Everything you wanted to know about Li-Ion batteries but were afraid to ask! http://forum.xda-developers.com/showthread.php?

t=669497 So after noticing how much of a difference people get in their battery lives, I've decided to do some research and make a guide-line that will give us all we need to know about properly using our batteries. First part is a general information and usage techniques for LIBs, second part is taken from Google materials on Android-powered devices (G1, Magic, Droid, Nexus One, etc). Sources: Wikipedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery BatteryUniversity - http://www.batteryuniversity.com/parttwo-34.htm Google IO Conference 2009 - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OUemfrKe65c Electropaedia - http://www.mpoweruk.com/life.htm General Lithium-Ion Battery (LIB) Usage: 1. Discharging your LIB fully (or less than 2.4 Volt per cell) is bad for the battery. Every time you do that, it can be said that small part of your battery (some cells) dies (they forever lose their charge). Do not store your batteries depleted, there's a high chance they will die completely or will become very "weak". 2. You cannot restore bad LIBs by overloading/heating/praying. You gotta go buy a new one. They DO degrade overtime, some cells naturally lose the ability to gain/give electricity. 3. Although it is said that LIBs do not have memory, it's not entirely true. LIBs have gauges that monitor performance of cells, and if you do a lot of small charges, it won't let those gauges to monitor a full battery potential, causing an invalid indication of charge level. A complete charge/discharge should be made when battery capacity seems reduced, that will calibrate gauges and they will provide your phone with correct charge level status. A full charge/discharge cycle should be done every 30 (or so) partial charges. 4. LIBs have a shelf-life. Do not buy them to store them. Use them early, use them often, they will die whether you use them or not. Do not buy LIBs to use them in 6 months/year/etc, buy them right before actually using them. 5. LIBs have short lives (in comparison to NiCa batteries, etc). You should expect to buy a new battery in 2-3 years after being manufactured. It is caused by internal oxidation and there's nothing you can do to stop or prevent that. 6. Worst LIB treatment is to keep it at 100% charge level at high temperature (think laptop/phone under direct sunlight, like car dashboard). 7. Best LIB treatment, or LIBs "favorite" charge level - 40%. That's also the usual charge level you buy them with. 8. LIBs don't like heat. For example, while always at 100%, typical LIB in a laptop, at temperatures of 25C (77F) will lose 20% (twenty percent!) of full capacity per year. That capacity loss is reduced to 6% (six percent) at 0C (32F), and increased to 35% loss at 40C (104F). So, keep them cool (LIBs like fridges),

don't let your devices sit in the sun or overheat at charge. Also, keep in mind that while in use, battery will be significantly hotter than phone/outside environment

9. LIBs like frequent partial charges/discharges more than they like full charges/discharges. General Android power usage advice from google: 1. Although this part is somewhat controversial, they do recommend having a complete, full FIRST charge to be made. If time allows, a preferred time for the first charge is 12 hours. This may have more to do with the OS than the battery. 2. Battery on a Android device, in average, will last about a full day with normal use (some videos, mail, calls). That's what you should kind-of expect. 3. Speaking in averages, "idling" 3G/EDGE connection (when phone is sleeping and no data is transferred through 3G), drains almost no energy. Just a little more than having 3G/EDGE radio off completely. So when no apps are using 3G, you don't need to keep it off. 4. Same goes to WiFi connection - although it's on, if there is no data flowing through it, it uses almost no energy. 5. At full throughput (100% data flow), EDGE is using more energy than 3G. In average, 3G is more energy-efficient than EDGE. 6. WiFi is using more energy than 3G (when both are at 100% use), but since it transfers files much faster and then goes to "sleep", it's actually recommended to use WiFi whenever possible. Since it'll "sleep" more often than 3G, overall it will use much less battery than using 3G. 7. Some bad apps or widgets can use android's "WakeLock", keeping CPU at 100%, screen always-on, or both. I myself have encountered such widget (I won't mention the name, it's in the market) that used a WakeLock to keep CPU spunup at 100% all the time. That makes a huge impact on battery life. My advice use a CPU profiling app to monitor the CPU - make sure that CPU slows down by itself when it's not used. So, beware of such widgets/apps. To check for CPU cycles, many recommend OSMonitor (free from market, install it, go to options, sort by "Load" in descending order. It'll give you "busiest" processes at

the top). At rest you should be getting about 10-20% for OSMonitor itself, and 110% Android System. At rest, everything else should be 0-1%. 8. Android slows down CPU when not in use by itself, as a built-in feature. Apps that throttle/change CPU frequency, are not necessarily needed. Charging Lithium-ion http://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/charging_lithium_ion_batteries Charging and discharging batteries is a chemical reaction, but Li-ion is claimed as an exception. Here, battery scientists talk about energies flowing in and out as part of ion movement between anode and cathode. This claim has merits, but if the scientists were totally right then the battery would live forever, and this is wishful thinking. The experts blame capacity fade on ions getting trapped. For simplicity, we consider aging a corrosion that affects all battery systems. The Li-ion charger is a voltage-limiting device that is similar to the lead acid system. The difference lies in a higher voltage per cell, tighter voltage tolerance and the absence of trickle or float charge at full charge. While lead acid offers some flexibility in terms of voltage cut-off, manufacturers of Li-ion cells are very strict on the correct setting because Li-ion cannot accept overcharge. The so-called miracle charger that promises to prolong battery life and methods that pump extra capacity into the cell do not exist here. Li-ion is a clean system and only takes what it can absorb. Anything extra causes stress. Most cells charge to 4.20V/cell with a tolerance of +/50mV/cell. Higher voltages could increase the capacity, but the resulting cell oxidation would reduce service life. More important is the safety concern if charging beyond 4.20V/cell. Figure 1 shows the voltage and current signature as lithium-ion passes through the stages for constant current and topping charge.

Figure 1: Charge stages of lithium-ion. Li-ion is fully charged when the current drops to a predetermined level or levels out at the end of Stage 2. In lieu of trickle charge, some chargers apply a topping charge when the voltage drops to 4.05V/cell (Stage 4). Courtesy of Cadex The charge rate of a typical consumer Li-ion battery is between 0.5 and 1C in Stage 1, and the charge time is about three hours. Manufacturers recommend charging the 18650 cell at 0.8C or less. Charge efficiency is 97 to 99 percent and the cell remains cool during charge. Some Li-ion packs may experience a temperature rise of about 5C (9F) when reaching full charge. This could be due to the protection circuit and/or elevated internal resistance. Full charge occurs when the battery reaches the voltage threshold and the current drops to three percent of the rated current. A battery is also considered fully charged if the current levels off and cannot go down further. Elevated self-discharge might be the cause of this condition. Increasing the charge current does not hasten the full-charge state by much. Although the battery reaches the voltage peak quicker with a fast charge, the saturation charge will take longer accordingly. The amount of charge current applied simply alters the time required for each stage; Stage 1 will be shorter but the saturation Stage 2 will take longer. A high current charge will, however, quickly fill the battery to about 70 percent. Li-ion does not need to be fully charged, as is the case with lead acid, nor is it desirable to do so. In fact, it is better not to fully charge, because high voltages stresses the battery. Choosing a lower voltage threshold, or eliminating the saturation charge altogether, prolongs battery life but this reduces the runtime. Since the consumer market promotes maximum runtime, these chargers go for maximum capacity rather than extended service life. Some lower-cost consumer chargers may use the simplified charge-and-run method that charges a lithium-ion battery in one hour or less without going to the Stage 2 saturation charge. Ready appears when the battery reaches the voltage threshold at Stage 1. Since the state-of-charge (SoC) at this point is only about 85 percent, the user may complain of short runtime, not knowing that the charger is to blame. Many warranty batteries are being replaced for this reason, and this phenomenon is especially common in the cellular industry. Avoiding full charge has benefits, and some manufacturers set the charge threshold lower on purpose to prolong battery life. Table 2 illustrates the estimated capacities when charged to different voltage thresholds with and without saturation charge. Charge V/cell 3.80 3.90 4.00 4.10 4.20 Capacity at Charge time cut-off voltage 60% 70% 75% 80% 85% 120 min 135 min 150 min 165 min 180 min Capacity with full saturation 65% 76% 82% 87% 100%

Table 2: Typical charge characteristics of lithium-ion. Adding full saturation at the set voltage boosts the capacity by about 10 percent but adds stress due to high voltage. When the battery is first put on charge, the voltage shoots up quickly. This behavior can be compared to lifting a heavy weight with an elastic band. The lifting arm moves up quickly but the weight lags behind. The voltage of the charging battery will only catch up when the battery is almost fully charged (see Figure 3. This charge characteristic is typical of all batteries.

Figure 3: Capacity as a function of charge voltage on a lithiumion battery The capacity trails the charge voltage, like lifting a heavy weight with an elastic band. Courtesy of Cadex Relying on the closed circuit voltage (CCV) to read the available capacity during charge is impractical. The open circuit voltage (OCT) can, however, be used to predict state-of-charge after the battery has rested for a few hours. The rest period calms the agitated battery to regain equilibrium. Similar to all batteries, temperature affects the OCV. Read "How to Measure State-of-Charge". Li-ion cannot absorb overcharge, and when fully charged the charge current must be cut off. A continuous trickle charge would cause plating of metallic lithium, and this could compromise safety. To minimize stress, keep the lithium-ion battery at the 4.20V/cell peak voltage as short a time as possible. Once the charge is terminated, the battery voltage begins to drop, and this eases the voltage stress. Over time, the open-circuit voltage will settle to between 3.60 and 3.90V/cell. Note that a Li-ion battery that received a fully saturated charge will keep the higher voltage longer than one that was fast-charged and terminated at the voltage threshold without a saturation charge. If a lithium-ion battery must be left in the charger for operational readiness, some chargers apply a brief topping charge to compensate for the small self-discharge the battery and its protective circuit consume. The charger may kick in when the opencircuit voltage drops to 4.05V/cell and turn off again at a high 4.20V/cell. Chargers made for operational readiness, or standby mode, often let the battery voltage drop to

4.00V/cell and recharge to only 4.05V/cell instead of the full 4.20V/cell. This reduces voltage-related stress and prolongs battery life. Some portable devices sit in a charge cradle in the on position. The current drawn through the device is called the parasitic load and can distort the charge cycle. Battery manufacturers advise against parasitic load because it induces mini-cycles. The battery is continuously being discharged to 4.20V/cell and then charged by the device. The stress level on the battery is especially high because the cycles occur at the 4.20V/cell threshold. A portable device must be turned off during charge. This allows the battery to reach the set threshold voltage unhindered, and enables terminating charge on low current. A parasitic load confuses the charger by depressing the battery voltage and preventing the current in the saturation stage to drop low. A battery may be fully charged, but the prevailing conditions prompt a continued charge. This causes undue battery stress and compromises safety. Battery professionals agree that charging lithium-ion batteries is simpler and more straightforward than nickel-based systems. Besides meeting the voltage tolerances, the charge circuits are relatively simple. Limiting voltage and observing low current in triggering ready is easier than analyzing complex signatures that may change with age. Charge currents with Li-ion are less critical and can vary widely. Any charge will do, including energy from a renewable resource such as a solar panel or wind turbine. Charge absorption is very high and with a low and intermittent charge, charging simply takes a little longer without negatively affecting the battery. The absence of trickle charge further helps simplify the charger. Overcharging Lithium-ion Lithium-ion operates safely within the designated operating voltages; however, the battery becomes unstable if inadvertently charged to a higher than specified voltage. Prolonged charging above 4.30V forms plating of metallic lithium on the anode, while the cathode material becomes an oxidizing agent, loses stability and produces carbon dioxide (CO2). The cell pressure rises, and if charging is allowed to continue the current interrupt device (CID) responsible for cell safety disconnects the current at 1,380kPa (200psi). Should the pressure rise further, a safety membrane bursts open at 3,450kPa (500psi) and the cell might eventually vent with flame. The thermal runaway moves lower when the battery is fully charged; for Li-cobalt this threshold is between 130150CC (266 302F), nickel-manganese-cobalt (NMC) is 170180C (338356F), and manganese is 250C (482F). Li-phosphate enjoys similar and better temperature stabilities than manganese. Lithium-ion is not the only battery that is a safety hazard if overcharged. Lead- and nickel-based batteries are also known to melt down and cause fire if improperly handled. Nickel-based batteries have also been recalled for safety concerns. Properly designed charging equipment is paramount for all battery systems. Over-discharging Lithium-ion Li-ion should never be discharged too low, and there are several safeguards to prevent this from happening. The equipment cuts off when the battery discharges to about 3.0V/cell, stopping the current flow. If the discharge continues to about 2.70V/cell or

lower, the batterys protection circuit puts the battery into a sleep mode. This renders the pack unserviceable and a recharge with most chargers is not possible. To prevent a battery from falling asleep, apply a partial charge before a long storage period. Battery manufacturers ship batteries with a 40 percent charge. The low charge state reduces aging-related stress while allowing some self-discharge during storage. To minimize the current flow for the protection circuit before the battery is sold, advanced Li-ion packs feature a sleep mode that disables the protection circuit until activated by a brief charge or discharge. Once engaged, the battery remains operational and the on state can no longer be switched back to the standby mode. Do not recharge lithium-ion if a cell has stayed at or below 1.5V for more than a week. Copper shunts may have formed inside the cells that can lead to a partial or total electrical short. If recharged, the cells might become unstable, causing excessive heat or showing other anomalies. Li-ion packs that have been under stress are more sensitive to mechanical abuse, such as vibration, dropping and exposure to heat. Charging Lithium-ion Polymer Charging Li-ion polymer, also referred as Li-polymer, is very similar to a regular lithiumion battery and no changes in algorithm are necessary. Most users wont even know if their battery is Li-ion or Li-polymer. The word polymer has been used as promotional hype and does not reflect special attributes other than to know that the battery is built in a different way to a standard Li-ion. Most polymer batteries are based on a hybrid architecture that is a cross between Liion and Li-polymer. There are many variations within the polymer family, and the true dry polymer battery for the consumer market is still years away. Also know as the plastic battery, this system was first announced in early 2000 but was never able to attain the conductivity needed for most applications at ambient temperatures. Read more about the Lithium-polymer battery and the Pouch Cell. Simple Guidelines for Charging Lithium-based Batteries

A portable device should be turned off while charging. This allows the battery to reach the threshold voltage unhindered and reflects the correct saturation current responsible to terminate the charge. A parasitic load confuses the charger. Charge at a moderate temperature. Do not charge below freezing. Lithium-ion does not need to be fully charged; a partial charge is better. Chargers use different methods for ready indication. The light signal may not always indicate a full charge. Discontinue using charger and/or battery if the battery gets excessively warm. Before prolonged storage, apply some charge to bring the pack to about half charge.

Over-discharged batteries can be boosted to life again. Discard pack if the voltage does not rise to a normal level within a minute while on boost.

Charging at High and Low Temperatures

Rechargeable batteries operate in a wide temperature range but this does not give license to charge them at extreme temperatures. Extreme cold and high heat reduce charge acceptance, and the battery must be brought into moderate temperature conditions before charging. Older battery technologies, such as lead acid and NiCd, have higher charging tolerances than newer systems and can be charged below freezing at a reduced 0.1C rate. This is not possible with most NiMH and lithium-ion systems. Table 1 summarizes the permissible charge and discharge temperatures of common lead acid, NiCd, NiMH and Li-ion. We exclude specialty batteries designed to charge outside these parameters.

Battery Type

Charge Temperature

Discharge Temperature 20C to 50C (4F to 122F)

Charge Advisory Charge at 0.3C or lessbelow freezing. Lower V-threshold by 3mV/C when hot. Charge at 0.1C between 18 and 0C. Charge at 0.3C between 0C and 5C. Charge acceptance at 45C is 70%. Charge acceptance at 60C is 45%. No charge permitted below freezing. Good charge/discharge performance at higher temperature but shorter life.

Lead acid

20C to 50C (4F to 122F)

NiCd, NiMH

0C to 45C (32F to 113F)

20C to 65C (4F to 149F)

Li-ion

0C to 45C (32F to 113F)

20C to 60C (4F to 140F)

Table 1: Permissible temperature limits for various batteries. Batteries can be discharged over a large temperature range but charge temperature is limited. For best results, charge between 10C and 30C (50F and 86F). Lower the charge current when cold.

Low-temperature Charge
Fast charging of most batteries is limited to a temperature of 5 to 45C (41 to 113F); for best results consider narrowing the temperature bandwidth to between 10C and 30C (50F and 86F). Nickel-based batteries are most forgiving in accepting charge at low temperatures, however, when charging below 5C (41F), the ability to recombine oxygen and hydrogen diminishes. If NiCd and NiMH are charged too rapidly, pressure builds up in the cell that will lead to venting. Not only do escaping gases deplete the electrolyte, the hydrogen released is highly flammable. The charge current of all nickel-based batteries should be reduced to 0.1C below freezing. Nickel-based chargers with NDV full-charge detection offer some protection when fast-charging at low temperatures. The resulting poor charge acceptance mimics a fully charged battery. This is in part due to the pressure buildup caused by gas recombination problems. Pressure rise and a voltage drop at full charge appear to be synonymous. To enable fast-charging at all temperatures, some industrial batteries include a thermal blanket that heats the battery to an acceptable temperature; other chargers adjust the charge rate to prevailing temperatures. Consumer chargers do not have these provisions and users should make all attempts to only charge batteries at room temperatures.

Lead acid is reasonably forgiving when it comes to temperature extremes, as we know from the starter batteries in our cars. Part of this tolerance is their sluggish behavior. The recommended charge rate at low temperature is 0.3C, which is almost the same as under normal conditions. At a comfortable temperature of 20C (68F), gassing starts at 2.415V/cell, and by lowering the temperature to 20C (0F), the gassing voltage rises to 2.97V/cell. Do not freeze a lead acid battery. This would causes permanent damage. Always keep the batteries fully charged. In the discharged state the electrolyte becomes more water-like and freezes earlier than a fully charged battery. According to BCI, a specific gravity of 1.15 has a freezing temperature of 15C (5F). This compares to 1.265 of a fully charged starter battery. Flooded lead acid batteries tend to crack the case and cause leakage if frozen; sealed lead acid packs lose potency and only deliver a few cycles before a replacement is necessary. Li-ion batteries offer reasonably good charging performance at cooler temperatures and allow fast-charging in a temperature bandwidth of 5 to 45C (41 to 113F). Below 5C, the charge current should be reduced, and no charging is permitted at freezing temperatures. During charge, the internal cell resistance causes a slight temperature rise that compensates for some of the cold. With all batteries, cold temperature raises the internal resistance. Many battery users are unaware that consumer-grade lithium-ion batteries cannot be charged below 0C (32F). Although the pack appears to be charging normally, plating of metallic lithium can occur on the anode during a subfreezing charge. The plating is permanent and cannot be removed with cycling. Batteries with lithium plating are known to be more vulnerable to failure if exposed to vibration or other stressful conditions. Advanced chargers, such as those made by Cadex, prevent charging Li-ion below freezing. Manufactures continue to seek ways to charge Li-ion below freezing and low-rate charging is indeed possible with most lithium-ion cells; however, it is outside the specified (and tested) limits of most manufacturers products. Low-temperature charging would need to be addressed on a case-by-case basis and would be manufacturer and application dependent. According to information received from university research centers, the allowable charge rate at 30C (22F) is 0.02C. At this low current, a 1,000mAh Li-ion could only charge at 20mA, and this would take more than 50 hours to reach full charge. Some Li-ion cells developed for power tool and EV applications can be charged at temperatures down to 10C (14F) at a reduced rate. To charge at a higher rate, Li-ion systems for automotive propulsion systems require a heating blanket. Some hybrid cars circulate warm cabin air through the batteries to raise the battery temperature, while high-performance electric cars heat and cool the battery with a liquid agent.

High-temperature Charge
Heat is the worst enemy of most batteries, including lead acid. Adding temperature compensation on a lead acid charger to adjust for temperature variations prolongs battery life by up to 15 percent. The recommended compensation is 3mV per cell per degree Celsius applied on a negative coefficient, meaning that the voltage threshold drops as the temperature increases. For example, if the continued float voltage were set to 2.30V/cell at 25C (77F), the recommended setting would be 2.27V/cell at 35C (95F) and 2.33V/cell at 15C (59F). This represents a 30mV correction per cell per 10C (18F). Table 2 indicates the optimal peak voltage at various temperatures when charging lead acid batteries. The table also includes the recommended float voltage while in standby mode.

Battery status Voltage limit on recharge Float voltage at full charge

0C (32F) 2.55V/cell 2.35V/cell or lower

25C (77F) 2.45V/cell 2.30V/cell or lower

40C (104F) 2.35V/cell 2.25V/cell or lower

Table 2: Recommended voltage limits when recharging and maintaining stationary lead acid batteries on float charge. Voltage compensation prolongs battery life when operating at temperature extremes. Charging nickel-based batteries at high temperatures lowers oxygen generation, which reduces charge acceptance. Heat fools the charger into thinking that the battery is fully charged when its not. NiCd has the largest pool of published information on this subject, and Figure 3 demonstrates a strong decrease in charge efficiency above 30C (86F). At 45C (113F), the battery can only accept 70 percent of its full capacity; at 60C (140F) the charge acceptance is reduced to 45 percent. NDV for a full-charge detection becomes unreliable at higher temperature and temperature sensing is essential for backup. Newer type NiMH batteries perform better at elevated temperatures than NiCd.

Figure 3: NiCd charge acceptance as a function of temperature. High temperature reduces charge acceptance. At 55C, commercial NiMH has a charge efficiency of 3540%; newer industrial NiMH attains 7580%. Courtesy of Cadex Lithium-ion performs well at elevated temperatures; however, prolonged exposure to heat reduces longevity. The charge efficiency is 97 to 99 percent, regardless of temperature. In fact, high temperature increases charge effectiveness slightly by improving the internal resistance. While other chemistries can tolerate stepping outside set boundaries once in a while, there are limitations with Li-ion. Safety concerns dictate that Li-ion remains within specified limits because of possible thermal runaway if stressed. A fully charged Li-ion is more sensitive to a thermal runaway than an empty one; the thermal runaway temperature moves lower with higher charge. In spite of this, specialty Li-ion batteries serve in applications that go to momentary high temperatures, and surgical tools that undergo steam sterilization at 137C (280F) are such an example. Other uses that reach similar temperatures are batteries in drilling bits for mining.

Caution:

In case of rupture, leaking electrolyte or any other cause of exposure to the electrolyte, flush with water immediately. If eye exposure occurs, flush with water for 15 minutes and consult a physician immediately.

Charging from a USB Port

The Universal Serial Bus (USB) was introduced in 1996 and has since become one of the most widespread and convenient interfaces for electronic devices. The USB port is a bi-directional data port that provides a supply voltage to power memory sticks, keyboards, mice, wireless interfaces, cameras, MP3 players and chargers. With 5V and 500mA of available current, the USB bus can charge a small single-cell Li-ion pack, but there is a danger of overloading the USB hub when attaching too many gadgets. Plugging in a charger that draws 500mA along with other devices will exceed the ports current limit, leading to a voltage drop and a possible system failure. To prevent overload, some hosts include current-limiting circuits that shut down the supply when overdrawn. Another method is limiting the current of all attachments to 400mA to reserve 100mA for housekeeping.

The most common USB chargers are designed for single-cell Li-ion. The charge begins with a constant current charge to 4.20V/cell, at which point the voltage caps and the current begins to decrease. Due to a voltage drop in the cable, which is about 350mV, and losses in the charger circuit, it is possible that the 5V supply cannot supply the batterys 4.2V charge threshold. This is no problem; the battery does not suffer but will deliver shorter than expected runtimes. The rectangular Type A USB plug has four connector pins and a shield. The rightmost contact is number 1 and carries 5V; the leftmost contact is number 4 and forms the ground. The two shorter pins in the middle are reserved for data transfer and have no function in the USB charger. Figure 1 illustrates the rectangular Type A USB plug. Figure 1: Rectangular Type A USB plug The rightmost contact is number 1 and carries +5VDC; the leftmost pin is number 4 and is the ground. The housing connects to the ground and provides shielding. Pins 2 and 3 carry data. Adapters are available that convert the cigarette lighter to a USB port to charge a cell phone in a car. You can also charge a cell phone from a laptop USB port. Note that the USB port is unidirectional and cannot take power from an outside source. In other words, power only flows out.

Charging without Wires

Wireless charging may one day replace plugs and wires similar to how Wi-Fi and Bluetooth have modernized personal communication. Wireless charging with inductive coupling uses an electromagnetic field that transfers energy from the transmitter to the receiver. Consumers are wild about the convenience of simply placing a portable device on a charging mat. Wireless charging works well with mobile phones, digital cameras, media players, gaming controllers and Bluetooth headsets. Other potential applications are power tools, medical devices, e-bikes and electric cars (EVs). Wireless transfer of power is not new. In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered induction and stated that electromagnetic forces can travel through space. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, Nicola Tesla began demonstrating wireless broadcasting and power transmission. Early experiments in Colorado Springs in 1899 lead to the Wardenclyffe Tower in New York Tesla was adamant to prove that electrical power could be transmitted without wires, but a lack of funding halted the project. It was not until the 1920s that public broadcasting began, and Europe built massive AM transmitters with signal strengths to penetrate many countries. The transmitter at Beromnster in Switzerland (Figure 1) could have transmitted at 600kW, but legislation on electro-smog and protests from the local population limited the power to 180kW. Smaller FM stations have since replaced these large national transmitters.

Figure 1: Switzerland's National AM Radio Station Beromnster Constructed in 1931 as an independent voice against the Nazi propaganda of Germany to the displeasure of Adolf Hitler. The station broadcasted AM signals until 2008.

How does wireless charging relate to radio transmission? Both models are similar in that they transmit power by electro-magnetic waves. Wireless charging operates in a near field condition in which the primary coil produces a magnetic field that is picked up by the secondary coil in close proximity. The radio transmitter works on the far field principle by sending waves that travel through space. While the receiving coil of the wireless charger captures most of the energy generated, the receiving antenna of the radio needs only a few microvolt (one millionth of a volt) to rise the signal above the noise level and receive clear intelligence when amplified.

Types of Wireless Charging

Wireless charging is classified into three categories: Radio charging, inductive charging andresonance charging. Radio charging will serve low-power devices operating within a 10-meter (30 feet) radius from the transmitter to charge batteries in medical implants, hearing aids, watches and entertainment devices. Radio charging can also activate advanced RFID (radio frequency identification) chips through resonantly enhanced induction. The transmitter sends a low-power radio wave at a frequency of 915MHz (frequency for microwave ovens) and the receiver converts the signal to energy. The radio charging method is closest to a regular radio transmitter; it offers high flexibility but has low power capture and exposes people to electro-smog. Most of todays wireless chargers use inductive charging featuring a transmit and receive coil in close proximity. Electric toothbrushes were one of the first devices to use this charging method, and mobile phones are the largest growing sector to charge without wires. To retrofit an existing mobile phone for mobile charging, simply attach a skin that contains the receiver and provides interconnection to the charger socket. Many new devices will have this feature built in. For larger batteries such as electric vehicles, resonance charging, or electro dynamic induction,is being developed. Resonance charging works by making a coil ring. The oscillating magnetic field works within a one meter (3 feet) radius; the distance between transmit and receive coil must be well within the 1/4 wavelength (915Mhz has a wavelength of 0.328 meters). Currently, resonance charging in trials can deliver roughly 3,000 watts at a transfer efficiency of 8090 percent.

Standard
The success for wireless charging was subject to adapting a global standard and the WPC (Wireless Power Consortium) accomplished this in 2008. With the Qi norm, device manufacturers can now build charger platforms to serve a broad range of compatible Qi devices. The first release limits the power to 5 watts and works as follows: While in ready mode, the charging mat sends signals that sense the placing of an object. Detection occurs by a change in capacitance or resonance. The mat validates the device for WPC compatibility by sending a packet of data by modulating the load with an 8-bit data string. The receiving device awakens and responds by providing the signal strength. The mat then sends multiple digital pings to identify the best positioning of the placed

object. Only then will service begin. During charging, the receiver sends control error packets to adjust the power level. Figure 2 illustrates a Qi compatible charger mat. Figure 2: Charging mat for a mobile phone Wireless charging is most practical for mobile phones and accessories. Courtesy of Powermat

The charge mat only transmits power when a valid object is recognized. With no load, or when the battery is fully charged, the mat switches to standby mode. The transmit and receive coils are shielded to obtain good coupling and to reduce stray radiation. Some charge mats use a free moving transmit coil that seeks the object placed above for best coupling, others systems feature multiple transmit coils by engaging only those in close proximity with the object. Figure 3 shows a Qi kit representing the transmitter and receiver.

Figure 3: Wireless charging system by Texas Instruments Qi-compatible transmitter module (left) and the receiver module. Commercial applications are currently limited to 5 watts. Courtesy of Texas Instruments

Drawbacks of Wireless Charging

Inductive charging is not without disadvantages. The California Energy Commission (CEC), Level V, mandates that AC adapters meet a minimum efficiency of 85 percent; Energy Star, Level V, requires 87 percent (European CE uses CEC as a base). Adding the losses of the charger circuit to the AC adapter brings the overall efficiency for a hardwired charger to about 70 percent. Wireless charging has a transfer efficiency of 7080 percent; coupled with their own AC power conversion the overall charge efficiency hovers between 60 and 70 percent. In addition to efficiency losses, the wireless charger includes the readiness mode to identify the placement of an object, a feature that adds to power consumption. Charger manufacturers, including Cadex Electronics, make great efforts to meet regulatory requirements. Losses incurred through less efficient charge methods go against the government-backed Energy Star program, and exceptions may need to be made to allow more energy use to support convenience. With roughly one billion chargers on standby or in charge mode, the extra power consumed is significant. The number of mobile phones is estimated at over five billion in the world; in 2008, 3.2 billion power supplies were manufactured globally; most are plugged into the main drawing power. Lost energy turns into heat and a wireless charger can get quite warm during charge. Any temperature increase to the battery causes undue stress, and batteries charged on wireless devices may not last as long on a mat as on the regular plug-in charger. It should be noted that the heat buildup only occurs during charging; the Qi wireless charger will cool down when the battery is fully charged.

The WPC was very careful when releasing Qi; the first version has a power limit of 5 watts. A medium-power version of up to 120 watts is in the works but this norm must meet stringent radiation standards before release. There are health concerns because the devices operate in close proximity to human activity at a radio frequency ranging from 80300kHz. Some stations transmit at 915MHz, the frequency used to heat food in microwave ovens. Electromagnetic energy from radio towers, mobile phones, Wi-Fi, routers, and now wireless charging, are categorized as non-ionizing radiation and are believed to be harmless. Ionizing rays from x-rays, on the other hand, have been shown to cause cancer. As the number of non-ionizing devices increases, people begin to question safety. Regulatory authorities are waiting for evidence and will only impose restrictions if a health risk can be scientifically proven. Meanwhile, parents object to schools installing Wi-Fi, and homeowners protest about electric meters that communicate data without wires. Radiation from wireless chargers may be seen as harmless because they do not transmit intelligence. In most cases, the household radiation is low enough not to worry, but it is the field strength and close proximity to the source that could add to potential harm. Charging EVs without plug and cable offers the ultimate in convenience as the driver simply parks the vehicle over a transmit coil. Engineers talk about embedding charging coils into highways for continuous charging while driving or when waiting at a traffic light. While this is technically feasible, cost, efficiency and radiation issues at these higher powers are insurmountable challenges. At a transfer efficiency of 8090 percent, 1020 percent of the power is lost. This reflects in a substantial energy cost to the user and should be calculated as a decrease in drivable distance per watts. Applied to a large vehiclepopulation, this goes against the efforts to conserve energy. Daimlers Head of Future Mobility, Professor Herbert Kohler, says that inductive charging for EVs is at least 15 years away and cautioned about safety. The potential radiation of EV charging is higher than Wi-Fi or talking on a mobile phone; it could also endanger people wearing a pacemaker. Besides low efficiency and radiation concerns, wireless charging offers decisive advantages in industry. It allows safe charging in a hazardous environment where an electrical spark through charge contacts could cause an explosion, or where heavy grease, dust and corrosion would make electrical contacts impractical. Wireless charging also helps when multiple insertions would wear out the battery contacts too quickly. There is, however, a cost premium and this is especially apparent in custom devices that cannot take advantage of cost reductions through mass production. Currently, a wireless charging station will cost roughly 25 percent more than a regular charger. A 25 percent premium also applies to the receiver. If the portable device cannot be charged with the battery installed, as is possible with a mobile phone, then each battery would need its own receiver and the battery pack would bear the added cost. Unless wireless charging is necessary for convenience or environmental reasons, charging through battery contact continues to be a practical alternative.

How to Charge - When to Charge Table

Batteries have unique needs and Table 1 explains how to satisfy these desires based of common batteries. Because of similarities within the battery family, we only list lead, nickel and lithium systems. Although each chemistry has its own requirements, there are common denominators that affect the life of all batteries. These are: Keep a moderate temperature. As food stays fresher when refrigerated, so also does cool temperature retard battery corrosion, a life-robbing adversary of any battery. Control discharge. Each cycle wears the battery down by a small amount. A partial discharge before charge is better than a full discharge. Apply a deliberate full discharge only to calibrate a smart battery and to prevent memory on a nickel-based pack. Avoid abuse. Like a machine that is exposed to strenuous work, a battery wears down more quickly if discharged harshly and if force-charged with high currents. Strenuous demands cannot always be prevented, but the user

has the choice of selecting the right battery size, keeping the temperature moderate and following life-extending service guidelines. Batteries for the electric powertrain have changed the philosophy of battery manufacturers from designing packs for maximum energy density, as demanded by the consumer market, to focusing on optimal safety and longevity. Batteries on the road are exposed to extreme environmental hazards; they must perform at maximum duty under severe heat, cold, shock and vibration. Storing energy of several kilowatts, batteries for the electric powertrain can be dangerous if stressed beyond normal conditions. Furthermore, vehicular batteries are expensive and must last for the life of the car. Pampering a battery to achieve an extended service life, as is sometimes possible with a laptop or cell phone pack, is more difficult with a large battery in a vehicle that must deliver high load currents on command and is exposed to freezing temperatures in the winter and blistering summer conditions. The user has limited control as to the care and attention of the battery. This task is passed over to an intelligent battery management system (BMS), which takes over the command and does the supervising. The BMS assumes the duty of a lead commander who must make sure that the troops in a large army are well organized and that all soldiers are marching in the same direction. While a battery in a portable device can have its own personality and occasionally slack off, this liberty does not exist in a large battery system where all members must be of equal strength. Managing fading and failing cells as the battery ages is a complex issue that the BMS must address effectively. Monitoring and eventual replacing the cells or battery groups is far more complex than getting a new pack for a portable device when the old one becomes a nuisance.

Frequently asked question How should I prepare a new battery? Can I damage a battery with incorrect use? Do I need to apply a full charge? Can I disrupt a charge cycle?

Lead acid (Sealed, flooded) Battery comes fully charged. Apply topping charge

Nickel-based (NiCd and NiMH)

Lithium-ion (Li-ion, polymer)

Charge 1416h. Priming may be needed

Apply a topping before use. No priming needed

Keep some charge. Yes, do not store Battery is robust and Low charge can turn partially charged, the performance will off protection keep fully charged improve with use circuit Yes, partial charge Partial charge better Partial charge is fine causes sulfation, than a full charge Yes, partial charge Interruptions can causes no harm cause heat buildup Partial charge causes no harm Deep discharge wears the battery down

No, deep discharge Should I use up Apply scheduled wears battery all battery energy discharges only to down. Charge before charging? prevent memory more often Do I have to worry about memory? No, there is no memory Discharge NiCd every 13 months

No memory

How do I calibrate a Not applicable smart battery? Can I charge with Some UPS the device on? systems simultaneous charge and deliver

Apply discharge/charge when the fuel gauge gets inaccurate. Repeat every 13 months It's best to turn the device off during charge; parasitic load can alter full-charge detection and overcharge battery or cause mini-cycles

current. Must I remove the battery when full? How do I store my battery? Is the battery allowed to heat up during charge? How do I charge when cold? Can I charge at hot temperatures? What should I know about chargers? Depends on charger; needs correct float V Keep cells above 2.10V, charge every 6 months Remove after a few days in charger Store in cool place; a total discharge causes no harm Not necessary; charger turns off Store in cool place partially charged, do not fully drain Battery may get lukewarm towards the end of charge

Battery may get Battery gets warm lukewarm towards but must cool down the end of charge on ready

Slow charge (0.1): 045C (32113F) Do not charge Fast charge (0.51C): 545C (41113F) below freezing Above 25C, Battery will not fully Do not charge lower threshold by charge when hot above 50C (122F) 3mV/C Charger should float at 2.25 2.30V/cell when ready Battery should not get too hot; should include temp sensor Battery must stay cool; no trickle charge when ready

Table 1: Best charging methods. Strenuous demands cannot always be prevented.

Basics About Discharging

The purpose of a battery is to store and release energy at the desired time and in a controlled manner. This section examines discharges under different C-rates and evaluates the depth to which a battery can safely be depleted. Chapter 5 also observes different discharge signatures and explores how certain patterns can affect battery life. But first, lets look at charge and discharge rates, also known as C-rate.

Depth of Discharge
The end-of-discharge voltage for lead acid is 1.75V/cell; nickel-based system is 1.00V/cell; and most Li-ion is 3.00V/cell. At this level, roughly 95 percent of the energy is spent and the voltage would drop rapidly if the discharge were to continue. To protect the battery from over-discharging, most devises prevent operation beyond the specified end-ofdischarge voltage. When removing the load after discharge, the voltage of a healthy battery gradually recovers and rises towards the nominal voltage. Differences in the metal concentration of the electrodes enable this voltage potential when the battery is empty. An aging battery with elevated self-discharge cannot recover the voltage because of the parasitic load. A high load current lowers the battery voltage, and the end-of-discharge voltage threshold should be set lower accordingly. Internal cell resistance, wiring, protection circuits and contacts all add up to overall internal resistance. The cut-off voltage should also be lowered when discharging at very cold temperatures; this compensates for the higher-thannormal internal resistance. Table 1 shows typical end-of-discharge voltages of various battery chemistries.

End-of-discharge Normal load Heavy load

Li-manganese 3.00V/cell 2.70V/cell

Li-phosphate 2.70V/cell 2.45V/cell

Lead acid 1.75V/cell 1.40V/cell

NiCd/NiMH 1.00V/cell 0.90V/cell

Table 1: Recommended end-of-discharge voltage under normal and heavy load The lower end-of-discharge voltage on a high load compensates for the losses induced by the internal battery resistance. Some battery analyzers apply a secondary discharge (recondition) that drains the battery voltage of a nickel-based battery to 0.5V/cell and lower, a cut-off point that is below what manufacturers specify. These analyzers (Cadex) keep the discharge load low to stay within an allowable current while in sub-discharge range. A cell breakdown with a weak cell is possible and reconditioning would cause further deterioration in performance rather than making the battery better. This phenomenon can be compared to the experience of a patient to whom strenuous exercise is harmful.

What Constitutes a Discharge Cycle?

Most understand a discharge/charge cycle as delivering all stored energy, but this is not always the case. Rather than a 100 percent depth of discharge (DoD), manufacturers prefer rating the batteries at 80 percent DoD, meaning that only 80 percent of the available energy is being delivered and 20 percent remains in reserve. A less-than-full discharge increases service life, and manufacturers argue that this is closer to a field representation because batteries are seldom fully discharged before recharge. There are no standard definitions of what constitutes a discharge cycle. A smart battery that keeps track of cycle count may require a depth of discharge of 70 percent to define a discharge cycle; anything less does not count as a cycle. There are many other applications that discharge the battery less. Starting a car, for example, discharges the battery by less than 5 percent, and the depth of discharge in satellites is 6 to 10 percent before the onboard batteries are being recharged during the satellite day. Furthermore, a hybrid car only uses a fraction of the capacity during acceleration before the battery is being recharged.

Discharge Signature
A classic discharge is a battery that delivers a steady load at, say, 0.2C. A flashlight is such an example. Many applications demand momentary loads at double and triple the batterys C-rating, and GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) of a cellular phone is such an example (Figure 2). GSM loads the battery with up to 2A at a pulse rate of 577 micro-seconds (s). This is a large demand for a small 1,000mAh battery; however, with a high frequency the battery begins to behave like a capacitor and the characteristics change.

Figure 2: GSM Pulse of a cellular phone The 577 microsecond pulses adjust to field strength and can reach 2 amperes. Courtesy of Cadex In terms of cycle life, a moderate current at a constant discharge is better than a pulsed or momentary high load. Figure 3 shows the decreasing capacity of a NiMH battery at different load conditions and includes a gentle 0.2C DC discharge, an analog discharge and a pulsed discharge. The cycle life of other battery chemistries is similar under such load conditions. Figure 3: Cycle life of NiMH under different operating conditions NiMH performs best with DC and analog loads; digital loads lower the cycle life. Liion behaves similarly. Source: Zhang (1998)

Figure 4 examines the number of full cycles a Li-ion battery with a cobalt cathode can endure when discharged at different C-rates. At a 2C discharge, the battery exhibits higher stress than at 1C, limiting the cycle count to about 450 before the capacity drops to half level.

Figure 4: Cycle life of Li-ion with cobalt cathode at varying discharge levels The wear-and-tear of a battery increases with higher loads. Source: Choi et al (2002)

For a long time, Li-ion had been considered fragile and unsuitable for high loads. This has changed, and today many lithium-based systems are more robust than the older nickel and lead chemistries. Manganese and phosphate-type Li-ion permit a continuous discharge of 30C. This means that a cell rated at 1,500mAh can provide a steady load of 45A, and this is being achieved primarily by lowering the internal resistance through optimizing the surface area between the active cell materials. Low resistance keeps the temperature down, and running at the maximum permissible discharge current, the cells heat up to about 50C (122F); the maximum temperature is limited to 60C (140F). One of the unique qualities of Li-ion is the ability to deliver continuous high power. This is possible with an electrochemical recovery rate that is far superior to lead acid. The slow electrochemical reaction of lead acid can be compared to a drying felt pen than works for short marking but needs rest to replenish the ink.

Simple Guidelines for Discharging Batteries

The battery performance decreases with cold temperature and increases with heat. Heat increases battery performance but shortens life by a factor of two for every 10C increase above 2530C (18F above 7786F). Although better performing when warm, batteries live longer when kept cool. Operating a battery at cold temperatures does not automatically permit charging under these conditions. Only charge at moderate temperatures. Some batteries accept charge below freezing but at a much-reduced charge current. Check the manufacturers specifications. Use heating blankets if batteries need rapid charging at cold temperatures. Prevent over-discharging. Cell reversal can cause an electrical short. Deploy a larger battery if repetitive deep discharge cycles cause stress. A moderate DC discharge is better for a battery than pulse and aggregated loads. A battery exhibits capacitor-like characteristics when discharging at high frequency. This allows higher peak currents than is possible with a DC load. Lead acid is sluggish and requires a few seconds of recovery between heavy loads.

Calculating the Battery Runtime

If the battery were a perfect power source and behaved linearly, the discharge time could be calculated according to the in-and-out flowing currents. What is put in should be available as an output in the same amount goes the argument, and a one-hour charge at 5A should deliver a one-hour discharge at 5A, or a 5hour discharge at 1A." This is not possible because of intrinsic losses. The output is always less than what has been put in, and the losses escalate with increasing load. High discharge currents make the battery less efficient. To learn about the coulomb counter, see Inner Workings of a Smart Battery.
The efficiency factor of a discharging battery is expressed in the Peukert Law. W. Peukert, a German scientist (1897), was aware of this loss and devised a formula that expresses the loss at a given discharge rate in numbers. Because of sluggish behavior of lead acid, the Peukert numbers apply mostly to this battery chemistry and help in calculating the capacity when loaded at various discharge rates. The Peukert Law takes into account the internal resistance and recovery rate of a battery. A value close to one (1) indicates a well-performing battery with good efficiency and minimal loss; a higher number reflects a less efficient battery. The Peukert Law of a battery is exponentialand the readings for lead acid are between 1.3 and 1.4. Nickel-based batteries have low numbers and lithium-ion is even better. Figure 1 illustrates the available capacity as a function of ampere drawn with different Peukert ratings.

Figure 1: Available capacity of a lead acid battery at Peukert numbers of 1.081.50 A value close to 1 has the smallest losses; higher numbers deliver lower capacities. Source: von Wentzel (2008)

The lead acid battery prefers intermittent loads to a continuous heavy discharge. The rest periods allow the battery to recompose the chemical reaction and prevent exhaustion. This is why lead acid performs well in a starter application with brief 300A cranking loads and plenty of time to recharge in between. All batteries require recovery, and with nickel- and lithium-based system, the electrochemical reaction is much faster than with lead acid. Read more about the Basics About Charging.

The runtime of batteries in portable devices relates to the specific energy marked in Ah (mAh in personal devices). Ah as a performance indicator works best at low discharge currents. At higher loads, the internal resistance begins to play a larger role in the ability to deliver power. Resistance acts as the gatekeeper. Energy in Ah presents the available storage capacity of a battery and is responsible for the runtime; power governs the load current. These two attributes are critical in digital devices that require long runtimes and must deliver highcurrent pulses.

Ah alone is not a reliable runtime indicator and the relationship between capacity and the ability to deliver current can best be illustrated with the Ragone Chart. Named after David V. Ragone, the Ragone chart evaluates batteries not on energy alone but also represents power. Figure 2 illustrates the Ragone chart on a digital camera that is powered by an Alkaline, Lithium (Li-FeS2) or NiMH battery drawing 1.3W. (1.3W at 3V draws 433mA.) The horizontal axis displays energy in Watt/hours and the vertical axis displays power in Watts. The scale is logarithmic to allow a wide selection of battery sizes. Figure 2: Ragone chart illustrates battery performance with various load conditions. Digital camera loads NiMH, Li-FeS2 and Alkaline with 1.3W pulses according to ANSI C18.1 (dotted line). The results are: - Li- FeS2 690 pluses - NiMH 520 pulses - Alkaline 85 pulses Energy = Capacity x V Power = Current x V Courtesy of Exponent The dotted line represents the power demand of the digital camera. All three batteries have similar Ah rating: NiMH delivers the highest power but has the lowest specific energy. This battery works well at high loads such as power tools. The Lithium Li-FeS2 offers the highest specific energy but has moderate loading conditions. Digital cameras and personal medical instruments suit the system well. Alkaline offers an economic solution for lower current drains such as flashlights, remote controls and wall clocks, but a digital camera is stretching the capability of Alkaline. Read more about the Choices of Primary Batteries.

Discharging at High and Low Temperatures

Like humans, batteries function best at room temperature, and any deviation towards hot and cold changes the performance and/or longevity. Operating a battery at elevated temperatures momentarily improves performance by lowering the internal resistance and speeding up the chemical metabolism, but such a condition shortens service life if allowed to continue for a long period of time. Some manufacturers of lead acid batteries make use of the improved performance at warmer temperatures and specify the batteries at a toasty 27C (80F). Cold temperature increases the internal resistance and diminishes the capacity. Batteries that would provide 100 percent capacity at 27C (80F) will typically deliver only 50 percent at 18C (0F). The capacity decrease is linear with temperature. Li-ion also performs better at high temperatures than at low ones. Heat lowers the internal resistance but this stresses the battery. Warming a dying flashlight or cellular phone battery in your jean pocket might provide additional runtime in the winter. As all drivers in cold countries know, a warm battery cranks the car engine easier than a cold one. The dry solid polymer battery uses heat to promote ion flow in what is called a true plastic battery. The battery requires a core temperature of 60 to 100C (140 to 212F) to become conductive. The dry solid polymer has found a niche market for stationary power applications in warm climates where heat serves as a catalyst rather than a disadvantage. Built-in heating elements keep the battery operational at all times. High battery cost and safety concerns have limited the

application of this technology. The more common Li-polymer uses moist electrolyte to enhance conductivity, as discussed earlier. Read more about the Lithium-polymer battery. Batteries achieve optimum service life if used at 20C (68F) or slightly below, and nickel-based chemistries degrade rapidly when cycled at high ambient temperatures. If, for example, a battery operates at 30C (86F) instead of a more moderate room temperature, the cycle life is reduced by 20 percent. At 40C (104F), the loss jumps to a whopping 40 percent, and if charged and discharged at 45C (113F), the cycle life is only half of what can be expected if used at 20C (68F). The performance of all battery chemistries drops drastically at low temperatures. At 20C (4F) most nickel-, lead- and lithium-based batteries stop functioning. Although NiCd can go down to 40C (-40F), the permissible discharge is only 0.2C (5-hour rate). Specially built Li- ion brings the operating temperature down to 40C, but only on discharge and at a reduced discharge. With lead acid we have the danger of the electrolyte freezing, which can crack the enclosure. Lead acid freezes more easily with a low charge when the specific gravity of the electrolyte is more like water. Cell matching by using cells of similar capacity plays an important role when discharging at low temperature under heavy load. Since the cells in a battery pack can never be perfectly matched, a negative voltage potential can occur across a weaker cell on a multi-cell pack if the discharge is allowed to continue beyond a safe cut-off point. Known as cell reversal, the weak cell suffers damage to the point of developing a permanent electrical short. The larger the cell-count, the greater the likelihood that a cell might reverse under load. Over-discharge at a heavy load and low temperature is a large contributor to battery failure of cordless power tools, especially nickel-based packs; Li-ion packs come with protection circuits and the failure rate is lower. Read about Cell Mismatch and Balancing. Users of electric vehicles need to understand that the driving distance specified per charge is given under normal temperature; frigid cold will sharply reduce the available mileage. Using electricity for cabin heating is not the only cause for the shorter driving distance between charging; the battery performance is reduced when cold.

Inner Workings of a Smart Battery

A speaker at a battery conference said, The battery is a wild animal and artificial intelligence domesticates it. Domesticating requires knowing the temperament of a battery, because an ordinary or dumb battery has an uncommunicative manner. Weight, color and size do not reveal its state-of-charge (SoC) and state-of-health (SoH). The user is at the mercy of the battery, and simply charging a battery does not guarantee the expected runtime. Most batteries for laptops and similar devices are smart, meaning that some communication occurs between the battery, the equipment and the user. The definition of smart varies among manufacturers and regulatory authorities. Some call their batteries smart by simply adding a chip that sets the charger to the correct charge algorithm. The Smart Battery System (SBS) forum states that a smart battery must provide state-of-charge (SoC) indications. An increasing number of rechargeable batteries are made smart. Smart means that the battery pack includes some level of intelligence. Equipped with a microchip, these batteries talk to the charger and inform the user of its status, such as indicating state-of-charge. Most smart batteries work on the principle of coulomb counting, a theory that goes back 250 years when Charles-Augustin de Coulomb first established the Coulomb Rule. Figure 1 illustrates a fuel gauge that measures the in-and-out flowing energies; the stored energy represents state-of-charge.

Figure 1: Principle of and fuel gauge based on coulomb counting A circuit measures the in-and-out flowing energy; the stored energy represents stateof-charge. Courtesy of Cadex There are several types of smart batteries, each offering different complexities and cost variants. The most basic smart battery may contain nothing more than a chip that sets the charger to the correct charge algorithm. In the eyes of the Smart Battery System (SBS) forum, these batteries cannot be called smart. What then makes a battery intelligent? Definitions vary among organizations and manufacturers. The SBS forum states that a smart battery must provide SoC indications, and in 1990, Benchmarq was the first company to offer fuel-gauge technology. Today, several manufacturers offer integrated circuit (IC) chips in single-wire and two-wire systems, also known as System Management Bus (SMBus).

Single-wire Bus
The single-wire system delivers communications through one wire. A closer look reveals, however, that the battery still uses three wires. They consist of the data line that also provides the clock information, and the positive and negative battery terminals. For safety reasons, most battery manufacturers also run a separate wire for temperature sensing. Figure 2 shows the layout of a single-wire system.

Figure 2: Single-wire system of a smart battery A single wire provides data communication. For safety reasons, most batteries also feature a separate wire for temperature sensing. Courtesy of Cadex The single-wire system stores the battery code and tracks battery readings that typically include voltage, current, temperature and state-of-charge information. Because of the relatively low hardware cost, the singlewire system is used for less complex and more price-sensitive products such as two-way radios, cameras and portable computing devices. Most single-wire systems do not use a common form factor and this makes standardized state-of-health measurements impossible. Deviating from a set standard poses a further problem with attempting to charge diverse batteries with a universal charger. The Benchmarq single-wire solution, for example, cannot measure the current directly; this information must be extracted from a change in capacity over time. In addition, the single-wire bus only allows battery SoH measurement when marrying the host to a designated battery pack,

and this requires a designated battery. Any deviation from the original battery will make the system unreliable or incompatible.

System Management Bus

The System Management Bus (SMBus) represents a concerted effort from the electronics industry to standardize on one communications protocol and one set of data. The Duracell/Intel smart battery system in use today was standardized in 1993 and consists of two separate lines for data and clock. Figure 3 shows the layout of the two-wire SMBus system.

Figure 3: Two-wire SMBus system The SMBus works on a two-wire system using a standardized communications protocol. This system lends itself to standardized state-of-charge and state-ofhealth measurements. Courtesy of Cadex

An SMBus battery contains permanent and temporary data. The manufacturer programs the permanent data into the battery, which includes battery ID, battery type, manufacturers name, serial number and date of manufacture. The temporary data is being added during use and consists of cycle count, user pattern and maintenance requirements. Some of the information is kept for record, while other data is being renewed throughout the life of the battery. The SMBus is divided into Level 1, 2 and 3. Level 1 has been discontinued because it does not provide chemistry-independent charging. It supported only one chemistry. Level 2 works with in-circuit charging, and a laptop servicing the battery is a typical example. Another application is a battery containing the charging circuit within the pack. Battery and support circuit in Level 2 are married to each other. Level 3 supports external SMBus chargers. Most external SMBus chargers are Level 3 and are expensive to manufacture. Some lower-cost chargers have emerged that accommodate SMBus batteries, but they may not be fully SBS compliant. Manufacturers of SMBus batteries do not completely endorse this shortcut because of safety concerns, but pricing dictates the purchase decisions. Applications such as biomedical instruments, data collection devices and survey equipment lean towards Level 3 chargers with full-fledged charge protocols. The original design philosophy behind the SMBus battery was to remove the charge control from the charger and assign it to the battery. With a true SMBus system, the battery becomes the master and the charger serves as slave that follows the dictates of the battery. This is done out of concerns over charger quality and compatibility with new battery chemistries in applying the correct charge and managing full-charge detection. Such a system makes charging fully transparent to the user, regardless of what chemistry is used. Offering a charger in which the command is embedded in the battery makes sense because the universal charger can charge all compatible batteries. Algorithms of future battery chemistries convert the charger to the correct settings and the charger will never be obsolete. During the 1990s, several SMBus battery packs emerged, including the 35 and 202 (Figure 4). Manufactured by Sony, Hitachi, GP Batteries and others, these batteries work (or should work) in all portable equipment designed for this system.

Figure 4: 35 and 202 series batteries featuring SMBus Available in nickel- and lithiumbased chemistries, these batteries power laptops, biomedical instruments and survey equipment. Non-SMBus (dumb) versions with the same footprint are also available. Courtesy of Cadex The idea was good but the desired standardization did not take hold and most manufacturers went their own way by offering proprietary packs. The reasons are to optimize the form factor and to ensure performance and safety, which can only be guaranteed with the manufacturers own battery brands. This makes good sense, but the leading motive behind this may be pricing policies. In the absence of competition, the batteries can be sold at a premium price. To assure sole ownership, many manufacturers protect the battery with a code that is difficult to break.

Limitations
Twenty years after introducing the smart battery, the battery industry has still not solved key battery problems and this keeps haunting the users. I asked a hospital technician in the USA about the use of smart batteries and he provided me with his frank opinion. Lets examine why the smart battery does not fulfill all the promises made in the 1990s. There is a notion that a battery indicating 100 percent SoC is good. This is not always the case because the user has no knowledge of the capacity level. The readout can be deceiving because the actual runtime is a product of capacity and SoC. Technicians also fret over the lack of standardization between manufactures, and there is little compatibility among packs. Other issues with SMBus batteries are logic problems, memory errors and glitches on low-voltage recovery. Custom-designed systems are said to be the most reliable. Compliance among SMBus batteries and chargers is not improving. Unlike other tightly regulated standard formats, such as the long-play record introduced in the late 1950s, the audiocassette of the 1960s, the VCR of the 1970s, ISDN and GSM of the 1980s, or USB and MP3 in the 1990s, the SMBus protocol permits variations that include adding check bids to halt service if the circuit crashes, counting the number of discharges to advise on calibration and disallowing a charge if a certain fault condition occurs. While these additions are good by themselves, they cause compatibility problems with some chargers. Ironically, the more features that are added to the SMBus battery and charger, the higher the likelihood of incompatibilities. Before implementing a system, SMBus batteries and chargers should be checked for proper function. The need to approve the marriage between battery and charger is unfortunate, given the assurance that SMBus technology would simplify life and not make it more complex. Can this be the reason why the smart battery has not received the acceptance battery manufacturers had hoped for? When the SMBus battery was conceived in the early 1990s, cost was not as critical as it is now. Today, customers want products that are economically priced. Adding high-level intelligence to the battery may simply be too expensive for the purpose it serves. Some engineers go so far as to say that the SMBus battery is a misguided principle. An SMBus battery costs about 25 percent more than the dumb equivalent, and this is also reflected in the charger. Instead of simplification, a full-fledged Level 3 charger must work as a hybrid by providing full charging function when charging dumb batteries and becoming a slave to obey the dictates of the battery on an SMBus-controlled charge. A large part of the cost is making the two systems compatible, and progress is being made in standardizing.

Besides electrical compliance, battery shape also varies and nowhere is this diversity more visible than with laptop packs. The efforts made in the 1990s to standardize on battery size did not materialize as expected and today each device comes with its own unique pack. Large-scale batteries for the electric powertrains also have their own batteries. This may one day change by making batteries with a common form factor available.

Provides state-of-charge status Records battery history such as cycle count, user pattern, maintenance requirements, etc. Reminds user of periodic service Protects battery from unauthorized use Adds 25% to the cost of a battery Complicates charger; most chargers for intelligent battery are hybrid and also service non-intelligent batteries Requires periodic calibration Readout only shows state-of-charge and not actual runtime Table 6-8: Advantages and limitations of the smart battery. The smart battery has not enjoyed the same success as with other standards, and this may have to do with lack of enforced standards.

Advantages

Limitations

Simple Guidelines for Using Smart Batteries

Calibrate a smart battery by applying a full discharge and charge every three months or after every 40 partial cycles. A 100 percent fuel gauge does not assure a good battery, nor does an inaccurate fuel gauge tell for certain that the battery is bad. Not all chargers are compatible with a smart battery, nor can all batteries be serviced on a given charger. Replace the battery with the same brand, or use an equivalent that is fully compatible. Always test the battery and the charger before use. Exercise caution when using a smart battery that does not indicate state-of-charge correctly. This battery may be faulty or not fully compatible with the equipment.

Battery Calibration
The fuel gauge has the inherent drawback that it needs periodic calibration, also known as capacity re-learning. This is unfortunate, but is required to correct the tracking error that develops between the chemical and digital battery over many charge and discharge cycles. Calibration could be omitted if the battery received a full charge followed by a full discharge at a constant current. This way, the battery would reset with each full cycle and the tracking error would be kept at less than one percent per cycle. In real life, however, a battery may be discharged for a few minutes with a load signature

that is difficult to capture, then is partially recharged and stored with varying levels of self-discharge depending on temperature. These anomalies contribute to an unavoidable error. The true capacity of the battery begins to deviate from the fuel gauge readout and the battery needs to re-learn. Battery engineers say jokingly that Liion got rid of memory and SMBus adds digital memory. Calibration occurs naturally by occasionally running the equipment down until the battery is fully depleted and Low Battery appears. The full discharge sets the discharge flag, and the subsequent recharge sets the charge flag. By establishing these two markers, the battery can calculate the state-of-charge by knowing the distance between the flags. Figure 1 illustrates the full-discharge and full-charge flags.

Figure 1: Full-discharge and full-charge flags Calibration occurs by applying a full charge, discharge and charge. This is done in the equipment or with a battery analyzer as part of battery maintenance. Courtesy Cadex How often does a battery need calibrating? The answer depends on the application. For practical purposes, a calibration should be done once every three months or after 40 partial cycles. If the portable device applies a periodic deep discharge on its own, no additional calibration will be needed. However, if the equipment had been in constant battery power with no full-discharge interval for a period of a few months, then a deliberate discharge is recommended. This can be done in the equipment, with a charger featuring a discharge function or a battery analyzer. Avoid doing too many deep discharges for the sake of calibration because this would wear the battery down. What happens if the battery is not calibrated regularly? Can such a battery be used with confidence? Most smart battery chargers obey the dictates of the chemical battery rather than the electronic circuit, and there are no safety issues. In spite of being out of calibration, the battery charges fully and functions normally; however, the digital readout may become increasingly more inaccurate and will eventually become a nuisance.

Lithium-based Batteries
Pioneer work with the lithium battery began in 1912 under G.N. Lewis, but it was not until the early 1970s that the first non-rechargeable lithium batteries became commercially available. Attempts to develop rechargeable lithium batteries followed in the 1980s but the endeavor failed because of instabilities in the metallic lithium used as anode material. Lithium is the lightest of all metals, has the greatest electrochemical potential and provides the largest specific energy per weight. Rechargeable batteries with lithium metal on the anode (negative electrodes)* could provide extraordinarily high energy densities; however, it was discovered in the mid 1980s that cycling produced unwanted dendrites on the anode. These growth particles penetrate the separator and cause an electrical short. When this occurs, the cell temperature rises quickly and approaches the melting point of lithium, causing thermal runaway, also known as venting with flame. A large number of rechargeable metallic lithium batteries

sent to Japan were recalled in 1991 after a battery in a mobile phone released flaming gases and inflicted burns to a mans face. The inherent instability of lithium metal, especially during charging, shifted research to a non-metallic solution using lithium ions. Although lower in specific energy than lithium-metal, Li-ion is safe, provided cell manufacturers and battery packers follow safety measures in keeping voltage and currents to secure levels. Read more about Protection Circuits. In 1991, Sony commercialized the first Li-ion battery, and today this chemistry has become the most promising and fastest growing on the market. Meanwhile, research continues to develop a safe metallic lithium battery. The specific energy of Li-ion is twice that of NiCd, and the high nominal cell voltage of 3.60V as compared to 1.20V for nickel systems contributes to this gain. Improvements in the active materials of the electrode have the potential of further increases in energy density. The load characteristics are good, and the flat discharge curve offers effective utilization of the stored energy in a desirable voltage spectrum of 3.70 to 2.80V/cell. Nickelbased batteries also have a flat discharge curve that ranges from 1.25 to 1.0V/cell. In 1994, the cost to manufacture Li-ion in the 18650** cylindrical cell with a capacity of 1,100mAh was more than $10. In 2001, the price dropped to $2 and the capacity rose to 1,900mAh. Today, high energy-dense 18650 cells deliver over 3,000mAh and the costs have dropped further. Cost reduction, increase in specific energy and the absence of toxic material paved the road to make Li-ion the universally accepted battery for portable application, first in the consumer industry and now increasingly also in heavy industry, including electric powertrains for vehicles. In 2009, roughly 38 percent of all batteries by revenue were Li-ion. Li-ion is a low-maintenance battery, an advantage many other chemistries cannot claim. The battery has no memory and does not need exercising (deliberate full discharge) to keep in shape. Self-discharge is less than half that of nickel-based systems. This makes Li-ion well suited for fuel gauge applications. The nominal cell voltage of 3.60V can directly power cell phones and digital cameras, offering simplifications and cost reductions over multi-cell designs. The drawbacks are the need for protection circuits to prevent abuse, as well as high price.

Types of Lithium-ion Batteries

Similar to the lead- and nickel-based architecture, lithium-ion uses a cathode (positive electrode), an anode (negative electrode) and electrolyte as conductor. The cathode is a metal oxide and the anode consists of porous carbon. During discharge, the ions flow from the anode to the cathode through the electrolyte and separator; charge reverses the direction and the ions flow from the cathode to the anode. Figure 1 illustrates the process. Figure 1: Ion flow in lithium-ion battery. When the cell charges and discharges, ions shuttle between cathode (positive electrode) and anode (negative electrode). On discharge, the anode undergoes oxidation, or loss of electrons, and the cathode sees a reduction, or a gain of electrons. Charge reverses the movement.

Li-ion batteries come in many varieties but all have one thing in common the catchword lithium-ion. Although strikingly similar at first glance, these batteries vary in performance, and the choice of cathode materials gives them their unique personality. Common cathode materials are Lithium Cobalt Oxide (or Lithium Cobaltate), Lithium Manganese Oxide (also known as spinel or Lithium Manganate), Lithium Iron Phosphate, as well as Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt (or NMC)*** and Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (or NCA). All these materials possess a theoretical specific energy with given limits. (Lithium-ion has a theoretically capacity of about 2,000kWh. This is more than 10 times the specific energy of a commercial Li-ion battery.) Sonys original lithium-ion battery used coke as the anode (coal product). Since 1997, most Li-ion manufacturers, including Sony, have shifted to graphite to attain a flatter discharge curve. Graphite is a form of carbon that is also used in the lead pencil. It stores lithium-ion well when the battery is charged and has longterm cycle stability. Among the carbon materials, graphite is the most commonly used, followed by hard and soft carbons. Other carbons, such as carbon nanotubes, have not yet found commercial use. Figure 2-8 illustrates the voltage discharge curve of a modern Li-ion with graphite anode and the early coke version.

Figure 2: Voltage discharge curve of lithium-ion A battery should have a flat voltage curve in the usable discharge range. The modern graphite anode does this better than the early coke version. Courtesy of Cadex

Developments also occur on the anode and several additives are being tried, including silicon-based alloys. Silicon achieves a 20 to 30 percent increase in specific energy at the cost of lower load currents and reduced cycle life. Nano-structured lithium-titanate as an anode additive shows promising cycle life, good load capabilities, excellent low-temperature performance and superior safety, but the specific energy is low. Mixing cathode and anode material allows manufacturers to strengthen intrinsic qualities; however, enhancing one attribute may compromise another. Battery makers can, for example, optimize the specific energy (capacity) to achieve extended runtime, increase the specific power for improved current loading, extend service life for better longevity, and enhance safety to endure environmental stresses. But there are drawbacks. A higher capacity reduces the current loading; optimizing current loading lowers the specific energy; and ruggedizing a cell for long life and improved safety increases battery size and adds to cost due to a thicker separator. The separator is said to be the most expensive part of a battery. Manufacturers can attain a high specific energy and low cost relatively easily by adding nickel in lieu of cobalt, but this makes the cell less stable. While a start-up company may focus on high specific energy to gain quick market acceptance, safety and durability cannot be compromised. Reputable manufacturers place high integrity on safety and longevity. Table 3 summarizes the characteristics of Li-ion with different cathode material. The table limits the chemistries to the four most commonly used lithium-ion systems and applies the short form to describe them. The batteries are Li-cobalt, Li-manganese, Li-phosphate and NMC. NMC stands for nickel-manganese-cobalt, a chemistry that is relatively new and can be tailored for applications needing either high capacity or high loading

capabilities. Lithium-ion-polymer is not mentioned as this is not a unique chemistry and only differs in construction. Li-polymer can be made in various chemistries and the most widely used format is Li-cobalt.

Specifications Voltage Charge limit Cycle life2 Operating temperature

Li-cobalt LiCoO2 (LCO) 3.60V 4.20V 5001,000 Average

Li-manganese Li-phosphate LiMn2O4 (LMO) LiFePO4 (LFP) 3.80V 4.20V 5001,000 Average 3.30V 3.60V 1,0002,000 Good 90120Wh/kg

NMC1 LiNiMnCoO2 3.60/3.70V 4.20V 1,0002,000 Good 140-180Wh/kg

Specific energy 150190Wh/kg 100135Wh/kg Specific power 1C 10C, 40C pulse

35C continuous 10C Very safe, needs cell balancing and V protection. 270C (518F) High 1999 A123, Valence, GS Yuasa, BYD, JCI/Saft, Lishen High power, average specific energy, elevated selfdischarge Safer than Licobalt. Needs cell balancing and protection. 210C (410F) High 2003 Sony, Sanyo, LG Chem, GS Yuasa, Hitachi Samsung Very high specific energy, high power; tools, medical, EVs

Safety

Average. Requires protection circuit and cell balancing of multi cell pack. Requirements for small formats with 1 or 2 cells can be relaxed 150C (302F) Raw material high 1994 250C (482F) Moli Energy, NEC Hitachi, Samsung 1996 Hitachi, Samsung, Sanyo, GS Yuasa, LG Chem, Toshiba Moli Energy, NEC High power, good to high specific energy; power tools, medical, EVs

Thermal. runaway3 Cost In use since

Sony, Sanyo, GS Yuasa, LG Researchers, Chem Samsung manufacturers Hitachi, Toshiba Very high specific energy, limited power; cell phones, laptops

Notes

Table 3: Characteristics of the four most commonly used lithium-ion batteries Specific energy refers to capacity (energy storage); specific power denotes load capability.
1

NMC, NCM, CMN, CNM, MNC and MCN are basically the same. The stoichiometry is usually Li[Ni(1/3)Co(1/3)Mn(1/3)]O2. The order of Ni, Mn and Co does not matter much.
2

Application and environment govern cycle life; the numbers do not always apply correctly. A fully charged battery raises the thermal runaway temperature, a partial charge lowers it.

Never was the competition to find an ideal battery more intense than today. Manufacturers see new applications for automotive propulsion systems, as well as stationary and grid storage, also knows as load leveling. At time of writing, the battery industry speculates that the Li-manganese and/or NMC might be the winners for the electric powertrain. Industrys experience has mostly been in portable applications, and the long-term suitability of batteries for automotive use is still unknown. A clear assessment of the cycle life, performance and long-term operating cost will only be known after having gone through a few generations of batteries for vehicles with electric powertrains, and more is known about the customers behavior and climate conditions under which the batteries are exposed. Table 4 summarizes the advantages and limitations of Li-ion.

High energy density Advantages Relatively low self-discharge; less than half that of NiCd and NiMH Low maintenance. No periodic discharge is needed; no memory. Requires protection circuit to limit voltage and current Subject to aging, even if not in use (aging occurs with all batteries Limitations and modern Li-ion systems have a similar life span to other chemistries) Transportation regulations when shipping in larger quantities Table 4: Advantages and limitations of Li-ion batteries

* When consuming power, as in a diode, vacuum tube or a battery on charge, the anode is positive; when withdrawing power, as in a battery on discharge, the anode becomes negative. ** Standard of a cylindrical Li-ion cell developed in the mid 1990s; measures 18mm in diameter and 65mm in length; commonly used for laptops. Read more about Battery Formats. *** Some Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide systems go by designation of NCM, CMN, CNM, MNC and MCN. The systems are basically the same.

Types of Lithium-ion
The casual battery user may think there is only one lithium-ion battery. As there are many species of apple trees, so do also lithium-ion batteries vary and the difference lies mainly in the cathode materials. Innovative materials are also appearing in the anode to modify or replace graphite. Scientists prefer to name batteries by their chemical name and the material used, and unless you are a chemist, these terms might get confusing. Table 1 offers clarity by listing these batteries by their full name, chemical definition, abbreviations and short form. (When appropriate, this essay will use the short form.) To complete the list of popular Li-ion batteries, the table also includes NCA and Li-titanate, two lesser-known members of the Li-ion family.

Chemical name Lithium Cobalt Oxide1 Also Lithium Cobalate or lithiumion-cobalt) Lithium Manganese Oxide1 Also Lithium Manganate or lithium-ionmanganese Lithium Iron Phosphate1 Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide1, also lithium-manganesecobalt-oxide Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide1 Lithium Titanate2

Material

Abbreviation

Short form

Notes High capacity; for cell phone laptop, camera

LiCoO2 (60% Co)

LCO

Li-cobalt

LiMn2O4

LMO

Li-manganese, or spinel

LiFePO4

LFP

Li-phosphate

LiNiMnCoO2 (1020% Co)

NMC

NMC

Most safe; lower capacity than Licobalt but high specific power and long life. Power tools, e-bikes, EV, medical, hobbyist.

LiNiCoAlO2 9% Co) Li4Ti5O12

NCA LTO

NCA Li-titanate

Gaining importance in electric powertrain and grid storage

Table 1: Reference names for Li-ion batteries.We willuse the short form when appropriate.
1

Cathode material

Anode material

To learn more about the unique characters and limitations of the six most common lithium-ion batteries, we use spider charts and look at the overall performance. We begin with Li-cobalt, the most commonly used battery for high-end consumer products, and then move to Li-manganese and Li- phosphate, batteries deployed in power tools, and finally address the newer players such as NME, NCA and Li-titanate.

Lithium Cobalt Oxide(LiCoO2)

Its high specific energy make Li-cobalt the popular choice for cell phones, laptops and digital cameras. The battery consists of a cobalt oxide cathode and a graphite carbon anode. The cathode has a layered structure and during discharge lithium ions move from the anode to the cathode. The flow reverses on charge. The drawback of Li-cobalt is a relatively short life span and limited load capabilities (specific power). Figure 2 illustrates the structure.

Figure 2: Li-cobalt structure The cathode has a layered structure. Duringdischarge the lithium ions move from the anode to the cathode; on charge the flow is from anode to cathode. Courtesy of Cadex Li-cobalt cannot be charged and discharged at a current higher than its rating. This means that an 18650 cell with 2,400mAh can only be charged and discharged at 2,400mA. Forcing a fast charge or applying a load higher than 2,400mA causes overheating and undue stress. For optimal fast charge, the manufacturer recommends a C-rate of 0.8C or 1920mA. [BU-402, What is C-rate?] The mandatory battery protection circuit limits the charge and discharge rate to a safe level of about 1C. Figure 3 summarizes the performance of Li-cobalt in terms of specific energy,or capacity; specific power,or the ability to deliver high current; safety; performanceat hot and cold temperatures; life spanreflecting cycle life and longevity; and cost.The hexagonal spider web provides a quick and easy performance analysis of the battery characteristics.

Figure 3: Snapshot of an average Licobalt battery Li-cobalt excels on high specific energy but offers only moderate performance specific power, safety and life span. Courtesy of Cadex

Lithium Manganese Oxide (LiMn2O4)

Lithium insertion in manganese spinels was first published in the Materials Research Bulletin in 1983. In 1996, Moli Energy commercialized a Li-ion cell with lithium manganese oxide as a cathode material. The architecture forms a three-dimensional spinel structure that improves ion flow on the electrode, which results in lower internal resistance and improves current handling. A further advantage of spinel is high thermal stability and enhanced safety, but the cycle and calendar life is limited. Low internal cell resistance is key to fast charging and high-current discharging. In an 18650 package, Limanganese can be discharged at currents of 2030A with moderate heat buildup. It is also possible to apply one-second load pulses of up to 50A. A continuous high load at this current would cause heat buildup and the cell temperature cannot exceed 80C (176F). Li-manganese is used for power tools, medical instruments, as well as hybrid and electric vehicles. Figure 4 shows the crystalline formation of the cathode in a three-dimensional framework. This spinel structure, which is usually composed of diamond shapes connected into a lattice, appears after initial formation.

Figure 4: Li-manganese structure The cathode crystalline formation of lithium manganese oxide has a threedimensional framework structure that appears after initial formation. Spinel provides low resistance but has a more moderate specific energy than cobalt. Courtesy of Cadex Li-manganese has a capacity that is roughly one-third lower compared to Li-cobalt but the battery still offers about 50 percent more energy than nickel-based chemistries. Design flexibility allows engineers to maximize the battery for either optimal longevity (life span), maximum load current (specific power) or high capacity (specific energy). For example, the long-life version in the 18650 cell has a moderate capacity of 1,100mAh; the high-capacity version is 1,500mAh but has a reduced service life. Laptop manufacturers would likely choose the high-capacity version for maximum runtime; whereas the maker of cars with the electric powertrain would take the long-life version with high specific power and sacrifice on runtime. Figure 5 shows the spider web of a typical Li-manganese battery. In this chart, all characteristics are marginal; however, newer designs have improved in terms of specific power, safety and life span.

Figure 5: Snapshot of a typical Limanganese battery Although moderate in overall performance, newer designs of Limanganese offer improvements in specific power, safety and life span. Courtesy of BCG research

Lithium Iron Phosphate(LiFePO4)

In 1996, the University of Texas (and other contributors) discovered phosphate as cathode material for rechargeable lithium batteries. Li-phosphate offers good electrochemical performance with low resistance. This is made possible with nano-scale phosphate cathode material. The key benefits are enhanced safety, good thermal stability, tolerant to abuse, high current rating and long cycle life. Storing a fully charged battery has minimal impact on the life span. As trade-off, the lower voltage of 3.3V/cell reduces the specific energy to slightly less than Li-manganese. In addition, cold temperature reduces performance, and elevated storage temperature shortens the service life (better than lead acid, NiCd or NiMH). Li-phosphate has a higher selfdischarge than other Li-ion batteries, which can cause balancing issues with aging. Figure 6 summarizes the attributes of Li-phosphate.

Figure 6: Snapshot of a typical Liphosphate battery Li-phosphate has excellent safety and long life span but moderate specific energy and elevated self-discharge. Courtesy of BCG research

Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (LiNiMnCoO2)

Leading battery manufacturers focus on a cathode combination of nickel-manganese-cobalt (NMC). Similar to Li-manganese, these systems can also be tailored to high specific energy or high specific power, but not both. For example, NMC in an 18650 cell for consumer use can be tweaked to 2,250mAh, but the specific power is moderate. NMC in the same cell optimized for high specific power has a capacity of only 1,500mAh. A siliconbased anode will be able to go to 4,000mAh; however, the specific power and the cycle life may be compromised. The secret of NMC lies in combining nickel and manganese. An analogy of this is table salt, in which the main ingredients of sodium and chloride are toxic on their own but mixing them serves as seasoning salt and food preserver. Nickel is known for its high specific energy but low stability; manganese has the benefit of forming a spinel structure to achieve very low internal resistance but offers a low specific energy. Combining the metals brings out the best in each. NMC is the battery of choice for power tools and powertrains for vehicles. The cathode combination of onethird nickel, one-third manganese and one-third cobalt offers a unique blend that also lowers raw material cost due to reduced cobalt content. Striking the right balance is important and manufacturers keep their recipes a well-guarded secret. Figure 7 demonstrates the characteristics of the NMC.

Figure 7: Snapshot of NMC NMC has good overall performance and excels on specific energy. This battery is the preferred candidate for the electric vehicle and has the lowest self-heating rate. Courtesy of BCG research

Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (LiNiCoAlO2)

The Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide battery, or NCA, is less commonly used in the consumer market; however, high specific energy and power densities, as well as a long life span, get the attention of the automotive industry. Less flattering are safety and cost. Figure 8 demonstrates the strong points against areas for further development.

Figure 8: Snapshot of NCA High energy and power densities, as well as good life span, make the NCA a candidate for EV powertrains. High cost and marginal safety are negatives. Courtesy of BCG research

Lithium Titanate (Li4Ti5O12)

Batteries with lithium titanate anodes have been known since the 1980s. Li-titanate replaces the graphite in the anode of a typical lithium-ion battery and the material forms into a spinel structure. Li-titanate has a nominal cell voltage of 2.40V, can be fast-charged and delivers a high discharge current of 10C, or 10 times the rated capacity. The cycle count is said to be higher than that of a regular Li-ion; the battery is safe, has excellent lowtemperature discharge characteristics and obtains a capacity of 80 percent at 30C (22F). At 65Wh/kg, the specific energy is low. Li-titanate charges to 2.80V/cell, and the end of discharge is 1.80V/cell. Figure 9 illustrates the characteristics of the Li-titanate battery.

Figure 9: Snapshot of Li-titanate Li-titanate excels in safety, lowtemperature performance and life span. Efforts are being made to improve the specific energy and lower cost. Courtesy of BCG research Figure 10 compares the specific energy of lead, nickel- and lithium-based systems. While Li-cobalt is the clear winner by being able to store more capacity than other systems, this only applies to specific energy. In terms of specific power (load characteristics) and thermal stability, Li-manganese and Li-phosphate are superior. As we move towards electric powertrains, safety and cycle life will become more important than capacity.

Figure 10: Typical energy densities of lead, nickel- and lithium-based batteries Lithium-cobalt enjoys the highest specific energy; however, manganese and phosphate are superior in terms of specific power and thermal stability.

Nickel-based Batteries
The following section describes nickel-based batteries, and we begin with nickel-cadmium (NiCd), an older chemistry for which extensive data is available. Much of these characteristics also apply to nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH), as these two systems are close cousins. The toxicity of NiCd is limiting this solid and robust battery to specialty applications.

Nickel-cadmium (NiCd)
The nickel-cadmium battery, invented by Waldmar Jungner in 1899, offered several advantages over lead acid, but the materials were expensive and the early use was restricted. Developments lagged until 1932 when attempts were made to deposit the active materials inside a porous nickel-plated electrode. Further improvements occurred in 1947 by trying to absorb the gases generated during charge. This led to the modern sealed NiCd battery in use today. For many years, NiCd was the preferred battery choice for two-way radios, emergency medical equipment, professional video cameras and power tools. In the late 1980s, the ultra-high-capacity NiCd rocked the world with capacities that were up to 60 percent higher than the standard NiCd. This was done by packing more active material into the cell, but the gain was met with the side effects of higher internal resistance and shorter cycle. The standard NiCd remains one of the most rugged and forgiving batteries but needs proper care to attain longevity. It is perhaps for this reason that NiCd is the favorite battery of many engineers. Table 1 lists the advantages and limitations of the standard NiCd.

Advantages

Fast and simple charging even after prolonged storage High number of charge/discharge cycles; provides over 1,000 charge/discharge cycles with proper maintenance

Good load performance; rugged and forgiving if abused Long shelf life; can be stored in a discharged state Simple storage and transportation; not subject to regulatory control Good low-temperature performance Economically priced; NiCd is the lowest in terms of cost per cycle Available in a wide range of sizes and performance options Relatively low specific energy compared with newer systems Memory effect; needs periodic full discharges Limitations Environmentally unfriendly; cadmium is a toxic metal and cannot be disposed of in landfills High self-discharge; needs recharging after storage Table 1: Advantages and limitations of NiCd batteries

Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH)
Research of nickel-metal-hydride started in 1967; however, instabilities with the metal-hydride led scientists to develop the nickel-hydrogen battery (NiH) instead. Today, NiH is mainly used in satellites. New hydride alloys discovered in the 1980s offered better stability and the development of NiMH advanced in earnest. Today, NiMH provides 40 percent higher specific energy than a standard NiCd, but the decisive advantage is the absence of toxic metals. The advancements of NiMH are impressive. Since 1991, the specific energy has doubled and the life span extended. The hype of lithium-ion may have dampened the enthusiasm for NiMH a bit but not to the point to turn HEV makers away from this proven technology. Batteries for the electric powertrain in vehicles must meet some of the most demanding challenges, and NiMH has two major advantages over Li-ion here. These are price and safety. Makers of hybrid vehicles claim that NiMH costs one-third of an equivalent Li-ion system, and the relaxation on safety provisions contribute in part to this price reduction. Nickel-metal-hydride is not without drawbacks. For one, it has a lower specific energy than Li-ion, and this is especially true with NiMH for the electric powertrain. The reader should be reminded that NiMH and Li-ion with high energy densities are reserved for consumer products; they would not be robust enough for the hybrid and electric vehicles. NiMH and Liion for the electric powertrain have roughly one-third less capacity than consumer batteries. NiMH also has high self-discharge and loses about 20 percent of its capacity within the first 24 hours, and 10 percent per month thereafter. Modifying the hydride materials lowers the self-discharge and reduces corrosion of the alloy, but this decreases the specific energy. Batteries for the electric powertrain make use of this modification to achieve the needed robustness and life span. There are strong opinions and preferences between battery chemistries, and some experts say that NiMH will serve as an interim solution to the more promising lithium systems. There are many hurdles surrounding Li-ion also and these are cost and safety. Li-ion cells are not offered to the public in AA, AAA and other popular sizes in part because of safety. Even if they were made available, Li-ion has a higher voltage compared to nickel-based batteries.

Consumer Application
NiMH has become one of the most readily available and low-cost rechargeable batteries for portable devices. NiMH is non-toxic and offers a higher specific energy than NiCd. Battery manufacturers, such as Sanyo, Energizer, Duracell and GP, have recognized the need for a durable and low-cost rechargeable battery for consumers and offer NiMH in AA and

AAA sizes. The battery manufacturers hope to persuade buyers to switch to rechargeable batteries and reduce the environmental impact of throwaway primary cells. The NiMH battery for the consumer market can be viewed as an alternative to the failed reusable alkaline that appeared in the 1990s. Limited cycle life and poor loading characteristics hindered its success. What is of ongoing concern to the consumer using rechargeable batteries is the high self-discharge, and NiMH behaves like a leaky basketball or bicycle tire. A flashlight or portable entertainment device with a NiMH battery gets flat when put away for only a few weeks. Having to recharge the device before each use does not sit well. The Eneloop NiMH by Sanyo has reduced the self-discharge by a factor of six. This means that you can store the charged battery six times longer than a regular NiMH before a recharge becomes necessary. The drawback is a slightly lower specific energy compared to a regular NiMH. Other NiMH manufacturers such as ReCyko by GP claim similar results. Table 2 summarizes the advantages and limitations of industrial-grade NiMH. The table does not include the Eneloop and equivalent consumer brands.

3040 percent higher capacity than a standard NiCd Less prone to memory than NiCd Advantages Simple storage and transportation; not subject to regulatory control Environmentally friendly; contains only mild toxins Nickel content makes recycling profitable Limited service life; deep discharge reduces service life Requires complex charge algorithm Does not absorb overcharge well; trickle charge must be kept low Limitations Generates heat during fast-charge and high-load discharge High self-discharge; chemical additives reduce self-discharge at the expense of capacity Performance degrades if stored at elevated temperatures; should be stored in a cool place at about 40 percent state-of-charge Table 2: Advantages and limitations of NiMH batteries

Cycle Performance
As part of ongoing research to examine performance degradation caused by cycling, Cadex tested a large volume of portable batteries for wireless communication devices. The population consists of nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal-hydride and lithium-ion. The batteries were prepared by applying an initial charge, followed by a regime of full discharge/charge cycles. The internal resistance was measured with OhmTest and the self-discharge was obtained from time to time by reading the capacity loss incurred during a 48-hour rest period. The tests were carried out on the Cadex 7000 Seriesbattery analyzers.

Nickel-cadmium

In terms of life cycling, nickel-cadmium is the most enduring battery. Figure 1 illustrates the capacity, internal resistance and self-discharge of a 7.2V, 900mA pack with standard NiCd cells. Due to time constraints, the test was terminated after 2,300 cycles. The capacity remained steady; the internal resistance stayed low at 75mWand the self-discharge was stable. This battery receives a grade A rating for almost perfect performance.

Figure 1: Performance of standard NiCd (7.2V, 900mAh) This battery receives an A rating for a stable capacity, low internal resistance and moderate self-discharge over many cycles. Courtesy of Cadex The ultra-high-capacity nickel-cadmium offers up to 60 percent higher specific energy compared to the standard version, however, this comes at the expense of reduced cycle life. In Figure 2 we observe a steady drop of capacity during 2,000 cycles, a slight increase in internal resistance and a rise in self-discharge after 1,000 cycles.

Figure 2: Performance of ultra-high-capacity NiCd (6V, 700mAh) This battery offers higher specific energy than the standard version at the expense of reducedcycle life. Courtesy of Cadex

Nickel-metal-hydride
Figure 3 examines NiMH, a battery that offers high specific energy at a reasonably low cost. We observe good performance at first but past the 300-cycle mark, the capacity starts to drift downwards rapidly. One can detect a swift increase in internal resistance and self-discharge after cycle count 700. NiMH has a higher specific energy than nickelcadmium and does not contain toxic metals. The test battery was an older generation; new NiMH performs better.

Figure 3: Performance of NiMH (6V, 950mAh) This battery offers good performance at first but past 300 cycles, the capacity, internal resistance and self-discharge start to increase rapidly. Newer NiMH has better results. Courtesy of Cadex

Lithium-ion
Figure 4 examines the capacity and internal resistance of lithium-ion. We observe a gentle and predictable capacity drop over 1,000 cycles while the internal resistance increases only slightly. Because of low readings, we omit self-discharge. Lithium-ion offers the highest specific energy among the above-mentioned chemistries, contains little or no toxic metals, but needs protection circuits to ensure safe operation. Li-ion is also more expensive to manufacture than the nickel-based equivalent. Batteries tested in a laboratory environment tend to give better results than when used in the field; elements of stress in everyday use do not transfer well into the laboratory. Aging plays a minimal role in a lab because the batteries are cycled over a period of a few months rather than the expected service life of a few years. The temperature is often moderate and the batteries are charged with proper charge equipment, an advantage that the field cannot always claim.

Figure 4: Performance of lithium-ion (3.6V, 500mA) Lithium-ion offers good capacity and steady internal resistance over 1,000 cycles. Self-discharge was omitted because of low readings Courtesy of Cadex The load signature of the discharge plays an important role when testing batteries, and our laboratory batteries were discharged with an even DC load. Cellular phones and other digital devices draw pulsed loads that stress the battery more than with DC. One could argue, however, that the lab tests apply a full discharge whereas the field user discharges the battery to about 80 percent. The degradation of a battery receiving a 100 percent discharge with a DC load may not be the same as an 80 percent discharge on a pulsed load, and we keep this possible discrepancy in mind when studying the results. The tests were done with batteries from an earlier generation. Newer models show improved results, and this is especially apparent with NiMH. The internal resistance of the modern NiMH is similar to NiCd, so is the cycle life. The Li-ion battery tested was Li-cobalt for cellular phones. We excluded lead acid from the test because this battery is seldom used for portable applications. Lead acid is heavy and does not cycle well, especially on full discharges. The outcome of battery tests depends very much on the application for which the battery is designed, and we distinguish between consumer and industrial use. With the advent of the electric powertrain, a new category of batteries is emerging. Built for safety and longevity, these batteries have a specific energy that is typically only one-half that of consumer batteries.

A look at Old and New Battery Packaging

Early batteries of the 1700s and 1800s were mostly encased in glass jars, and as the batteries grew in size, sealed wooden containers were used. With the need for portability, sealed cylindrical cells appeared that eventually led to some standardization in size format. To satisfy our curiosity, lets explore the history of these battery norms. In the early days, standardization involved primary cells mostly in carbon-zinc; alkaline came only in the early 1960s. With the advent of the sealed nickel-cadmium batteries in the 1950s and 1960s, new sizes appeared, many of which were derived from the standard A and C sizes established at the end of the 1800s. Manufacturers of lithium-ion departed from the conventional sizes and invented their own formats of cylindrical, prismatic and pouch shapes. Looking at the many formats of cell phone batteries alone, one realizes that standardizing has begun to drift. Table 1 summarizes historic

and current battery sizes.

Size F cell E cell D cell C cell B cell

Dimensions 33 x 90 mm N/A 34 x 61mm

History Introduced in 1896 for lanterns; later used for radios; only available in nickel-cadmium today Introduced ca. 1905 to power box lanterns and hobby applications. Discontinued ca. 1980 Introduced in 1898 for flashlights and radios; still current

25.5 x 50mm Introduced ca. 1900 to attain smaller form factor 20.1 x 56.8mm 17 x 50mm Introduced in 1900 for portable lighting, including bicycle lights in Europe; discontinued in in North America in 2001 Only available for nickel-cadmium; also come in half sizes

A cell

AA cell

Known as penlight batteries; introduced as two side-byside cells for pocket lights ca. 1907; used as spy tool 14.5 x 50mm during WWI; single AA cells were first sold in 1915 and became popular in 1947 10.5 x 44.5mm Developed in 1954 to reduce size for Kodak and Polaroid cameras; became popular in the mid 1970s in alkaline

AAA cell

Offshoot of 9V battery and available since 1990s; used AAAA cell 8.3 x 42.5mm for laser pointers, LED penlights, computer styli, headphone amplifiers 4.5V battery 9V battery 18650 26650 26700 65 x 61 x 21mm 48.5 x 26.5 x 17.5mm 18 x 65mm 26 x 65 26 x 70 Three cells form a flat pack; short terminal strip is positive, long strip is negative; common in Europe Introduced in 1956 for transistor radios; contains six prismatic or AAAA cells Developed in the mid 1990s for lithium-ion-ion; commonly used in laptop battery packs Larger Li-ion battery for industrial applications Same as 26650 with slightly larger diameter

Table 1: Common old and new battery norms. Some sizes come in fractural lengths mostly in nickel-based chemistries. When first invented, a battery was perceived as being big and this reflects in the sizing convention. While F was chosen as a medium-size battery in the late 1800s, our forefathers did not anticipate the need for miniature batteries. Running out of letters towards smaller sizes brought on the awkward designations of AA, AAA and AAAA. Its also interesting that many sizes never took off and A was replaced with the thinner AA. A successful standard for a cylindrical cell is the 18650. Developed in the mid 1990s for lithium-ion, these cells are used for laptops, electric bicycles and even electric vehicles, such as the Tesla Roadster car.

Since the introduction of the 9V battery in 1956, no new consumer format has emerged. Meanwhile, portable devices have lowered the operating voltages and 9V is overkill. The 9V battery is expensive to manufacture and has a low specific energy. A 3.6V battery alternative should be offered in primary and secondary versions with different chemistries. Similar in size to the 9V, this pack would be protected with unique battery terminals that would only allow charging secondary batteries. A code would apply the appropriate algorithm. Starter batteries for cars also follow battery norms, which consist of the North American BCI, the European DIN and the Japanese JIS standards. These batteries are similar in footprint to allow easy interchange. In an effort to standardize, all American car manufacturers are in the process of converting to the American DIN size batteries. Most manufacturers of deep-cycle and stationary batteries produce their own sizes and the replacement must be sourced from the original maker. Standardizing of the electric vehicle may be too early. Forcing the issue could follow the failed attempt to standardize laptop batteries in the 1990s.

All about Chargers

The performance and longevity of rechargeable batteries are to a large extent governed by the quality of the charger. In a price-competitive world, battery chargers are often given low priority, especially as consumer products. Choosing a quality charger is important considering the cost of battery replacement and the frustration poorly performing batteries create. The charger should serve as a quintessential master and guardian angel to protect the environment and save money by extending battery life. There are two varieties of chargers: the personal chargers and the fleet chargers. For cell phones, laptops, tablets or digital cameras, manufacturers include personal chargers. These are made for one battery type, are economically priced and perform well when used for the application intended.

The fleet charger serves employees in a team environment and often has multiple bays. The original equipment manufacturer (OEM) sells the chargers and third parties also provide them. While the OEMs meet the basic requirements, third-party manufacturers often include special features, such as a discharge function for battery conditioning and calibration. Some manufacturers of third-party chargers have become creative and offer advanced charge methods for leadand nickel-based batteries. While pulse charging may be beneficial for nickel-based batteries, this method is not recommended for Li-ion. The voltage peaks are too high and cause havoc with the protection circuit. Battery manufacturers do not support alternative charging methods and say that pulse charging could shorten the life of Li-ion. There are many valuable additional features for chargers, and hot- and cold-temperature protection is one. Below freezing, the charger lowers or prevents charge depending on the type of battery. When hot, the charger only engages when the battery temperature has normalized to a safe level. Advanced lead acid chargers offer temperature-controlled voltage thresholds, as well as adjustments to optimize charging for aging batteries. Some chargers, including Cadex chargers, feature a wake-up feature or boost to allow charging Li-ion batteries that have fallen asleep. This can occur if a Li-ion battery is stored in a discharged condition and selfdischarge has depressed the voltage to the cut-off point. Regular chargers read these batteries as unserviceable and the packs are discarded. The boost feature applies a small charge current to activate the protection circuit to 2.202.90V/ cell, at which point a normal charge commences. Caution should be applied not to boost lithiumbased batteries back to life that have dwelled below 1.5V/cell for a week or longer. There are two common charge methods, which are voltage limiting (VL) and current limiting (CL). Lead- and lithium-based chargers cap the voltage at a fixed threshold. When reaching the cut-off voltage, the battery begins to saturate and the current drops while receiving the remaining charge on its own timetable. Full charge detection occurs when the current drops to a designated level. Read more about Charging Lead Acid. Nickel-based batteries, on the other hand, charge with a controlled current and the voltage is allowed to fluctuate freely. This can be compared to lifting a weight with an elastic band. The slight voltage drop after a steady rise indicates a fully charged battery. The voltage drop method works well in terminating the fast charge, however, the charger should include other safeguards to respond to anomalies such as shorted or mismatched cells. Most batteries and chargers also include temperature sensors to end the charge if the temperature exceeds a safe level. Read more about Charging Nickel-cadmium. A temperature rise is normal, especially when nickel-based batteries move towards full-charge state. When in ready mode, the battery must cool down to room temperature. Heat causes stress and prolonged exposure to elevated temperature shortens battery life. If the temperature remains above ambient, the charger is not performing right and the battery should be removed when ready appears. Extended trickle charge also inflicts damage, and nickel-based batteries should not be left in the charger for more than a few days. A lithium-based battery should not get warm in a charger and if this happens, the battery or charger might be faulty. Discontinue using the battery and/or charger. Li-ion chargers do not apply a trickle charge and disconnect the battery electrically when fully charged. If these packs are left in the charger for a few weeks, a recharge may occur when the open circuit voltage drops below a set threshold. It is not necessary to remove Liion from the charger when full; however, if not used for a week or more, it is better to remove them and recharge before use. A mobile phone charger draws about 2 watts on charge, while a laptop on charge takes close to 100 watts. The standby current must be low and Energy Star offers mobile phone chargers drawing 30mW or less five stars for high efficiency; 30150mW earns four stars, 150250mW three stars, and 250350mW two stars. The industry average is 300mW on no-load consumption and this gets one star; higher than 500mW earns no stars. Low standby wattage is only possible with small chargers, such as the four billion mobile phone chargers that are mostly plugged in.

Simple Guidelines When Buying a Charger

Use the correct charger for the battery chemistry. Most chargers serve one chemistry only. The battery voltage must agree with the charger. Do not charge if different. Within reason, the Ah rating of a battery can be higher or lower than specified. A larger battery will take longer to charge than a smaller one and vice versa. The higher the amperage of the charger, the shorter the charge time will be. There are limitations as to how fast a battery can be charged. Accurate charge termination and correct trickle charge prolong battery life. When fully saturated, a lead acid charger should switch to a lower voltage; a nickel-based charger should have a trickle charge NiMH; a Li-ion charger provides no trickle charge. Chargers should have a temperature override to end charge on a malfunctioning battery. Observe the temperature of the charger and battery. Lead acid batteries stay cool during charge; nickelbased batteries elevate the temperature towards the end of charge and should cool down after charge; Liion batteries should stay cool throughout charge.

Slow Charger
Also known as an overnight charger, the slow charger goes back to the old nickel-cadmium days and applies a fixed charge of about 0.1C (one-tenth of the rated capacity) as long as the battery is connected. Slow chargers are very simple; they have no full-charge detection, the charge current is always engaged, and the charge time on an empty battery is 14 to 16 hours. When fully charged, a slow charger keeps NiCd lukewarm to the touch. Some overcharge is acceptable and the battery does not need to be removed immediately when ready. However, the pack should not stay in the charger for more than a day or two because of memory, also known as crystalline formation. Read more about Memory: Myth or Fact?. A problem arises when charging a battery with a lower mAh rating than specified. Although the slow charger will charge the battery normally at first, higher than 0.1C current for this smaller battery will heat up the pack towards the full-charge state. Because there is no provision to lower the current or terminate the charge, excessive heat will shorten the life of this pack. Observe the battery temperature while charging and remove the battery when warm to the touch. Most slow chargers have no ready light. The opposite can also occur when the slow charger charges a larger battery. In this case, the battery may never reach full charge and remains cold. Performance is poor because the battery does not receive a full charge. A nickel-based battery that is undercharged will eventually lose the ability to accept a full charge due to crystalline formation. Slow chargers are found in cordless phones, electric toothbrushes and childrens toys. A slow charger works well for these products because the battery and charger are harmonized. Chargers servicing a broader range of batteries need some intelligence to supervise the charge, control the current when full, and provide safety if an anomaly occurs.

Rapid Charger

The rapid charger falls between the slow and fast chargers and services nickel- and lithium-based batteries. Unless specially designed, the rapid charger cannot service both nickel- and lithium-based chemistries on the same platform; it needs a designated platform. The rapid charger is most commonly used for consumer products. The charge time of an empty pack is 3 to 6 hours (less for a partially charged battery), and when the battery is full, the charger switches to ready. Most rapid chargers include temperature protection to safeguard against failures. This and other features offer improved service over the slow charger, and batteries tend to perform better. Although they are more expensive to build, high-volume production makes the rapid charger available at a moderate price.

Fast Charger
The fast charger offers several advantages, and the obvious one is shorter charge times.The need for a larger power supply and more complex control circuits reserve fast chargers mostly for commercial use, such as medical, military, communications and power tools. Faster charge times demand tighter communication between the charger and battery. At a 1C charge rate, which the fast charger typically uses, an empty NiCd and NiMH charges in a little more than an hour. (See What is Crate?) As a battery approaches full charge, some nickel-based chargers reduce the charge current to adjust to lower charge acceptance, and when the battery is full the charger switches to trickle charge, also known as maintenance charge. Most nickel-based fast chargers accommodate NiCd and NiMH batteries on the same algorithm, but not Li-ion. To service nickel- and Li-ion-based chemistries in the same charger, a provision is needed to select the correct charge algorithm. In many ways, Li-ion batteries are easier to charge than NiCd and NiMH. The charge to 70 percent at 1C occurs in less than an hour, the rest of the time is devoted to topping charge. Lead acid batteries cannot be fast-charged and the term fast-charge is a misnomer. Most lead acid chargers charge the battery in 14 hours; anything slower may be a compromise. As with all chemistries, lead acid can be charged relatively quickly to 70 percent; the all-important saturation charge takes up the remaining time. A partial charge at a high rate is fine provided the battery receives a fully saturated charge once every few weeks to prevent sulfation.

Simple Guidelines on Chargers

Turn the portable device off while charging. A parasitic load confuses the charger. If possible, charge at a moderate rate. Ultra-fast charging causes undue stress. Fast and ultra-fast charge fills the battery only partially. A slower topping charge completes the charge. Read about Ultra-fast Chargers. Do not apply fast and ultra-fast charge when the battery is cold or hot. Only charge batteries at moderate temperatures. Do not apply fast and ultra-fast charge to low-performing batteries. Very few chargers are able to assess battery condition and govern a suitable charge accordingly.

Type Slow charger

Chemistry NiCd Lead acid

C-rate 0.1C

Time 14h

Temperatures

Charge termination

0C to 45C Continuous low charge or (32F to 113F) fixed timer. Subject to overcharge. Remove

battery when charged. Rapid charger Fast charger Ultrafast charger NiCd, NiMH, Li-ion NiCd, NiMH, Li-ion Li-ion, NiCd, NiMH 0.3-0.5C 3-6h Senses battery by voltage, 10C to 45C current, temperature and (50F to 113F) time-out timer. 10C to 45C Same as a rapid charger (50F to 113F) with faster service.

1C

1h+

1-10C

Applies ultra-fast charge 10-60 10C to 45C to 70% SoC; limited to minutes (50F to 113F) specialty batteries.

Table 1: Charger characteristics. Each chemistry uses a unique charge termination.