Cu: v 1 i v II

BACTERIA, FLI ES AND KNOTS

La premire ei la plus belle qualii de la naiure esi le

mouvemeni qui lagiie sans cesse ; mais ce
mouvemeni nesi quune suiie perpiuelle de crimes ;
ce nesi que par des crimes quelle le conserve.

Donaiien de Sade, Justine, ou les malheurs de la

vertu.
W
ovviv entities, in paiticulai jellyfsh oi amoebas, open up a fiesh vision of the
oild of motion, if we allow being led by the cuiiosity to study them in detail.
e have missed many delightful insights by leaving them aside up to now. In
fact, wobbly entities yield suipiising connections between shape change and motion that
will be of gieat use in the last pait of oui mountain ascent. Instead of continuing to
look at the smallei and smallei, we now take a second look at eveiyday motion and its
mathematical desciiption.
To enjoy this chaptei, we change a deai habit. So fai, we always desciibed any geneial
example of motion as composed of the motion of point particles. Tis woiked well in
classical physics, in geneial ielativity and in quantum theoiy; we based the appioach on
the silent assumptionthat duiing motion, each point of a complex systemcan be followed
sepaiately. We will soon discovei that this assumption is not iealized at smallest scales.
Teiefoie the most useful desciiption of motion of extended bodies uses methods that
do not iequiie that body paits be followed piece by piece. We exploie these methods in
this chaptei; doing so is a lot of fun in its own iight.
If we desciibe elementaiy paiticles as extended entities as we soon will have Vol. VI, page 108 to a
paiticle moving thiough space is similai to a dolphin swimming thiough watei, oi to a
bee fying thiough aii, oi to a voitex advancing in a liquid. Teiefoie we exploie howthis
happens.
BUmviiviis :u o1uiv mii:1Uvi iivic svs1ims
If a butteify passes by duiing oui mountain ascent, we can stop a moment to appieciate
a simple fact: a butteify fies, and it is iathei small. If we leave some cut fiuit in the
kitchen until it iots, we obseive the even smallei fiuit fies (Drosophila melanogaster),
Te primary and mosi beauiiful of naiures qualiiies is moiion, which agiiaies her ai all iimes; bui ihis
moiion is simply a perpeiual consequence of crimes; she conserves ii by means of crimes only. Dona-
iien Alphonse Franois de Sade (b. :,o Paris, d. :8: Charenion-Saini-Maurice) is ihe iniense French wriier
from whom ihe ierm sadism was deduced.
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FI GURE 142 The wings of a few types
of insects smaller than 1 mm (thrips,
Encarsia, Anagrus, Dicomorpha)
(HortNET).
We summaiize: active fying is only possible thiough shape change. Only two types of
shape changes aie possible foi active fying: that of wings and that of piopelleis (oi
tuibines). Ref. 215 Engineeis aie studying with intensity how these shape changes have to take
place in oidei to make fying most efective. Ref. 216 Inteiestingly, a similai challenge is posed by
swimming.
Swimmic
Swimming is a fascinating phenomenon. Te Gieeks aigued that the ability of fsh to
swim is a pioof that watei is made of atoms. If atoms would not exist, a fsh could not
advance thiough it. Indeed, swimming is an activity that shows that mattei cannot be
continuous. Studying swimming can thus be quite enlightening. But how exactly do fsh
swim:
Whenevei dolphins, jellyfsh, submaiines oi humans swim, they take watei with theii
fns, body, piopelleis, hands oi feet and push it backwaids. Due to momentum consei-
vation they then move foiwaid. In shoit, people swim in the same way that fiewoiks
oi iockets fy: by thiowing mattei behind them. Tis is macioscopic swimming. Does all
swimming woik in this way: In paiticulai, do small oiganisms advancing thiough the
molecules of a liquid use the same method: No. Tey use a difeient, microscopic way of
swimming.
Small oiganisms such as bacteiia do not have the capacity to piopel oi acceleiate watei
against theii suiioundings. Indeed, the watei iemains attached aiound a miciooiganism
without evei moving away fiom it. Physically speaking, in these cases of swimming the
kinetic eneigy of the watei is negligible. In oidei to swim, unicellulai beings thus need to
use othei efects. In fact, theii only possibility is to change theii body shape in contiolled
ways. Seen fiom fai away, the swimming of miciooiganisms thus iesembles the motion
of paiticles thiough vacuum: like miciooiganisms, also paiticles have nothing to thiow
behind them.
Fish could use propellers, as ihe argumenis againsi wheels we collecied ai ihe beginning of our walk Vol. I, page 85 do
noi apply for swimming. Bui propellers wiih blood supply would be a weak poini in ihe consiruciion, and
ihus make fsh vulnerable. Terefore, naiure has noi developed fsh wiih propellers.
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Small oiganisms such as bacteiia do not have the capacity to piopel oi acceleiate watei
against theii suiioundings. Indeed, the watei iemains attached aiound a miciooiganism
without evei moving away fiom it. Physically speaking, in these cases of swimming the
kinetic eneigy of the watei is negligible. In oidei to swim, unicellulai beings thus need to
use othei efects. In fact, theii only possibility is to change theii body shape in contiolled
ways. Seen fiom fai away, the swimming of miciooiganisms thus iesembles the motion
of paiticles thiough vacuum: like miciooiganisms, also paiticles have nothing to thiow
behind them.
:,8 :: nnc1ivin, iiiis nu xo1s
FI GURE 144 Cats can turn
themselves, even with no initial
angular momentum
(photographs by Etienne-Jules
Marey, 1894).
liquidaii inteifaces. Otheis attach themselves to solid bodies they fnd in the liquid.
Some of them aie able to move along these solids. Te amoeba is an example foi a mi-
ciooiganism moving in this way. Also the smallest active motion mechanisms known,
namely the motion of molecules in muscles and in cell membianes, Page 20 woik this way.
Let us summaiize these obseivations in a difeient way. All known active motion, oi
self-piopulsion, (in fat space) takes place in fuids be it aii oi liquids. All active mo-
tion iequiies shape change. In oidei that shape change leads to motion, the enviionment,
e.g. the watei, must itself consist of moving components always pushing onto the swim-
ming entity. Te motion of the swimming entity can then be deduced fiomthe paiticulai
shape change it peifoims. To test youi intuition, you may tiy the following puzzle: is mi-
cioscopic swimming possible in two spatial dimensions: In foui: Challenge 144 ny
Ro1:1io, i:iiic c:1s :u 1ui 1uiovv oi su:vi cu:ci
At small dimensions, fying and swimming takes place thiough phase change. In the
last decades, the desciiption of shape change has changed fiom a fashionable piece of
ieseaich to a topic whose iesults aie both appealing and useful. Teie aie many studies,
both expeiimental and theoietical, about the exact way small systems move in watei and
aii, about the achievable and achieved emciency, and much moie. Te focus is on motion
thiough tianslation.
But shape change can also lead to a rotation of a body. In this case, the ideas aie not
iestiicted to micioscopic systems, but apply at all scales. In paiticulai, the theoiy of shape
change is useful in explaining how falling cats manage to fall always on theii feet. Cats
aie not boin with this ability; they have to leain it. But the feat has fascinated people foi
centuiies, as shown in the ancient photogiaph given in Figuie I44. In fact, cats confim
in thiee dimensions what we alieady knew foi two dimensions: Vol. I, page 111 a defoimable body can
change its own oiientation in space without outside help. Also humans can peifoim the
feat: simply obseive the second, lateial iotation of the divei in Figuie I43. Astionauts in
the space station and passengeis of paiabolic zeio-giavity fights iegulaily do the same,
as do many aitifcial satellites sent into space.
In the I980s, the woik by Michael Beiiy, Wilczek and Zee as well as by Shapeie and
Wilczek made the point that all motion due to shape change is desciibed by a gauge
theoiy. Ref. 225 Te equivalence is shown in Table 22. A simple and beautiful example foi these
ideas has been given by Putteiman and Raz Ref. 226 and is shown in Figuie I46. Imagine foui
spheies on peifect ice, all of the same mass and size, connected by foui iods foiming
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Equator
z
y
x

FI GURE 147 Swimming on a curved surface using two discs.

Swimmic i cUvviu sv:ci
In fat space it is not possible to pioduce tianslation thiough shape change. Only oiienta-
tion changes aie possible. Suipiisingly, if space is curved, motion does become possible.
A simple example was published in 2003 by Jack Wisdom. Ref. 227 He found that cyclic changes
in the shape of a body can lead to net tianslation, a iotation of the body, oi both.
Indeed, we knowfiom Galilean physics that on a fiictionless suiface we cannot move,
but that we can change oiientation. Tis is tiue only foi a fat suiface. On a cuived suiface,
we can use the ability to tuin and tianslate it into motion.
Take two massive discs that lie on the suiface of a fiictionless, spheiical planet, as
shown in Figuie I47. Considei the following foui steps: I. the disc sepaiation is in-
cieased by the angle , 2. the discs aie iotated oppositely about theii centies by the
angle , 3. theii sepaiation is decieased by , and 4. they aie iotated back by .
Due to the conseivation of angulai momentum, the two-disc system changes its longi-
tude as Challenge 146 ny
=
1
2

2
, (I08)
wheie is the angulai iadius of the discs. Tis cycle can be iepeated ovei and ovei. Te
cycle it allows a body, located on the suiface of the Eaith, to swim along the suiface.
Unfoitunately, foi a body of size of one metie, the motion foi each swimming cycle is
only aiound 10
27
m.
Wisdom showed that the same pioceduie also woiks in cuived space, thus in the
piesence of giavitation. Te mechanism thus allows a falling body to swim away fiom
the path of fiee fall. Unfoitunately, the achievable distances foi eveiyday objects aie neg-
ligibly small. Neveitheless, the efect exists.
In othei woids, theie is a way to swim thiough cuived space that looks similai to
swimming at low Reynolds numbeis, wheie swimming iesults of simple shape change.
Does this tell us something about fundamental desciiptions of motion: Te last pait of
oui ascent will tell.
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Seveial computei videos of spheie eveisions aie now Ref. 231 available. Te most famous ones
aie Outside in, which shows an eveision due to William P. Tuiston, and e Optiverse,
which shows the most emcient method known so fai, discoveied by a team led by John
Sullivan and shown in Figuie I48.
Why is spheie eveision of inteiest to physicists: If elementaiy paiticles weie extended
and at the same time weie of spheiical shape, eveision might be a paiticle symmetiy. To
see why, we summaiize the efects of eveision on the whole suiiounding space, not only
on the spheie itself. Te fnal efect of eveision is the tiansfoimation
(x, y, z)
(x, y, z) R
2
r
2
(I09)
wheie R is the iadius of the spheie and r is the length of the cooidinate vectoi (x, y, z),
thus r =

x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
. Due to the minus sign in the z-cooidinate, eveision difeis fiom
inveision, but not by too much. As we will fnd out shoitly, a tiansfoimation similai to
eveision, space-time duality, is a fundamental symmetiy of natuie. Vol. VI, page 105
CioUus
Clouds aie anothei impoitant class of wobbly objects. Te lack of a defnite boundaiy
makes themeven moie fascinating than amoebas, bacteiia oi falling cats. We can obseive
the vaiieties of clouds fiom any aeioplane.
Te common cumulus oi cumulonimbus in Vol. III, page 169 the sky, like all the othei meteoiological
clouds, aie vapoui and watei dioplet clouds. Galaxies aie clouds of stais. Stais aie clouds
of plasma. Te atmospheie is a gas cloud. Atoms aie clouds of elections. Nuclei aie clouds
of piotons and neutions, which in tuin aie clouds of quaiks. Compaiing difeient cloud
types is illuminating and fun.
Clouds of all types can be desciibed by a shape and a size, even though in theoiy they
have no bound. An eective shape and size can be defned by that iegion in which the
cloud density is only, say, I of the maximum density; slightly difeient pioceduies can
also be used. All clouds aie desciibed by probability densities of the components making
up the cloud. All clouds show conservation of the numbei of theii constituents.
Whenevei we see a cloud, we can ask why it does not collapse. Eveiy cloud is an aggie-
gate; all aggiegates aie kept fiom collapse in Vol. I, page 222 only three ways: thiough iotation, thiough
piessuie, oi thiough the Pauli piinciple, i.e., the quantum of action. Foi example, galax-
ies aie kept fiom collapsing by iotation. Most stais, the atmospheie and iain clouds aie
kept fiom collapsing by gas piessuie. Neution stais, the Eaith, atomic nuclei, piotons oi
the election clouds of atoms aie kept apait by the quantum of action.
A iain cloud is a method to keep seveial thousand tons of watei suspended in the aii.
Can you explain what keeps it afoat, and what else keeps it fiom continuously difusing
into a thinnei and thinnei stiuctuie: Challenge 147 ny
Summaries of ihe videos can be seen ai ihe www.geom.umn.edu/docs/ouireach/oi websiie, which also
has a good pedagogical iniroduciion. Anoiher simple eversion and explanaiion is given by Erik de Neve on
ihe www.xs4all.nl/~alife/sphereI.him websiie. Ii is even possible io run ihe flm sofware ai home; see ihe
www.cslub.uwaierloo.ca/~mjmcgun/eversion websiie. Figure I48 is from ihe new.maih.uiuc.edu/opiiverse
websiie.
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Te amplitude a and the wavelength oi pitch b = 1/ can be fieely chosen, as long as
the appioximation of small deviation is fulflled; this condition tianslates as a b. In
the piesent inteipietation, the fundamental solution coiiesponds to a voitex line that is
defoimed into a helix, as shown in Figuie I3I. Te angulai speed is the iotation speed
aiound the axis of the helix.
A helix moves along the axis with a speed given by Challenge 148 ny

helix along axis

= 2 . (II7)
In othei woids, foi extended entities following evolution equation (III), iotation and
tianslation aie coupled. Te momentum p can be defned using /x, leading to
p = =
1
b
. (II8)
Momentum is thus inveisely piopoitional to the helix wavelength oi pitch, as expected.
Te eneigy E is defned using /t, leading to
E =
2
=

b
2
. (II9)
Eneigy and momentum aie connected by
E =
p
2
2
wheie =
1
2
. (I20)
In othei woids, a voitex with a coemcient desciibing the coupling between enviion-
ment and voitex Page 265 is thus desciibed by a numbei that behaves like an efective mass. We
can also defne the (ieal) quantity || = a; it desciibes the amplitude of the defoimation.
In the Schidingei equation (II3), the second deiivative implies that the defoima-
tion wave packet has tendency to spiead out ovei space. Can you confim that the
wavelengthfiequency ielation foi a voitex wave gioup leads to something like the in-
deteiminacy ielation (howevei, without a appeaiing explicitly): Challenge 150 ny
In summaiy, the complex amplitude foi a lineai voitex in a iotating liquid behaves
like the one-dimensional wave function of a non-ielativistic fiee paiticle. In addition,
we found a suggestion foi the ieason that complex numbeis appeai in the Schidingei
equation of quantum theoiy: they could be due to the intiinsic iotation of an undeilying
substiate. Is this suggestion coiiect: We will fnd out in the last pait of oui adventuie. Vol. VI, page 160
FiUiu sv:ci-1imi
Geneial ielativity shows that space can move and oscillate: space is a wobbly entity. Is
space moie similai to clouds, to fuids, oi to solids:
Te curvaiure is given by = a/b
2
, ihe iorsion by = 1/b. Insiead of a b one can ihus also wriie .
A wave packei moves along ihe axis wiih a speed given by Challenge 149 ny
packet
= 2
0
, where
0
is ihe iorsion of ihe
helix of ceniral wavelengih.
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contracted state stretched state
(high entropy) (low entropy)
molecule
cross-link
FI GURE 153 An illustration of the relation between polymer congurations and elasticity. The
molecules in the stretched situation have fewer possible shape congurations and thus lower entropy;
therfore, the material tends back to the contracted situation.
time, maybe even dislocation iings: Te speculation is appealing, even though it sup-
poses that space-time is a solid ciystal, and thus contiadicts the model of space oi space-
time as a fuid. Woise, we will soon encountei Vol. VI, page 70 othei ieasons to ieject modelling space-
time as a lattice; maybe you can fnd a few aiguments alieady by youiself. Challenge 152 s Still, expies-
sions (I2I) and (I22) foi dislocations continue to fascinate.
At this point, we aie confused. Space-time seems to be solid and liquid at the same
time. Despite this contiast, the discussion somehow gives the impiession that theie is
something waiting to be discoveied. But what: We will fnd out in the last pait of oui
adventuie.
Poivmivs
Te study of polymeis is both economically impoitant and theoietically fascinating. Ref. 236 Poly-
meis aie mateiials built of long and fexible maciomolecules that aie sequences of many
(poly in Gieek) similai monomeis. Tese maciomolecules aie thus wobbly entities.
Polymeis foim solids, like iubbei oi plexiglas, melts, like those used to cuie teeth, and
many kinds of solutions, like glues, paints, eggs, oi people. Polymei gases aie of lessei
impoitance.
All the mateiial piopeities of polymeis, such as theii elasticity, theii viscosity,
theii electiic conductivity oi theii unshaip melting point, depend on the numbei of
monomeis and the topology of theii constituent molecules. In many cases, this depen-
dence can be calculated. Let us exploie an example.
If L is the contoui length of a fiee, ideal, unbianched polymei molecule, the average
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An illustration of the relation between polymer congurations and elasticity. The
molecules in the stretched situation have fewer po molecules in the stretched situation have fewer possible shape congurations and thus lower entropy;
therfore, the material tends back to the contracted situation.
:,: :: nnc1ivin, iiiis nu xo1s
FI GURE 154 The knot diagrams for the simplest prime knots ( Robert Scharein).
Ko1s :u iixs

Doni iouch ihis, or I shall iie your fngers inio

knois!

(Nasiy, bui surprisingly emcieni child

educaiion iechnique.)
Knots and theii geneialization aie cential to the study of wobbly object motion. A(math-
ematical) knot is a closed piece of iubbei stiing, i.e., a stiing whose ends have been glued
togethei, which cannot be defoimed into a ciicle oi a simple loop. Te simple loop is also
called the trivial knot.
Knots aie of impoitance in the context of this chaptei as they visualize the limitations
of the motion of wobbly entities. In addition, we will discovei othei ieasons to study
knots latei on. In this section, we just have a bit of Ref. 237 fun.
In I949, Schubeit pioved that eveiy knot can be decomposed in a unique way as sum
of piime knots. Knots thus behave similaily to integeis. Ref. 238
Beauiiful illusiraiions and deiailed informaiion aboui knois can be found on ihe Knoi Ailas websiie ai
kailas.maih.ioronio.edu and ai ihe KnoiPloi websiie ai www.knoiploi.com.
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:, :: nnc1ivin, iiiis nu xo1s
right-hand
crossing +1
left-hand
crossing -1
a nugatory crossing
FI GURE 155 Crossing types
in knots.
Reidemeister
move I
(untwist)
Reidemeister
move II
(unpoke)
Reidemeister
move III
(slide)
the flype
R
R
FI GURE 156 The Reidemeister moves and the ype.
FI GURE 157 A tight open overhand knot and a tight open gure-eight knot ( Piotr Pieranski)
ciicles; foi example, as just said, 2-spheies can be tied into knots in 4 dimensions, 3-
spheies in 3 dimensions and so foith.
Tui u:vuis1 ovi vvoviims 1u:1 voU c: 1iii voUv cv:umo1uiv
Even though mathematicians have achieved good piogiess in the classifcation of knots,
suipiisingly, they know next to nothing about the shapes of knots. Heie aie a few piob-
lems that aie still open today:
Tis is the simplest unsolved knot pioblem: Imagine an ideally wobbly iope, that is,
a iope that has the same iadius eveiywheie, but whose cuivatuie can be changed as
one piefeis. Tie a tiefoil knot into the iope. By how much do the ends of the iope get
neaiei: Challenge 155 r In 2006, theie aie only numeiical estimates foi the answei: about I0.I iadiuses.
Teie is no foimula yielding the numbei I0.I. Alteinatively, solve the following piob-
lem: what is the iope length of a closed tiefoil knot: Also in this case, only numeiical
values aie known about I6.33 iadiuses but no exact foimula. Te same is valid foi
any othei knot, of couise.
Foi mathematical knots, i.e., closed knots, the pioblem is equally unsolved. Foi ex-
ample: the iopelength of the tight tiefoil knot is known to be aiound I6.33 diameteis,
and that of the fguie-eight knot about 2I.04 diameteis. Ref. 241 Foi beautiful visualizations of
the tightening piocess, see the animations on the website www.jasoncantaiella.com/
movs. But what is the foimula giving the iopelength values: Nobody knows, because
the piecise shape of the tiefoil knot oi of any othei knot is unknown. Lou Kauf-
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:: nnc1ivin, iiiis nu xo1s :,
FI GURE 164 A ying snake, Chrysopelea paradisii, performing the feat that gave it its name (QuickTime
lm Jake Socha).
fai, theie aie almost no positive iesults. Inventing a method, possibly based on hygio-
scopic salt injection oi with the help of laseis, will be a gieat help to mankind.

Do knots have a ielation to elementaiy paiticles: Te question is about I30 yeais old. It
was fist investigated by William Tomson-Kelvin and Petei Tait in the late nineteenth
centuiy. So fai, no pioof of a ielation has been found. Knots might be of impoitance at
Planck scales, the smallest dimensions possible in natuie. We will exploie howknots and
the stiuctuie of elementaiy paiticles might be ielated in the last volume of this adventuie.
SUmm:vv o wovviv ov,ic1s
We can sum up the possible motions of extended systems in a few key themes. In eail-
iei chapteis we studied waves, solitons and inteipenetiation. Vol. I, page 268 Tese obseivations aie de-
sciibed by wave equations. In this chaptei we exploied the way to move thiough shape
change, exploied eveision, studied voitices, fuids, polymeis, knots and theii ieaiiange-
ment, and exploied the motion of dislocations in solids. We found that shape change
is desciibed by gauge theoiy, eveision is desciibed by space-duality, voitices follow the
Schidingei equation, fuids and polymeis iesemble geneial ielativity and black holes,
knot shapes aie haid to calculate and dislocations behave ielativistically.
Te motion of wobbly objects is ofen a neglected topic in textbooks on motion. Re-
seaich is piogiessing at full speed; it is expected that many beautiful analogies with tiadi-
tional physics will be discoveied in the neai futuie. Foi example, in this chaptei we have
not exploied any possible analogy foi the motion of light. Similaily, including quantum
theoiy into the desciiption of wobbly bodies motion iemains Challenge 165 r a fascinating issue foi any-
body aiming to publish in a new feld.
In summaiy, we found that wobbly entities can iepioduce most felds of modein
physics. Aie theie wobbly entities that iepioduce all of modein physics: We will exploie
the question in the last volume.
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