Library - Electrical System Formulae

Contents
- Notation
- Impedance
- Admittance
- Reactance
- Resonance
- Reactive Loads and Power Factor
- Complex Power
- Three Phase Power
- Per-unit System
- Symmetrical Components
- Fault Calculations
- Three Phase Fault Level
- Thermal Short-time Rating
- Instrument Transformers
- Power Factor Correction
- Reactors
- Harmonic Resonance
Notation
The symbol font is used for some notation and formulae. If the Greek symbols for
alpha beta delta do not
appear here [ o | o ] the symbol font needs to be installed for correct display of
notation and formulae.
B
C
E
f
G
h
I
j
L
P
Q
susceptance
capacitance
voltage source
frequency
conductance
h-operator
current
j-operator
inductance
active power
reactive power
[siemens, S]
[farads, F]
[volts, V]
[hertz, Hz]
[siemens, S]
[1Z120]
[amps, A]
[1Z90]
[henrys, H]
[watts, W]
[VAreactive,
VArs]

Q
R
S
t
V
W
X
Y
Z
|
e
quality factor
resistance
apparent power
time
voltage drop
energy
reactance
admittance
impedance
phase angle
angular
frequency
[number]
[ohms, O]
[volt-amps,
VA]
[seconds, s]
[volts, V]
[joules, J]
[ohms, O]
[siemens, S]
[ohms, O]
[degrees, ]
[rad/sec]
Impedance
The impedance Z of a resistance R in series with a reactance X is:
Z = R + jX
Rectangular and polar forms of impedance Z:
Z = R + jX = (R
2
+ X
2
)

Ztan
-1
(X / R) = |Z|Z| = |Z|cos| + j|Z|sin|
Addition of impedances Z
1
and Z
2
:
Z
1
+ Z
2
= (R
1
+ jX
1
) + (R
2
+ jX
2
) = (R
1
+ R
2
) + j(X
1
+ X
2
)
Subtraction of impedances Z
1
and Z
2
:
Z
1
- Z
2
= (R
1
+ jX
1
) - (R
2
+ jX
2
) = (R
1
- R
2
) + j(X
1
- X
2
)
Multiplication of impedances Z
1
and Z
2
:
Z
1
* Z
2
= |Z
1
|Z|
1
* |Z
2
|Z|
2
= ( |Z
1
| * |Z
2
| )Z(|
1
+ |
2
)
Division of impedances Z
1
and Z
2
:
Z
1
/ Z
2
= |Z
1
|Z|
1
/ |Z
2
|Z|
2
= ( |Z
1
| / |Z
2
| )Z(|
1
|
2
)
In summary:
- use the rectangular form for addition and subtraction,
- use the polar form for multiplication and division.

Admittance
An impedance Z comprising a resistance R in series with a reactance X can be
converted to an admittance Y comprising a conductance G in parallel with a
susceptance B:
Y = Z
-1
= 1 / (R + jX) = (R - jX) / (R
2
+ X
2
) = R / (R
2
+ X
2
) - jX / (R
2
+ X
2
) = G - jB
G = R / (R
2
+ X
2
) = R / |Z|
2

B = X / (R
2
+ X
2
) = X / |Z|
2

Using the polar form of impedance Z:
Y = 1 / |Z|Z| = |Z|
-1
Z| = |Y|Z| = |Y|cos| - j|Y|sin|
Conversely, an admittance Y comprising a conductance G in parallel with a
susceptance B can be converted to an impedance Z comprising a resistance R in
series with a reactance X:
Z = Y
-1
= 1 / (G - jB) = (G + jB) / (G
2
+ B
2
) = G / (G
2
+ B
2
) + jB / (G
2
+ B
2
) = R +
jX
R = G / (G
2
+ B
2
) = G / |Y|
2

X = B / (G
2
+ B
2
) = B / |Y|
2

Using the polar form of admittance Y:
Z = 1 / |Y|Z| = |Y|
-1
Z| = |Z|Z| = |Z|cos| + j|Z|sin|
The total impedance Z
S
of impedances Z
1
, Z
2
, Z
3
,... connected in series is:
Z
S
= Z
1
+ Z
1
+ Z
1
+...
The total admittance Y
P
of admittances Y
1
, Y
2
, Y
3
,... connected in parallel is:
Y
P
= Y
1
+ Y
1
+ Y
1
+...
In summary:
- use impedances when operating on series circuits,
- use admittances when operating on parallel circuits.

Reactance
Inductive Reactance
The inductive reactance X
L
of an inductance L at angular frequency e and
frequency f is:
X
L
= eL = 2tfL
For a sinusoidal current i of amplitude I and angular frequency e:
i = I sinet
If sinusoidal current i is passed through an inductance L, the voltage e across the
inductance is:
e = L di/dt = eLI coset = X
L
I coset
The current through an inductance lags the voltage across it by 90.
Capacitive Reactance
The capacitive reactance X
C
of a capacitance C at angular frequency e and
frequency f is:
X
C
= 1 / eC = 1 / 2tfC
For a sinusoidal voltage v of amplitude V and angular frequency e:
v = V sinet
If sinusoidal voltage v is applied across a capacitance C, the current i through
the capacitance is:
i = C dv/dt = eCV coset = V coset / X
C

The current through a capacitance leads the voltage across it by 90.

Resonance
Series Resonance
A series circuit comprising an inductance L, a resistance R and a capacitance C
has an impedance Z
S
of:
Z
S
= R + j(X
L
- X
C
)
where X
L
= eL and X
C
= 1 / eC
At resonance, the imaginary part of Z
S
is zero:
X
C
= X
L

Z
Sr
= R
e
r
= (1 / LC)

= 2tf
r

The quality factor at resonance Q
r
is:
Q
r
= e
r
L / R = (L / CR
2
)

= (1 / R )(L / C)

= 1 / e
r
CR
Parallel resonance
A parallel circuit comprising an inductance L with a series resistance R,
connected in parallel with a capacitance C, has an admittance Y
P
of:
Y
P
= 1 / (R + jX
L
) + 1 / (- jX
C
) = (R / (R
2
+ X
L
2
)) - j(X
L
/ (R
2
+ X
L
2
) - 1 / X
C
)
where X
L
= eL and X
C
= 1 / eC
At resonance, the imaginary part of Y
P
is zero:
X
C
= (R
2
+ X
L
2
) / X
L
= X
L
+ R
2
/ X
L
= X
L
(1 + R
2
/ X
L
2
)
Z
Pr
= Y
Pr
-1
= (R
2
+ X
L
2
) / R = X
L
X
C
/ R = L / CR
e
r
= (1 / LC - R
2
/ L
2
)

= 2tf
r

The quality factor at resonance Q
r
is:
Q
r
= e
r
L / R = (L / CR
2
- 1)

= (1 / R )(L / C - R
2
)

Note that for the same values of L, R and C, the parallel resonance frequency is
lower than the series resonance frequency, but if the ratio R / L is small then the
parallel resonance frequency is close to the series resonance frequency.

Reactive Loads and Power Factor
Resistance and Series Reactance
The impedance Z of a reactive load comprising resistance R and series
reactance X is:
Z = R + jX = |Z|Z|
Converting to the equivalent admittance Y:
Y = 1 / Z = 1 / (R + jX) = (R - jX) / (R
2
+ X
2
) = R / |Z|
2
- jX / |Z|
2

When a voltage V (taken as reference) is applied across the reactive load Z, the
current I is:
I = VY = V(R / |Z|
2
- jX / |Z|
2
) = VR / |Z|
2
- jVX / |Z|
2
= I
P
- jI
Q

The active current I
P
and the reactive current I
Q
are:
I
P
= VR / |Z|
2
= |I|cos|
I
Q
= VX / |Z|
2
= |I|sin|
The apparent power S, active power P and reactive power Q are:
S = V|I| = V
2
/ |Z| = |I|
2
|Z|
P = VI
P
= I
P
2
|Z|
2
/ R = V
2
R / |Z|
2
= |I|
2
R
Q = VI
Q
= I
Q
2
|Z|
2
/ X = V
2
X / |Z|
2
= |I|
2
X
The power factor cos| and reactive factor sin| are:
cos| = I
P
/ |I| = P / S = R / |Z|
sin| = I
Q
/ |I| = Q / S = X / |Z|
Resistance and Shunt Reactance
The impedance Z of a reactive load comprising resistance R and shunt reactance
X is found from:
1 / Z = 1 / R + 1 / jX
Converting to the equivalent admittance Y comprising conductance G and shunt
susceptance B:
Y = 1 / Z = 1 / R - j / X = G - jB = |Y|Z|
When a voltage V (taken as reference) is applied across the reactive load Y, the
current I is:
I = VY = V(G - jB) = VG - jVB = I
P
- jI
Q

The active current I
P
and the reactive current I
Q
are:
I
P
= VG = V / R = |I|cos|
I
Q
= VB = V / X = |I|sin|
The apparent power S, active power P and reactive power Q are:
S = V|I| = |I|
2
/ |Y| = V
2
|Y|
P = VI
P
= I
P
2
/ G = |I|
2
G / |Y|
2
= V
2
G
Q = VI
Q
= I
Q
2
/ B = |I|
2
B / |Y|
2
= V
2
B
The power factor cos| and reactive factor sin| are:
cos| = I
P
/ |I| = P / S = G / |Y|
sin| = I
Q
/ |I| = Q / S = B / |Y|

Complex Power
When a voltage V causes a current I to flow through a reactive load Z, the
complex power S is:
S = VI* where I* is the conjugate of the complex current I.
Inductive Load
Z = R + jX
L

I = I
P
- jI
Q

cos| = R / |Z| (lagging)
I* = I
P
+ jI
Q

S = P + jQ
An inductive load is a sink of lagging VArs (a source of leading VArs).
Capacitive Load
Z = R - jX
C

I = I
P
+ jI
Q

cos| = R / |Z| (leading)
I* = I
P
- jI
Q

S = P - jQ
A capacitive load is a source of lagging VArs (a sink of leading VArs).

Three Phase Power
For a balanced star connected load with line voltage V
line
and line current I
line
:
V
star
= V
line
/ \3
I
star
= I
line

Z
star
= V
star
/ I
star
= V
line
/ \3I
line

S
star
= 3V
star
I
star
= \3V
line
I
line
= V
line
2
/ Z
star
= 3I
line
2
Z
star

For a balanced delta connected load with line voltage V
line
and line current I
line
:
V
delta
= V
line

I
delta
= I
line
/ \3
Z
delta
= V
delta
/ I
delta
= \3V
line
/ I
line

S
delta
= 3V
delta
I
delta
= \3V
line
I
line
= 3V
line
2
/ Z
delta
= I
line
2
Z
delta

The apparent power S, active power P and reactive power Q are related by:
S
2
= P
2
+ Q
2

P = Scos|
Q = Ssin|
where cos| is the power factor and sin| is the reactive factor
Note that for equivalence between balanced star and delta connected loads:
Z
delta
= 3Z
star


Per-unit System
For each system parameter, per-unit value is equal to the actual value divided by
a base value:
E
pu
= E / E
base

I
pu
= I / I
base

Z
pu
= Z / Z
base

Select rated values as base values, usually rated power in MVA and rated phase
voltage in kV:
S
base
= S
rated
= \3E
line
I
line

E
base
= E
phase
= E
line
/ \3
The base values for line current in kA and per-phase star impedance in
ohms/phase are:
I
base
= S
base
/ 3E
base
( = S
base
/ \3E
line
)
Z
base
= E
base
/ I
base
= 3E
base
2
/ S
base
( = E
line
2
/ S
base
)
Note that selecting the base values for any two of S
base
, E
base
, I
base
or Z
base
fixes
the base values of all four. Note also that Ohm's Law is satisfied by each of the
sets of actual, base and per-unit values for voltage, current and impedance.
Transformers
The primary and secondary MVA ratings of a transformer are equal, but the
voltages and currents in the primary (subscript
1
) and the secondary (subscript
2
)
are usually different:
\3E
1line
I
1line
= S = \3E
2line
I
2line

Converting to base (per-phase star) values:
3E
1base
I
1base
= S
base
= 3E
2base
I
2base

E
1base
/ E
2base
= I
2base
/ I
1base

Z
1base
/ Z
2base
= (E
1base
/ E
2base
)
2

The impedance Z
21pu
referred to the primary side, equivalent to an impedance
Z
2pu
on the secondary side, is:
Z
21pu
= Z
2pu
(E
1base
/ E
2base
)
2

The impedance Z
12pu
referred to the secondary side, equivalent to an impedance
Z
1pu
on the primary side, is:
Z
12pu
= Z
1pu
(E
2base
/ E
1base
)
2

Note that per-unit and percentage values are related by:
Z
pu
= Z
%
/ 100

Symmetrical Components
In any three phase system, the line currents I
a
, I
b
and I
c
may be expressed as the
phasor sum of:
- a set of balanced positive phase sequence currents I
a1
, I
b1
and I
c1
(phase
sequence a-b-c),
- a set of balanced negative phase sequence currents I
a2
, I
b2
and I
c2
(phase
sequence a-c-b),
- a set of identical zero phase sequence currents I
a0
, I
b0
and I
c0
(cophasal, no
phase sequence).
The positive, negative and zero sequence currents are calculated from the line
currents using:
I
a1
= (I
a
+ hI
b
+ h
2
I
c
) / 3
I
a2
= (I
a
+ h
2
I
b
+ hI
c
) / 3
I
a0
= (I
a
+ I
b
+ I
c
) / 3
The positive, negative and zero sequence currents are combined to give the line
currents using:
I
a
= I
a1
+ I
a2
+ I
a0

I
b
= I
b1
+ I
b2
+ I
b0
= h
2
I
a1
+ hI
a2
+ I
a0

I
c
= I
c1
+ I
c2
+ I
c0
= hI
a1
+ h
2
I
a2
+ I
a0

The residual current I
r
is equal to the total zero sequence current:
I
r
= I
a0
+ I
b0
+ I
c0
= 3I
a0
= I
a
+ I
b
+ I
c
= I
e

which is measured using three current transformers with parallel connected
secondaries.
I
e
is the earth fault current of the system.
Similarly, for phase-to-earth voltages V
ae
, V
be
and V
ce
, the residual voltage V
r
is
equal to the total zero sequence voltage:
V
r
= V
a0
+ V
b0
+ V
c0
= 3V
a0
= V
ae
+ V
be
+ V
ce
= 3V
ne

which is measured using an earthed-star / open-delta connected voltage
transformer.
V
ne
is the neutral displacement voltage of the system.
The h-operator
The h-operator (1Z120) is the complex cube root of unity:
h = - 1 / 2 + j\3 / 2 = 1Z120 = 1Z-240
h
2
= - 1 / 2 - j\3 / 2 = 1Z240 = 1Z-120
Some useful properties of h are:
1 + h + h
2
= 0
h + h
2
= - 1 = 1Z180
h - h
2
= j\3 = \3Z90
h
2
- h = - j\3 = \3Z-90

Fault Calculations
The different types of short-circuit fault which occur on a power system are:
- single phase to earth,
- double phase,
- double phase to earth,
- three phase,
- three phase to earth.
For each type of short-circuit fault occurring on an unloaded system:
- the first column states the phase voltage and line current conditions at the fault,
- the second column states the phase 'a' sequence current and voltage
conditions at the fault,
- the third column provides formulae for the phase 'a' sequence currents at the
fault,
- the fourth column provides formulae for the fault current and the resulting line
currents.
By convention, the faulted phases are selected for fault symmetry with respect to
reference phase 'a'.
I
f
= fault current
I
e
= earth fault current
E
a
= normal phase voltage at the fault location
Z
1
= positive phase sequence network impedance to the fault
Z
2
= negative phase sequence network impedance to the fault
Z
0
= zero phase sequence network impedance to the fault
Single phase to earth - fault from phase 'a' to earth:
V
a
= 0
I
b
= I
c
= 0
I
f
= I
a
= I
e

I
a1
= I
a2
= I
a0
= I
a
/ 3
V
a1
+ V
a2
+ V
a0
= 0
I
a1
= E
a
/ (Z
1
+ Z
2
+ Z
0
)
I
a2
= I
a1

I
a0
= I
a1

I
f
= 3I
a0
= 3E
a
/ (Z
1
+ Z
2
+ Z
0
) = I
e

I
a
= I
f
= 3E
a
/ (Z
1
+ Z
2
+ Z
0
)
Double phase - fault from phase 'b' to phase 'c':
V
b
= V
c

I
a
= 0
I
f
= I
b
= - I
c

I
a1
+ I
a2
= 0
I
a0
= 0
V
a1
= V
a2

I
a1
= E
a
/ (Z
1
+ Z
2
)
I
a2
= - I
a1

I
a0
= 0
I
f
= - j\3I
a1
= - j\3E
a
/ (Z
1
+ Z
2
)
I
b
= I
f
= - j\3E
a
/ (Z
1
+ Z
2
)
I
c
= - I
f
= j\3E
a
/ (Z
1
+ Z
2
)
Double phase to earth - fault from phase 'b' to phase 'c' to earth:
V
b
= V
c
= 0
I
a
= 0
I
f
= I
b
+ I
c
= I
e

I
a1
+ I
a2
+ I
a0
= 0
V
a1
= V
a2
= V
a0

I
a1
= E
a
/ Z
net

I
a2
= - I
a1
Z
0
/ (Z
2
+ Z
0
)
I
a0
= - I
a1
Z
2
/ (Z
2
+ Z
0
)
I
f
= 3I
a0
= - 3E
a
Z
2
/ E
zz
= I
e

I
b
= I
f
/ 2 - j\3E
a
(Z
2
/ 2 + Z
0
) / E
zz

I
c
= I
f
/ 2 + j\3E
a
(Z
2
/ 2 + Z
0
) / E
zz

Z
net
= Z
1
+ Z
2
Z
0
/ (Z
2
+ Z
0
) and E
zz
= Z
1
Z
2
+ Z
2
Z
0
+ Z
0
Z
1
= (Z
2
+ Z
0
)Z
net

Three phase (and three phase to earth) - fault from phase 'a' to phase 'b' to
phase 'c' (to earth):
V
a
= V
b
= V
c
(= 0)
I
a
+ I
b
+ I
c
= 0 (= I
e
)
I
f
= I
a
= hI
b
= h
2
I
c

V
a0
= V
a
(= 0)
V
a1
= V
a2
= 0
I
a1
= E
a
/ Z
1

I
a2
= 0
I
a0
= 0
I
f
= I
a1
= E
a
/ Z
1
= I
a

I
b
= E
b
/ Z
1

I
c
= E
c
/ Z
1

The values of Z
1
, Z
2
and Z
0
are each determined from the respective positive,
negative and zero sequence impedance networks by network reduction to a
single impedance.
Note that the single phase fault current is greater than the three phase fault
current if Z
0
is less than (2Z
1
- Z
2
).
Note also that if the system is earthed through an impedance Z
n
(carrying current
3I
0
) then an impedance 3Z
n
(carrying current I
0
) must be included in the zero
sequence impedance network.

Three Phase Fault Level
The symmetrical three phase short-circuit current I
sc
of a power system with no-
load line and phase voltages E
line
and E
phase
and source impedance Z
S
per-
phase star is:
I
sc
= E
phase
/ Z
S
= E
line
/ \3Z
S

The three phase fault level S
sc
of the power system is:
S
sc
= 3I
sc
2
Z
S
= 3E
phase
I
sc
= 3E
phase
2
/ Z
S
= E
line
2
/ Z
S

Note that if the X / R ratio of the source impedance Z
S
(comprising resistance R
S

and reactance X
S
) is sufficiently large, then Z
S
~ X
S
.
Transformers
If a transformer of rating S
T
(taken as base) and per-unit impedance Z
Tpu
is fed
from a source with unlimited fault level (infinite busbars), then the per-unit
secondary short-circuit current I
2pu
and fault level S
2pu
are:
I
2pu
= E
2pu
/ Z
Tpu
= 1.0 / Z
Tpu

S
2pu
= I
2pu
= 1.0 / Z
Tpu

If the source fault level is limited to S
S
by per-unit source impedance Z
Spu
(to the
same base as Z
Tpu
), then the secondary short-circuit current I
2pu
and fault level
S
2pu
are reduced to:
I
2pu
= E
2pu
/ (Z
Tpu
+ Z
Spu
) = 1.0 / (Z
Tpu
+ Z
Spu
)
S
2pu
= I
2pu
= 1.0 / (Z
Tpu
+ Z
Spu
)
where Z
Spu
= S
T
/ S
S


Thermal Short-time Rating
If a conductor which is rated to carry full load current I
load
continuously is rated to
carry a maximum fault current I
limit
for a time t
limit
, then a lower fault current I
fault

can be carried for a longer time t
fault
according to:
( I
limit
- I
load
)
2
t
limit
= ( I
fault
- I
load
)
2
t
fault

Rearranging for I
fault
and t
fault
:
I
fault
= ( I
limit
- I
load
) ( t
limit
/ t
fault
)

+ I
load

t
fault
= t
limit
( I
limit
- I
load
)
2
/ ( I
fault
- I
load
)
2

If I
load
is small compared with I
limit
and I
fault
, then:
I
limit
2
t
limit
~I
fault
2
t
fault

I
fault
~ I
limit
( t
limit
/ t
fault
)

t
fault
~ t
limit
( I
limit
/ I
fault
)
2

Note that if the current I
fault
is reduced by a factor of two, then the time t
fault
is
increased by a factor of four.

Instrument Transformers
Voltage Transformer
For a voltage transformer of voltampere rating S, rated primary voltage V
P
and
rated secondary voltage V
S
, the maximum secondary current I
Smax
, maximum
secondary burden conductance G
Bmax
and maximum primary current I
Pmax
are:
I
Smax
= S / V
S

G
Bmax
= I
Smax
/ V
S
= S / V
S
2

I
Pmax
= S / V
P
= I
Smax
V
S
/ V
P

Current Transformer
For a measurement current transformer of voltampere rating S, rated primary
current I
P
and rated secondary current I
S
, the maximum secondary voltage V
Smax
,
maximum secondary burden resistance R
Bmax
and maximum primary voltage
V
Pmax
are:
V
Smax
= S / I
S

R
Bmax
= V
Smax
/ I
S
= S / I
S
2

V
Pmax
= S / I
P
= V
Smax
I
S
/ I
P

For a protection current transformer of voltampere rating S, rated primary current
I
P
, rated secondary current I
S
and rated accuracy limit factor F, the rated
secondary reference voltage V
SF
, maximum secondary burden resistance R
Bmax

and equivalent primary reference voltage V
PF
are:
V
SF
= SF / I
S

R
Bmax
= V
SF
/ I
S
F = S / I
S
2

V
PF
= SF / I
P
= V
SF
I
S
/ I
P

Impedance Measurement
If the primary voltage V
pri
and the primary current I
pri
are measured at a point in a
system, then the primary impedance Z
pri
at that point is:
Z
pri
= V
pri
/ I
pri

If the measured voltage is the secondary voltage V
sec
of a voltage transformer of
primary/secondary ratio N
V
and the measured current is the secondary current
I
sec
of a current transformer of primary/secondary ratio N
I
, then the primary
impedance Z
pri
is related to the secondary impedance Z
sec
by:
Z
pri
= V
pri
/ I
pri
= V
sec
N
V
/ I
sec
N
I
= Z
sec
N
V
/ N
I
= Z
sec
N
Z

where N
Z
= N
V
/ N
I

If the no-load (source) voltage E
pri
is also measured at the point, then the source
impedance Z
Tpri
to the point is:
Z
Tpri
= (E
pri
- V
pri
) / I
pri
= (E
sec
- V
sec
)N
V
/ I
sec
N
I
= Z
Tsec
N
V
/ N
I
= Z
Tsec
N
Z


Power Factor Correction
If an inductive load with an active power demand P has an uncorrected power
factor of cos|
1
lagging, and is required to have a corrected power factor of cos|
2

lagging, the uncorrected and corrected reactive power demands, Q
1
and Q
2
, are:
Q
1
= P tan|
1

Q
2
= P tan|
2

where tan|
n
= (1 / cos
2
|
n
- 1)

The leading (capacitive) reactive power demand Q
C
which must be connected
across the load is:
Q
C
= Q
1
- Q
2
= P (tan|
1
- tan|
2
)
The uncorrected and corrected apparent power demands, S
1
and S
2
, are related
by:
S
1
cos|
1
= P = S
2
cos|
2

Comparing corrected and uncorrected load currents and apparent power
demands:
I
2
/ I
1
= S
2
/ S
1
= cos|
1
/ cos|
2

If the load is required to have a corrected power factor of unity, Q
2
is zero and:
Q
C
= Q
1
= P tan|
1

I
2
/ I
1
= S
2
/ S
1
= cos|
1
= P / S
1

Shunt Capacitors
For star-connected shunt capacitors each of capacitance C
star
on a three phase
system of line voltage V
line
and frequency f, the leading reactive power demand
Q
Cstar
and the leading reactive line current I
line
are:
Q
Cstar
= V
line
2
/ X
Cstar
= 2tfC
star
V
line
2

I
line
= Q
Cstar
/ \3V
line
= V
line
/ \3X
Cstar

C
star
= Q
Cstar
/ 2tfV
line
2

For delta-connected shunt capacitors each of capacitance C
delta
on a three phase
system of line voltage V
line
and frequency f, the leading reactive power demand
Q
Cdelta
and the leading reactive line current I
line
are:
Q
Cdelta
= 3V
line
2
/ X
Cdelta
= 6tfC
delta
V
line
2

I
line
= Q
Cdelta
/ \3V
line
= \3V
line
/ X
Cdelta

C
delta
= Q
Cdelta
/ 6tfV
line
2

Note that for the same leading reactive power Q
C
:
X
Cdelta
= 3X
Cstar

C
delta
= C
star
/ 3
Series Capacitors
For series line capacitors each of capacitance C
series
carrying line current I
line
on
a three phase system of frequency f, the voltage drop V
drop
across each line
capacitor and the total leading reactive power demand Q
Cseries
of the set of three
line capacitors are:
V
drop
= I
line
X
Cseries
= I
line
/ 2tfC
series

Q
Cseries
= 3V
drop
2
/ X
Cseries
= 3V
drop
I
line
= 3I
line
2
X
Cseries
= 3I
line
2
/ 2tfC
series

C
series
= 3I
line
2
/ 2tfQ
Cseries

Note that the apparent power rating S
rating
of the set of three series line
capacitors is based on the line voltage V
line
and not the voltage drop V
drop
:
S
rating
= \3V
line
I
line


Reactors
Shunt Reactors
For star-connected shunt reactors each of inductance L
star
on a three phase
system of line voltage V
line
and frequency f, the lagging reactive power demand
Q
Lstar
and the lagging reactive line current I
line
are:
Q
Lstar
= V
line
2
/ X
Lstar
= V
line
2
/ 2tfL
star

I
line
= Q
Lstar
/ \3V
line
= V
line
/ \3X
Lstar

L
star
= V
line
2
/ 2tfQ
Lstar

For delta-connected shunt reactors each of inductance L
delta
on a three phase
system of line voltage V
line
and frequency f, the lagging reactive power demand
Q
Ldelta
and the lagging reactive line current I
line
are:
Q
Ldelta
= 3V
line
2
/ X
Ldelta
= 3V
line
2
/ 2tfL
delta

I
line
= Q
Ldelta
/ \3V
line
= \3V
line
/ X
Ldelta

L
delta
= 3V
line
2
/ 2tfQ
Ldelta

Note that for the same lagging reactive power Q
L
:
X
Ldelta
= 3X
Lstar

L
delta
= 3L
star

Series Reactors
For series line reactors each of inductance L
series
carrying line current I
line
on a
three phase system of frequency f, the voltage drop V
drop
across each line
reactor and the total lagging reactive power demand Q
Lseries
of the set of three
line reactors are:
V
drop
= I
line
X
Lseries
= 2tfL
series
I
line

Q
Lseries
= 3V
drop
2
/ X
Lseries
= 3V
drop
I
line
= 3I
line
2
X
Lseries
= 6tfL
series
I
line
2

L
series
= Q
Lseries
/ 6tfI
line
2

Note that the apparent power rating S
rating
of the set of three series line reactors
is based on the line voltage V
line
and not the voltage drop V
drop
:
S
rating
= \3V
line
I
line


Harmonic Resonance
If a node in a power system operating at frequency f has a inductive source
reactance X
L
per phase and has power factor correction with a capacitive
reactance X
C
per phase, the source inductance L and the correction capacitance
C are:
L = X
L
/ e
C = 1 / eX
C

where e = 2tf
The series resonance angular frequency e
r
of an inductance L with a
capacitance C is:
e
r
= (1 / LC)

= e(X
C
/ X
L
)

The three phase fault level S
sc
at the node for no-load phase voltage E and
source impedance Z per-phase star is:
S
sc
= 3E
2
/ |Z| = 3E
2
/ |R + jX
L
|
If the ratio X
L
/ R of the source impedance Z is sufficiently large, |Z| ~ X
L
so that:
S
sc
~ 3E
2
/ X
L

The reactive power rating Q
C
of the power factor correction capacitors for a
capacitive reactance X
C
per phase at phase voltage E is:
Q
C
= 3E
2
/ X
C

The harmonic number f
r
/ f of the series resonance of X
L
with X
C
is:
f
r
/ f = e
r
/ e = (X
C
/ X
L
)

~ (S
sc
/ Q
C
)

Note that the ratio X
L
/ X
C
which results in a harmonic number f
r
/ f is:
X
L
/ X
C
= 1 / ( f
r
/ f )
2

so for f
r
/ f to be equal to the geometric mean of the third and fifth harmonics:
f
r
/ f = \15 = 3.873
X
L
/ X
C
= 1 / 15 = 0.067