1

Particle Accelerator
Introduction:- A particle accelerator is a device
that uses Electric fields to push electrically- charged particles to high. An ordinary television set is a simple form of accelerator. There are two basic types: linear accelerators and circular accelerators.

Uses of particle accelerator:- Beams of high-energy

Particles are Beneficial useful for both fundamental and applied research in the sciences. For the most basic inquiries into the dynamics and structure of matter, space, and time. Physicists seek the simplest kinds of interactions at the highest possible energies. These typically entire particle energies of many GeV, and the interactions of the simplest kinds of particles: electrons and protons of the matter, or photons. Since isolated particles are experimentally unavailable due to color confinement or any other problem. These experiment are very useful to unfold secretes of the nature. For example Beam lines leading from the Van de Graaf accelerator to various experiments, in the Jussieu Campus at Paris at a higher level of complexity, nuclear physicists and cosmologists may use beams of bare atomic nuclei, stripped of electrons, To investigate the structure, interactions, and properties of the nuclei themselves, and of condensed matter at extremely high temperatures and densities, such as might have occurred in the first moments of

the Big Bang.{Larger Hadron Collider} These investigations often involve collisions of heavy nuclei of atoms like iron or gold at energies of several GeV per nucleon. In these process particle accelerators are used at very high scale.At lower energies, beams of accelerated nuclei are also used in medicine, as for the treatment of cancer. Linear accelerators are also widely used in medicine, for radiotherapy and radiosurgery the electrons can be used directly or they can be collided with a target to produce a beam of X-rays. The reliability, flexibility and accuracy of the radiation beam produced have largely supplanted the older use of Cobalt-60 therapy as a treatment tool. High energy electrons may be coaxed into emitting extremely bright and coherent beams of high energy photons--ultraviolet and X ray--via synchrotron radiation, which photons have numerous uses in the study of atomic structure, chemistry, condensed matter physics, biology, and technology.

Types of particle accelerator :1. Linear particle accelerators 2.Circular or cyclic accelerators 3.Tandem electrostatic accelerators 1. Linear particle accelerator:-In a linear accelerator
(linac) Particles are accelerated in a straight line with a target of interest at one end. Linacs are very widely used every cathode ray tube contains one. They are also used to provide an initial low-energy kick to particles before they are

injected into circular accelerators. The longest linac in the world is the Stanford Linear Accelerator, SLAC, which is 3 km (2 miles) long. SLAC is an electron-proton collider. Linear highenergy accelerators use a linear collection of plates (or drift tubes) to which an alternating high-energy field is applied.

2.Circular accelerators:-

In the circular accelerator, Particles move in a circle until they reach sufficient energy. The particle track is typically bent into a circle using electromagnets. The advantage of circular accelerators over linear accelerators (linacs) is that the ring technology allows continuous acceleration, as the particle can transfer indefinitely. Another advantage is that a circular accelerator is relatively smaller than a linear accelerator of comparable power (i.e. a linac would have to be extremely long to have the equivalent power of a circular accelerator).Depending on the energy and the particle being accelerated, usually measured in electron volts (eV). An important principle for circular accelerators and particle beams is that the curvature of the particle trajectory is proportional to the particle charge and to the magnetic field, but inversely proportional to the (typically relativistic) momentum.

3.Tandem electrostatic accelerators:-In a tandem

Accelerator, the negatively charged ion gains energy by attraction to the very high positive voltage at the geometric centre of the pressure vessel. When it arrives at the centre region known as the high voltage

terminal, some electrons are stripped from the ion. The ion then becomes positive and accelerated away by the high positive voltage. Thus, this type of accelerator is called a 'tandem' accelerator.

Some Important particle accelerator:1. Cyclotron 2.Betatron 3.Synchrotron 4.Larger Particle Accelerator Cyclotron: - Cyclotron is a device, which is used to accelerate
positively charged particle like protons, a-particle etc. to acquire enough energy to carry out nuclear disintegration. The earliest circular accelerators were cyclotrons, invented in 1929 by Ernest O. Lawrence at the University of California, Berkeley. Cyclotrons are useful for lower energy applications. Cyclotrons have a single pair of hollow 'D'-shaped plates to accelerate the particles and a single large dipole magnet to bend their path into a circular orbit. It is a characteristic property of charged particles in a uniform and constant magnetic field B that they orbit with a constant period, at a frequency called the cyclotron frequency, so long as their speed is small compared to the speed of light c.

Principle of cyclotron:- When a positively charged particle is

made to move repeatedly with a high frequency in the magnetic and electric field, the particle be accelerated and acquire a large amount if charge.

Construction:- It is consist of two hallow D- Shaped metallic

chambers called Dees. The dees separated by small gap where the source positive charge particle is placed. Dees are connected with a high frequency oscillator, which provides high electric field is gap between the dees. This arrangement is now placed between a strong electromagnet. The magnetic field due to this electromagnet is perpendicular to the plane of the plane of dees.

Theory:- When a charged particle moves right angle to the

magnetic field inside the dees magnetic Lorentz force at on it. According to Lorentz force:F = q (v X B) F = qvBsina {here a=90o} This force provides necessary centripetal force to the charge to move in the circular path of radius r. qvB = mv2 r r = mv qB Time period:-

T= 2t = 2 X Distance Speed T = 2 pr T = 2 pm qB Cyclotron Frequency:-

n=1 = 1 = qB T qB 2p m 2p m This frequency is called as Magnetic Resonance Frequency.

Energy Gained by particle:Kinetic Energy = 1 mv2 2 K.E. = 1 m r2q2B2 2 m2 K.E, = q2B2r2 m

thus a positively charged particle will acquire maximum when it is at the periphery of the dees.Cyclotrons reach an energy limit

because of relativistic effects whereby the particles effectively become more massive, so that their cyclotron frequency drops out of synch with the accelerating RF. Therefore simple cyclotrons can accelerate protons only to an energy of around 15 million electron volts (15 MeV, corresponding to a speed of roughly 10% of c), because the protons get out of phase with the driving electric field. If accelerated further, the beam would continue to spiral outward to a larger radius but the particles would no longer gain enough speed to complete the larger circle in step with the accelerating RF. Cyclotrons are nevertheless still useful for lower energy applications. Advantages of the cyclotron Cyclotrons have a single electrical driver, which saves both money and power, since more expense may be allocated to increasing efficiency. Cyclotrons produce a continuous stream of particles at the target, so the average power is relatively high. The compactness of the device reduces other costs, such as its foundations, radiation shielding, and the enclosing building.

Synchrotrons:-A synchrotron is a particular type of cyclic

particle accelerator in which the magnetic field (to turn the particles so they circulate) and the electric field (to accelerate the particles) are carefully coordinated with the particle beam. They were use to study high-energy particle physics. A cyclotron uses a constant magnetic field and a constant-frequency applied electric

field but in synchrotron both these field are use to vary. By increasing these parameters as the particles gain energy, their path can be held constant as they are accelerated. This allows the vacuum container for the particles to be a large thin torus. In reality, it is easier to use some straight sections between the bending magnets and some bent sections within the magnets giving the torus the shape of a round-cornered polygon. A path of large effective radius may thus be constructed using simple straight and curved pipe segments, unlike the disc-shaped chamber of the cyclotron type devices.. The maximum energy that a cyclic accelerator can impart is typically limited by the strength of the magnetic field(s) and the minimum radius (maximum curvature) of the particle path. Synchrotrons overcome these problems, using a narrow beam pipe, which can be surrounded by much smaller and more tightly focusing magnets. The ability of this device to accelerate particles is limited by the fact that the particles must be charged to be accelerated at all, but charged particles under acceleration emit photons (light). The energy of those is limited strictly by the strength of magnets and by the cost.

Structure:-Particles are injected into the main ring at

substantial energies by either a linear accelerator or by an intermediate synchrotron which is in turn fed by a linear accelerator. The "linac" is in turn fed by particles accelerated to intermediate energy by a simple high voltage power supply. Starting from an appropriate initial value determined by the

injection velocity the magnetic field is then increased. The particles pass through an electrostatic accelerator driven by a high alternating voltage. At particle speeds not close to the speed of light the frequency of the accelerating voltage can be made roughly proportional to the current in the bending magnets. A finer control of the frequency is performed by a loop which responds to the detection of the passing of the traveling group of particles. At particle speeds, approaching light speed the frequency becomes more nearly constant, while the current in the bending magnets continues to increase. The maximum energy that can be applied to the particles (for a given ring size and magnet count) is determined by the saturation of the cores of the bending magnets (the point at which increasing current does not produce additional magnetic field).

Picture of Synchrotron

10

Large Hadron Collider (LHC):- The Large Hadron Collider

(LHC) is the world's largest and highest-energy particle accelerator complex, intended to collide opposing beams of protons (one of several types of hadrons) with very high kinetic energy. Its main purpose is to explore the validity and limitations of the Standard Model, the current theoretical picture for particle physics. It is theorized that the collider will confirm the existence of the entire process of big bang. This would supply a key link in the Standard Model and explain how other elementary particles acquire properties such as mass. The LHC was built by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), and lies underneath the FrancoSwiss border between the Jura Mountains and the Alps near Geneva, Switzerland. It is funded by and built in collaboration with over eight thousand physicists from over eighty-five countries as well as hundreds of universities and laboratories. The LHC circulated its first particle beams on 10 September 2008, but a few days later had to suspend operations due to equipment failure, when a faulty connection between two magnets triggered a shutdown which will delay its operation for two months. Owing to the already planned winter shutdown, the collider will not be operational again until the spring of 2009. The LHC is the world's largest and highest-energy particle accelerator. The collider is contained in a circular tunnel, with a circumference of

11

27 kilometres (17 mi), at a depth ranging from 50 to 175 metres underground. The 3.8 m wide concrete-lined tunnel, constructed between 1983 and 1988, was formerly used to house the Large Electron-Positron Collider. It crosses the border between Switzerland and France at four points, with most of it in France. Surface buildings hold ancillary equipment such as compressors, ventilation equipment, control electronics and refrigeration plants. The collider tunnel contains two adjacent parallel beam pipes that intersect at four points, each containing a proton beam, which travels in opposite directions around the ring. Some 1,232 dipole magnets keep the beams on their circular path, while an additional 392 quadrupole magnets are used to keep the beams focused, in order to maximize the chances of interaction between the particles in the four intersection points, where the two beams will cross. In total, over 1,600 superconducting magnets are installed, with most weighing over 27 tonnes. Approximately 96 tonnes of liquid helium is needed to keep the magnets at their operating temperature of 1.9 K, making the LHC the largest cryogenic facility in the world at liquid helium temperature. Superconducting quadrupole electromagnets are used to direct the beams to four intersection points, where interactions between protons will take place.

12

Aerial photo of the Tevatron at Fermilab