Introduction: The centrifuge is an instrument used in nearly every research lab across the globe.

Centrifugation is the process by which a centrifuge is used to separate components of a complex mixture. By spinning laboratory samples at very high speeds, the components of a given mixture are subjected to centrifugal force, which causes more dense particles to migrate away from the axis of rotation and lighter ones to move toward it. These particles can sediment at the bottom of the tube into whats known as a pellet, and this isolated specimen, or the remaining solution, the supernatant, can be further processed or analyzed. This video is meant to introduce a student to some of the basic principles of centrifugation, as well as the instruments basic operation. For example the speed of centrifugation in rotations per minute, or RPM, is contrasted with relative centrifugal force, or RCF, as a measurement of the magnitude of centrifugation, which is independent of rotor size. In addition to concepts and basic use, safety precautions relating to centrifugation are discussed, as well as the types of centrifuges and centrifuge rotors that exist. Centrifuge and reproduced mainly by the hollow shaft with a screw conveyor components, the sludge into the hollow rotor shaft after the high-speed rotation of the centrifugal force, immediately turn left out one hub cavity. A larger proportion of the sludge particles, and thus the centrifugal force generated is large, been left attached to the switch hub wall, form a solid layer; water density, centrifugal force is also small, only produced in the solid layer inside the liquid layer. Solid layer of sludge in the screw conveyor driven by the slow and was transported to the cone reproduced, reprinted by the continuous discharge of the export around the liquid discharge from the overflow weir to reprint four, the collection discharge after the dryer. The key centrifuge components is a switch hub, switch hub diameter, the greater the capacity the greater the dehydration, but the manufacturing and operating costs are very high, very economic. Reproduced longer the solid sludge the higher the rate, but will cost performance reproduced long decline. Use, reproduced in the control of speed is an important parameter to control the speed of transfer hub, to both obtain a higher solid content and can reduce energy consumption, is the centrifuge is running good and bad key. Currently, the use of low-speed centrifuge. In his selection of centrifugal dewatering machine, because the outer wheel or spiral easy to wear, their materials have special requirements. Screw the outer edge of the new centrifuge assembly made most of the block to be replaced. Block assembly generally tungsten carbide material is very expensive. Centrifuge with a noise, high energy consumption, processing power and low defects. Only a few domestic manufacturers can produce small centrifuge, if you choose a large centrifuge to rely on imports, will increase the project investment, while the centrifuge sludge load fluctuations by a greater impact on high quality of personnel required to run, so it is no sewage treatment plant with centrifugal dewatering process. But in recent years, with advances in technology, centrifugal dewatering machine dewatering technology has come a long way in a foreign country, such as Sweden AlfaLayal company's screw centrifugal dehydrator, the solid cake up to 30% or more, and operation is completely closed environments, dehydration and sewage sludge are not in any exists, there is no foul odor, can greatly improve the working environment for operating personnel, and thus favored by the industry.

Principle: The centrifuge is a kind of separating machine, it is mainly used to separate the mixed liquid of solid and liquid (or liquid and liquid), so then can get the solid and liquid (or liquid and liquid) apart. So, how can the centrifuge work? As everyone knows, when people stew one mixed liquid within different liquids densities, the mixed one will appear natural stratification phenomenon. The solid part will settle to the bottom, and there will form clear liquid part in the upper level. Some mixed liquids are easy to be stratification, such as mud water; on the other hand, some of them can be stratification in quite a long time and not very clear. This kind of stratification depend on the gravity of earth. To meet the needs of industrial producing, people require to separate some mixed liquids much more and faster, so that the centrifuges appeared. The centrifuges revolve in very high speed, and form powerful centrifugal force, ususlly the centrifugal separating factor is hundreds, thousands, and even ten thousands time than the gravity. Though the separating speed is fast, according to the different properties of different materials, so that form many many centrifuges with different specifications. Generally, the speed of centrifuges used to separate solid and liquid is below 3000 r/min; to separate mixed liquids within more tiny particles and more little density differences, users need centrifuges with speed between 8000 to 30000; if users want to separate and enrich the uranium, they have to use centirfuges with ultra high-speed. Generally speaking, the centrifuge is a centrifugal separation equipment that the bowl driven by motor and revolve in a high speed, to separate the liquid with smaller density from material or carry out the settling, stratification, and separation. Simple centrifuges are braked by hand brake, operated by manul loading and unloading, but now the popular operation of centrifuge is by automatic loading, unloading by automatic scraper or lifting basket with frequency controlling technology. Because of the importance and broad applicability of centrifuges, and the technology development is fast too, we centrifuges manufacturers are all working hard to manufacture more centrifuges with intelligent controlling and more convenient operation, to sell them to the domestic and international markets. This is the process of using centrifugal force to separate the lighter portion of solution, mixture or suspension from the heavier portions. In laboratory centrifuge is used to: a. Remove cellular debris from blood to separate cell free plasma or serum b. Concentrate cellular elements and other components for microscopic analysis or chemical analysis. c. Separate protein bound or antibody bound ligand from free ligand in immunological assay. d. Extract solutes from aqueous or organic solvents. e. Separate lipid components like chylomicrons from other components of plasma.

USING CENTRIFUGES FOR CLINICAL TRIALS

Centrifugation is the use of centrifugal force to separate liquids from solids within the liquids. Primarily centrifugation is used in laboratory and medical research such as clinical trials. The idea of centrifugation is that the more-dense components of the

mixture migrate away from the axis of the centrifuge, while less-dense components of the mixture migrate towards the axis. Chemists and biologists can increase the gravitational force on the liquid by adjusting the speed of the rotational mass accordingly. This causes the precipitate to gather at the bottom of the sample tubes. The liquid or substance that remains is known as the supernate of which is quickly decanted without disturbing the precipitate, often withdrawn using a pipette. Centrifugation can be adjusted by increasing the RVM (revolutions per minute) thus accelerating the particle separation process. The rate of separation is also dependant on the particles size and shape, volume of solids present, density between the particle and liquid and the viscosity of the liquid. The process of centrifugation is achieved through the use of a centrifuge. Centrifuges are mechanical operators that use rotors to spin the test tubes round with a close centre of gravity to create the centrifugal force required to separate the liquids. Centrifuges come in all variety of shapes and styles for different applications and the centrifuge rotors supplied can hold different types of containers.

The centrifuge is widely used in clinical laboratories for the separation of components. For example in laboratories performing biochemical analyses on body fluids it is routinely used to separate blood cells from plasma, to separate sediment from urine, to measure the volume fraction of erythrocytes in blood (the haematocrit), and to separate bound from free components in protein binding and immunoprocedures. Less routinely, centrifugation is used for separation of lipoproteins in reference procedures for their measurement, separation of cellular components, and separation of DNA fragments. Various quantities are used for the description and the calculation of the separation processes at centrifugation. The aim of this document is to provide manufacturers and users of centrifuges with a list of quantities and units for centrifugation consistent with the International System of Units, SI, and standards of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
Comparison of DNA and RNA

Comparison Name Function

DNA DeoxyriboNucleic Acid Long-term storage of genetic information; transmission of genetic information to make other cells and new organisms.

RNA RiboNucleic Acid Used to transfer the genetic code from the nucleus to the ribosomes to make proteins. RNA is used to transmit genetic information in some organisms and may have been the molecule used to store genetic blueprints in primitive

organisms. Structural Features Composition of Bases and Sugars Propagation Base Pairing Reactivity B-form double helix. DNA is a double-stranded molecule consisting of a long chain of nucleotides. deoxyribose sugar phosphate backbone adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine bases DNA is self-replicating. AT (adenine-thymine) GC (guanine-cytosine) The C-H bonds in DNA make it fairly stable, plus the body destroys enzymes that would attack DNA. The small grooves in the helix also serve as protection, providing minimal space for enzymes to attach. DNA is susceptible to UV damage. A-form helix. RNA usually is a singlestrand helix consisting of shorter chains of nucleotides. ribose sugar phosphate backbone adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil bases RNA is synthesized from DNA on an as-needed basis. AU (adenine-uracil) GC (guanine-cytosine) The O-H bond in the ribose of RNA makes the molecule more reactive, compared with DNA. RNA is not stable under alkaline conditions, plus the large grooves in the molecule make it susceptible to enzyme attack. RNA is constantly produced, used, degraded, and recycled. Compared with DNA, RNA is relatively resistant to UV damage

Ultraviolet Damage

The main difference between DNA and RNA is the sugar present in the molecules. While the sugar present in an RNA molecule is ribose, the sugar present in a molecule of DNA is deoxyribose. Deoxyribose is the same as ribose, except that the former has one more OH. DNA does not usually exist as a single molecule, but instead as a tightly-associated pair of molecules. These two long strands entwine like vines, in the shape of a double helix. This arrangement of DNA strands is called antiparallel. The asymmetric ends of DNA strands are referred to as the 5 (five prime) and 3 (three prime) ends. One of the major differences between DNA and RNA is the sugar, with 2-deoxyribose being replaced by the alternative pentose sugar ribose in RNA. The four bases found in DNA are adenine (abbreviated A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T). A fifth pyrimidine base, called uracil (U), usually takes the place of thymine in RNA and differs from thymine by lacking a methyl group on its ring.
COMPARISON CHART

Stands for:

DNA DeoxyriboNucleicAcid

RNA RiboNucleicAcid

RNA A single-stranded chain of A nucleic acid that contains the alternating phosphate and ribose genetic instructions used in the units with the bases Adenine, development and functioning of all Guanine, Cytosine, and Uracil Definition: modern living organisms(scientists bonded to the ribose. RNA believe that RNA may have been the molecules are involved in protein main genetic material in primitive life synthesis and sometimes in the forms). transmission of genetic information. Transfer the genetic code needed Medium of long-term storage and Job/Role: for the creation of proteins from the transmission of genetic information nucleus to the ribosome. The helix geometry of DNA is of BThe helix geometry of RNA is of Form. DNA is completely protected A-Form. RNA strands are Unique by the body, i.e., the body destroys continually made, broken down and Features: enzymes that cleave DNA. DNA can reused. RNA is more resistant to be damaged by exposure to Ultradamage by Ultra-violet rays. violet rays A single-stranded molecule in most Predominant Double- stranded molecule with a long of its biological roles and has a Structure: chain of nucleotides shorter chain of nucleotides Deoxyribose sugar; phosphate Ribose sugar; phosphate backbone. Bases & backbone; Four bases: adenine, Four bases: adenine, guanine, Sugars: guanine, cytosine and thymine cytosine, and uracil Pairing of A-T(Adenine-Thymine), GA-U(Adenine-Uracil), GBases: C(Guanine-Cytosine) C(Guanine-Cytosine) Ribose sugar is more reactive Deoxyribose sugar in DNA is less because of C-OH (hydroxyl) bonds. reactive because of C-H bonds. Stable Not stable in alkaline conditions. Stability: in alkaline conditions. DNA has RNA has larger grooves, which smaller grooves, which makes it makes it easier to be attacked by harder for enzymes to "attack" DNA. enzymes. RNA is synthesized from DNA Propagation: DNA is self-replicating. when needed.

DNA