Rural Research Methods

Prof. Sushil Kumar, IIM Lucknow

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RESEARCH PROCESS
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Starting Point of
theory testing
The logic of the research process The logic of the research process
Theory
theory testing
Implications New
Inference
Conceptual
Deduction
for Prop. Theory Propositions
Testable
Propositions
Operationalization
Reliability
Analysis of
Data
Inferential
Data Collection
Coding
Reliability
Validity
Indicators
Descriptive
Inferential
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Starting Point for
theory construction
Sampling
Theory Theory
An attempt to explain an observed phenomenon using
concepts (ideas or variables) considered to be relevant concepts (ideas or variables) considered to be relevant
A systematic and formalized expression of all previous
observations that is predictive, logical and testable
A social theory is a set of two or more propositions in
which concepts referring to certain social phenomenon
are assumed to be causally related are assumed to be causally related
Difference between theory and hypothesis is one of
degree of complexity and abstraction
Are crucial in guiding the observations we make by
providing the foundation for focused observation
C b b l th ti l t b d i l
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Can be verbal, mathematical, computer-based, or visual
Structure of a theory Structure of a theory
A theory has the given structure
X explains something about Y
Where X is the explanatory independent variable and Y
is the dependent variable is the dependent variable
This can be expanded to
X1, X2, and X3 under condition C1 explain
something about Y
Wh X1 X2 d X3 l t i d d t Where X1, X2, and X3 are explanatory independent
variables, C1 is a control variable, and Y is the
dependent variable
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Research Question: Deductive Approach Research Question: Deductive Approach
In deductive or top down approach we look at
a theory and try to deduce what should be an a theory and try to deduce what should be an
outcome given the ideas and concept
It is the movement from the general statements
to the specific (sometimes observable
t ) outcomes)
Theory Hypothesis Observations Confirmation
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Research Question: Inductive Approach
In the inductive or bottom-up approach, we
f lti l b ti f i
Research Question: Inductive Approach
move from multiple observations of a given
phenomenon and induce a general principle or
sets of principles fromthese observations sets of principles from these observations
Moving from the particular to the general level:
fromobservations to theory from observations to theory
Observation Pattern Hypothesis Theory
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Spinning Wheel Spinning Wheel
Wallace (1971) suggested that induction and Wallace (1971) suggested that induction and
deduction are all part of the process of science
E th h ti l t d l k lik it' Even though a particular study may look like it's
purely deductive, most social research involves
both inductive and deductive reasoning both inductive and deductive reasoning
processes at some time in the project
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Clarifying the Research Question
Discover the Management Dilemma
Define the Management Problem
Define the Research Problem
Research
Proposal
Research Design
Data Collection
Design
Sampling
Design
Instrument Development
& Pilot Testing
Data Collection &Preparation Data Collection & Preparation
Data Analysis & Interpretation
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Research Reporting
Management Decision
Conceptualizing a Research Problem
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Problem Formulation Problem Formulation
"Well begun is half done" Well begun is half done
--Aristotle, quoting an old proverb
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Problem Formulation Problem Formulation
Sources of research ideas:
Experience of practical problems in the field p p p
Many of the ideas would strike the outsider as silly or
worse
I t ti ith l ki i th fi ld Interaction with people working in the field
Literature in the specific field
C t t ff t th i tifi lit t Concentrate your efforts on the scientific literature
Do the review early in the research process
Many researchers simply think up their research topic on Many researchers simply think up their research topic on
their own
Are influenced by ones background, culture, education and
experiences
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p
S i U Summing Up
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Steps in Designing a Research Plan Steps in Designing a Research Plan
1. Identify and define the research problem
2. Review theory and undertake initial
documentary studies
3. Clarify goals, objectives and expectations of
the study in consultation with others
4. Choose main topics
5 Prepare list of sub-topics, indicators, and key 5. Prepare list of sub topics, indicators, and key
questions
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Steps in Designing a Research Plan Steps in Designing a Research Plan
6. Identify sources of information of each sub-
topics topics
7. Select tools to collect and analyse information
8. Outline field work tasks
9. Obtain research permission 9 Obta esea c pe sso
10. Test and adjust research tools
C ll t fi ld d t 11. Collect field data
12. Start analyzing data in the field
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Steps in Designing a Research Plan Steps in Designing a Research Plan
13. Adjust objectives and reschedule
14. Data collection if required
15. Complete data analysis and reporting
16 Disseminate results 16. Disseminate results
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http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb
two-way road
RESEARCH DESIGN
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S i l R h i P b bili ti i N t Social Research is Probabilistic in Nature
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Research Design Issues Research Design Issues
Primary purpose and focus?
Time frame? Time frame?
Geography?
Unit of analysis?
J ust description or comparing & specifying patterns for
subgroups?
Causes and Effects? Causes and Effects?
Sampling strategies?
Types of data to be collected?
Controls to be exercised?
Analytical approaches?
Interpretation and presentation
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Interpretation and presentation
Descriptors of Research Design p g
Category Options
The degree to which the research question has been
crystallized
Exploratory Study
Formal Study crystallized Formal Study
The method of data collection Monitoring
Communication Study
The power of the researcher to produce effects in the Experimental The power of the researcher to produce effects in the
variables under study
Experimental
Ex Post Facto
The purpose of the study Descriptive
Causal
The time dimension Cross-sectional
Longitudinal
The topical scope the breadth and depth of the Case The topical scope the breadth and depth of the
study
Case
Statistical Study
The research environment Field Setting
Laboratory Research
Simulation
The participants perceptions of the research study Actual Routine
Modified Routine
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1. Study Objectives 1. Study Objectives
An empirical question
What is the market share of each company in rural What is the market share of each company in rural
markets; how can the distribution of market share
be explained and understood
A normative question
What should be our market share; howcan the What should be our market share; how can the
desired share be justified
A t ti i t ti A constructionist question
How can we achieve such a market share
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Types of Research Types of Research
Types of research yp
i. Exploratory
ii. Formal
a) Descriptive a) Descriptive
b) Relational/Correlational
l / l c) Explanatory/Causal
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i. Exploratory research i. Exploratory research
A problem is not clearly defined yet or its real
scope is as yet unclear scope is as yet unclear
Attempt to become familiar with a new
phenomenon by strategically sampling and phenomenon by strategically sampling and
observing it
Can be quite informal; relies on secondary Can be quite informal; relies on secondary
research such as reviewing available literature
and /or data, or qualitative approaches / , q pp
The process of exploration is the basis for
grounded theory
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Types of Data Types of Data
Quantitative
it i i i l f it is in numerical form
The quantitative types argue that their data is 'hard',
'rigorous', 'credible', and 'scientific' rigorous, credible, and scientific
Qualitative
Non-numerical
Much more than just words or text. Photographs,
videos, sound recordings and so on, can be
id d lit ti d t considered qualitative data
The qualitative proponents counter that their data is
'sensitive', 'nuanced', 'detailed', and 'contextual'
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se st e, ua ced, deta ed, a d co te tua
Qualitative Techniques Qualitative Techniques
Individual depth interviews (usually conversational)
Participant observation
Films photographs and videotapes Films, photographs and videotapes
Street ethnography
Elite or expert or informant group interviews
Document analysis
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Exploratory Techniques Exploratory Techniques
Secondary Data Analysis
Experience Survey
Focus Group
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ii Formal Research: a) Descriptive research ii Formal Research: a) Descriptive research
When a study is designed primarily to describe
what is going on or what exists what is going on or what exists
Process of accurately representing the
phenomenon of interest phenomenon of interest
Descriptive research provides data about the
population or universe being studied population or universe being studied
Describes the who, what, when, where and
how about the phenomenon but not why how about the phenomenon but not why
This is just one more step in the process of
understanding an issue or phenomenon
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understanding an issue or phenomenon
ii Formal Research: a) Relational research ii Formal Research: a) Relational research
Process of determining how two or more
i bl l t d t th variables are related to one another
Descriptive research states the values of
i t l ti l various concepts or measures, relational
research examines the inter-relatedness of the
measures
Relational research is motivated by theoretical
l i d i i h i explanations and is one step in the creation or
testing of a given theory in its attempt to
l i h
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explain a phenomenon
iic. Explanatory research iic. Explanatory research
Process of deriving the causal laws which affect
the relationships among variables of interest
This research must explain the descriptive
findings, allow for the correlational findings,
and exclude alternative explanations as to why p y
all the measures are related the way they are
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Relationships Relationships
Symmetrical relationship
T i bl fl t t t th b t h i Two variables fluctuate together but changes in
neither variable are due to changes in the other
Reciprocal relationship
Two variables mutually influence or reinforce each y
other.
Asymmetrical relationship
Changes in one variable are responsible for changes
in another variable in another variable.
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Testing Causal Hypotheses Testing Causal Hypotheses
Covariation between A and B
D A d B t th i th Do A and B occur together in the way
hypothesized?
When A does not occur, is there also an absence of When A does not occur, is there also an absence of
B?
Temporal precedence
Does A occur before B?
No other possible causes of B
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2. Method of Data Collection 2. Method of Data Collection
Monitoring
R h i t th ti iti f bj t Researcher inspects the activities of subject or
nature of some material without attempting to elicit
responses from anyone.
Traffic counts; Search of the library collection;
Observations
Communication
R h ti th bj t d ll t th i Researcher questions the subjects and collects their
responses by personal or impersonal means
Interviews; Mail-in questionnaire survey ; q y
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3. Researcher Control of Variable 3. Researcher Control of Variable
Experiment
Th h tt t t t l d/ The researcher attempts to control and/or
manipulate the variables in study
Ex post facto
The researcher has no control over the variables in
the sense of being able to manipulate them. He/she
can only report what has happened or what is
happening happening
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4. Time in Research 4. Time in Research
C ti l h Cross-sectional research
Is carried out once and represents a snapshot of one
point in time point in time
Longitudinal research Longitudinal research
Is repeated over an extended period
Panel studies a e s udes
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5. The Topical Scope 5. The Topical Scope
Case studies
Pl h i f ll t t l l i f Place more emphasis on a full contextual analysis of
fewer events or conditions and their interrelations
Statistical studies
Are designed for breadth rather than depth. They g p y
attempt to capture populations characteristics by
making inferences from a samples characteristics
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6. The Research Environment 6. The Research Environment
Field conditions
R h d t d d t l i t l Research conducted under actual environmental
conditions
Experimental
Research in which environmental conditions can be
manipulated
Simulation
Research conducted under an environment in which
major characteristics of various conditions and major characteristics of various conditions and
relationships in actual situation are replicated
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7. Unit of Analysis 7. Unit of Analysis
The major entity to be analyzed in the study
f th f ll i ld b it f l i any of the following could be a unit of analysis
in a study:
individuals individuals
groups
artifacts (books photos newspapers) artifacts (books, photos, newspapers)
geographical units (village, town, state)
social interactions (purchases, divorces, arrests) (p )
Different from unit of data collection/sampling
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