or voltage wave will be reected with negative sign depending
on line termination. We can represent the reected waves as,
I
=
V
Z
where I
and V
are reected current and voltage waves (9.24)

The refracted wave is the sum of incident and reected waves which is given by
I
=
V
R
where I
and V
are refracted current and voltage waves (9.25)

9.7. LINE TERMINATED THROUGH A RESISTANCE 103
Figure 9.14: Voltage and current waves - shorted line.
V
R
=
V
Z

V
Z
=
V
Z

V
V
Z
=
2V
Z

V
Z
V
_
1
R
+
1
Z
_
=
2V
Z
V
=
2V R
Z +R
(9.26)
and
I
=
2V
Z +R
=
V
Z
2Z
R +Z
= I
2Z
R +Z
(9.27)
Figure 9.15: Line terminated through a resistance.
Similarly by substituting for V
in (1.26) we get,
V +V
R
=
V
Z

V
Z
V
= V
R Z
Z +R
(9.28)
and
I
=
V
Z
=
V
Z
R Z
Z +R
(9.29)
From the above equations the coefcient of refraction for current wave is
2Z
R+Z
and for voltage
wave is
2R
R+Z
. Similarly the coefcient of reection for current wave is
RZ
R+Z
and for voltage
wave is
RZ
R+Z
. The coefcients for open circuited and short circuited lines can be found by sub-
stituting R = and R = 0 in the coefcient expressions. When R = Z the reection
coefcients become zero and the refraction coefcients become one which will make the magni-
tude of the reected wave to be zero.
Chapter 10
Transient Stability
Transient stability refers to the ability of a synchronous generator connected to the grid to main-
tain synchronism when subjected to severe disturbances due to heavy load changes, loss of gen-
eration in other units or faults in the system. When there is a sudden disturbance, the machine
rotor starts to oscillate about its equilibrium position. These oscillations are modeled using swing
equation.
10.1 Swing equation
When there is an unbalance between mechanical torque (T
m
) and electrical torque (T
e
), it will
cause the rotor to accelerate or decelerate. The difference in the torque (T
a
) is given by,
T
a
= T
m
T
e
J
d
m
dt
= T
m
T
e
(10.1)
where J is the moment of inertia of the rotor in kg.m
2
and
m
is the angular velocity of the rotor
in rad/s. Equation (1.1) can be normalised as follows:
Dening inertia constant H as
H =
1
2
J
0m
2
V A
base
J =
2HV A
base
0m
2
=
2H
0m
T
base
(10.2)
where T
base
=
V A
base
0m
. Combining (1.1) and (1.2) we get,
2H
d
dt
_

m
0m
_
=
T
m
T
e
T
base
2H
d
r
dt
=

T
m

T
e
(10.3)
105
106 CHAPTER 10. TRANSIENT STABILITY
where the variables superscripted with indicates per unit quantities and
m
0m
=
r
0
=
r
and
r
is the velocity of the rotor in electrical rad/s and
0
is its rated value.
If is the angular position of the rotor with respect to the rotating reference frame,
=
r
t
0
t +
0
(10.4)
where
0
= at t = 0. Differentiating (1.4) twice with respect to time,
d
dt
=
r
0
=
r
(10.5)
d
2
dt
2
=
d (
r
)
dt
=
d
dt
(
0

r
0
) (10.6)
d
2
dt
2
=
0
d
r
dt
(10.7)
2H
0
d
2
dt
2
=

T
m

T
e
(10.8)
To include the rotor damping effects, we include rotor damping constant K
D
and proportional to
change in speed and we have,
2H
0
d
2
dt
2
=

T
m

T
e
K
D

r
(10.9)
Equation (1.9) is known as swing equation. In pu representation, torque and power are equal, so
we can represent (1.9) as,
2H
0
d
2
dt
2
=

P
m

P
e
K
D

r
(10.10)
10.2 Single machine on innite bus (SMIB) model
Innite bus is the one with constant frequency and voltage. Consider a generator G connected to
innite bus through a transformer and a transmission line as shown in Figure 1.1(a). The reac-
tance of the line X
line
, transformer X
trans
and the transient reactance X
d
are indicated in Figure
1.1(b). E
is the generator voltage behind X
d
and E
bus
is the innite bus voltage. Generator
voltage E
leads the E
bus
by an angle . The given network can be reduced as shown in Figure
1.1(c) where X
T
= X
d
+ X
trans
+ X
line
.
Let E
be the reference vector, the current I

t
is given by,
I
t
=
E
0 E
bus
X
T
=
E
0 E
bus
(cos sin )
X
T
(10.11)
10.2. SINGLE MACHINE ON INFINITE BUS (SMIB) MODEL 107
Figure 10.1: Single machine on innite bus system
Apparent power behind X
d
is given by,
S
= P + Q = E
I
t
=
E
E
bus
sin
X
T
+
E
(E
E
bus
cos )
X
T
(10.12)
If we neglect the stator resistance loss, the airgap power will be the terminal power P
e
.
P
e
=
E
E
bus
X
T
sin
= P
max
sin (10.13)
where P
max
=
E
E
bus
X
T
. Equation (1.13) is diagrammatically represented in Figure 1.2. Under
steady state P
m
= P
e
, and let the corresponding rotor angle be . From (1.13), P
max
is inversely
proportional to X
T
. With X
T
increased to X
T1
, P
max
reduces to P
max1
as shown in Figure 1.2
and also the steady state angle increases to
1
.
Combining (1.8) and (1.13) we get,
2H
0
d
2
dt
2
= P
m
P
max
sin (10.14)
Angle
P
o
w
e
r
Figure 10.2: Power angle curve
10.2.1 Rotor angle response to sudden change in P
m
When the mechanical power P
m
is increased to P
m1
as shown in Figure 1.5, since P
m1
> P
e
,
rotor accelerates increasing rotor angle towards
1
. At y, P
m1
= P
e
, but the rotor speed is higher
than the synchronous speed
0
and so the rotor angle continues to increase. This will increase
P
e
, now since P
m1
< P
e
, rotor will start decelerate. At z with
2
, rotor speed reaches syn.speed
but still P
m1
< P
e
rotor continues to decelerate with speed falling below
0
. The rotor retraces
the path, after reaching x the rotor continues to oscillate about the new equilibrium point
1
Figure 10.3: 3 M/C system
10.3. STABILITY BASED ON EQUAL AREA CRITERION 109
Figure 10.4: 2 M/C system
10.2.2 Equivalent single machine system
We can represent a system consisting of many generators operating in parallel by an equivalent
single machine system.
Find the equivalent single machine system of the following multimachine systems.
1. Each machine 30 kVA, H = 6 s, xd = 0.25 pu. (Refer Figure 1.3).
2. G
1
= 30 kVA, H
1
= 6 s, xd
1
= 0.25 pu and G
2
= 60 kVA, H
2
= 4 s, xd
2
= 0.3 pu (Refer
Figure 1.4).
10.3 Stability based on equal area criterion
Using SMIB model, the stability of rotor angle oscillations can be determined graphically with-
out solving the swing equations. Even though this method cannot be applied to multimachine
systems, it can provide basic understanding and information about critical clearing angle and
stability limits.
From equation (1.14) we have
d
2
dt
2
=

0
2H
(P
m
P
e
) (10.15)
Multiplying by 2
d
dt
,
2
d
dt
d
2
dt
2
=

0
2H
(P
m
P
e
) 2
d
dt
d
dt
_
d
dt
_
2
=

0
H
(P
m
P
e
)
d
dt
(10.16)
Angle
P
o
w
e
r
Figure 10.5: Rotor angle oscillations
Integrating (1.16) we get,
_
d
dt
_
2
=
_

0
H
(P
m
P
e
) d (10.17)
Under steady state conditions
d
dt
= 0, during disturbance will be changed, but after the
removal of disturbance the system should regain steady state conditions without deviating
unboundedly. For stability equation (1.17) should be equal to zero i.e,
_

2
0
H
(P
m
P
e
) d = 0 (10.18)
where
0
is the steady state rotor angle,
2
is the maximum rotor angle (see Figure 1.5). For the
equation (1.18) to be zero, the area described by the function P
m
P
e
must be zero. From
Figure 1.5, the kinetic energy gained is given by area A
1
and is given by,
A
1
=
_

1
0
(P
m
P
e
) d (10.19)
The energy lost during deceleration is given by the area A
2
and is given by,
A
2
=
_

2
1
(P
m
P
e
) d (10.20)
for stability,
Area A
1
= Area A
2
(10.21)
i.e, kinetic energy gained = energy lost during deceleration
10.3. STABILITY BASED ON EQUAL AREA CRITERION 111
Equation (1.21) represents the principle of stability through equal area criterion.
Angle
P
o
w
e
r
Figure 10.6: Power angle curve for sudden change in P
m
10.3.1 Stability during sudden input power change
For sudden change in input power stability can be found by using the stability criteria given by
(1.21). Stability can be maintained only if we can nd area A
2
in the power angle curve such
that (1.21) is satised. The maximum rotor angle
max
is given by the rotor angle corresponding
to P
m
for which

2
< > as shown in Figure 1.6.
Figure 10.7: Fault at the sending end
P
m
(
1
0
)
_

1
0
P
max
sin d =
_
max
1
P
max
sin d P
m
(
max
1
) (10.22)
On simplication,
P
m
(
max
0
) = P
max
_
(cos )
0
+ (cos )
max
1
_
= P
max
(cos
0
cos
max
) (10.23)
At stability limit P
m
= P
max
sin
max
, substituting in (1.23),
sin
max
(
max
0
) + cos
max
= cos
0
(10.24)
Equation (1.24) is a nonlinear equation which can be solved by iterative technique to get
max
.
With
max
known we can nd
1
and P
m
as follows:
1
=
max
and P
m
= P
max
sin
1
(10.25)
10.3.2 Stability during 3 phase fault
Fault at sending end. When fault occurs near the sending end as in Figure 1.7, no power is send
to the innite bus. If we neglect the resistance of transformer and generator P
e
is zero during
fault. Since P
e
is zero, P
m
is used to accelerate rotor and this increases rotor angle to
1
. At
1
,
the fault is cleared and P
e
takes the value corresponding to y as shown in Figure 1.8(a). At y
since P
e
< P
m
, rotor decelerates to z and then returns back to x and starts to oscillate about
0
.
Critical clearing angle
c
is reached when area A
2
becomes less than A
1
[see Figure 1.8(b)] and
at z the rotor angle becomes
max
.
Using (1.21)
P
m
(
c
0
) =
_
max
c
(P
max
sin P
m
) d
= P
max
(cos
c
cos
max
) P
m
(
max
c
)
P
m
(
max
0
) = P
max
cos
c
P
max
cos
max
(10.26)
solving for
c
,
c
= cos
1
_
cos
max
+
P
m
P
max
(
max
0
)
_
(10.27)
To nd the critical time t
c
, substitute P
e
= 0 in (1.15),
d
2
dt
2
=

0
2H
P
m
(10.28)
10.4. NUMERICAL EXAMPLE 113
2
1
0 1 2
m
2
1
0 c max
m
P
o
w
e
r
P
o
w
e
r
Angle
Angle
Figure 10.8: Power angle curve for fault at sending end
Integrating both sides from time 0 to t we get,
d
dt
=

0
2H
P
m
t
=

0
4H
P
m
t
2
+
0
(10.29)
at =
c
, t = t
c
, substituting in (1.29),
t
c
=
4H (
c
0
)
0
P
m
(10.30)
10.4 Numerical Example
Let us consider a 50 Hz single machine on innite bus system. The machine is connected to
innite bus through a transformer and a transmission line. The system data is included in the
Figure 1.9. A temporary 3 phase fault occurs at sending end and the system is restored back
to normal after fault clearance. Find the critical clearing angle and critical clearing time above
which the system will become unstable.
Figure 10.9: Power system for numerical example.
Generator Current I
G
=
0.9 0.08
10
= 0.9 0.08 pu
Total reactance X
T1
= 0.25 + 0.25 +
0.35
2
= 0.6750 pu
Generator voltage behind x
d
, E
q
= V
bus
I
G
X
T1
= 10 +0.6750 (0.9 0.08)
= 1.216529.9581 pu
Initial power angle
0
= sin
1
_
P
e
X
T1
E
q
V
bus
_
= 29.9581
0
Maximum power angle
max
= 180
0
= 150.0419
Critical clearing angle
c
= cos
1
_
cos
max
+
P
m
P
max
(
max
0
)
_
= 79.6180
0
Critical clearing time t
c
=
4H (
max
0
)
0
P
m
= 0.2712 s
10.4. NUMERICAL EXAMPLE 115
Figure 10.10: Power angle curve for the numerical example.

PCT Lecture Notdfes PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PCT Lecture Notdfes PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL, MECHANICAL AND

3 times the phase voltage and leads

3 times the phase voltage and lags

/3. The per

34 CHAPTER 3. TRANSMISSION LINE IMPEDANCE

. To balance reactance and thereby voltage drop conductors are transposed

40 CHAPTER 3. TRANSMISSION LINE IMPEDANCE

are reected current and voltage waves (9.24)

are refracted current and voltage waves (9.25)

is the generator voltage behind X

be the reference vector, the current I

You might also like