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A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 1

Pre-historic period Tribes in Britain speak Brythonic, a Celtic language. No writing before Roman invasion. AD 43 ca. AD 410 Roman period in Britain Latin introduced as written language and spoken language of ruling class. AD 450 550 Invasion of Germanic tribes (Angles, Saxons, Jutes) from Holland, northern Germany and southern Denmark, bringing Germanic language with various dialects. AD 450 1150 Old English period. Old English originally written with runes, gradually replaced by adapted Latin alphabet.

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OLD ENGLISH
y ilcan gare drehton hergas on astenglum ond on Norhymbrum Westseaxna lond swe be m sste mid stlhergum, ealra swust mid m scum e he fela gara r timbredon. ht lfred cyng timbran lang scipu ongn scas; wron fulnah t sw lange sw ru; sume hfdon LX ra, sume m; wron ger ge swiftran ge unwealtran ge ac herran onne ru; nron nwer ne on Frsisc gescpene ne on Denisc, bton sw him selfum hte t he nytwyroste bon meahten. t sumum cirre s ilcan gares cmon r sex scipu t Wiht, ond r mycel yfel gedydon, ger ge on Defenum ge wel hwr be m sriman.
In the same year the plunderers in East Anglia and Northumbria greatly harassed the land of the West Saxons around the southern shore with marauding bands, most of all with ships which they built many years before. Then King Alfred ordered (his men) to build long ships (to be used) against the (Danish) ships; they were almost twice as long as the others; some had 60 oars, some more. They were both swifter and steadier and also higher than the others; they were shaped neither on the Frisian nor on the Danish (model), but as it seemed -- to he himself -- they might be most useful. At a certain time of the same year there came six ships to (the Isle of) Wight, and did much mischief there, both in Devonshire and almost everywhere near the seacoast. Source: Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 10th century

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Features of Old English

Phonology - most of the consonants found in English today, including th ( and ); short vs. long vowels stress on initial or root syllable Verbs two categories: strong vs. weak verbs. Strong verbs show ablaut (vowel change), weak verbs add ede, ode, -de. Only two inflected tenses (present and past), other tenses and passive formed periphrastically. Nouns three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter); four cases (nominative, accusative, genitive and dative); singular and plural

Adjectives comparative/superlative in -er/-est.

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A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 2

AD 312 Roman Emperor Constantine converts to Christianity AD 380 Christianity (Catholicism) becomes state religion of Roman Empire AD 597 686 Christianization of Anglo-Saxons in Britain ca. AD 700 onwards Translation of psalms, gospels and large parts of the Bible into Old English

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Word Formation
by addition of prefixes and suffixes: e.g. md nimo, coragem > mdig animado, corajoso; mdiglic magnnimo; mdiglice corajosamente, com nimo; mdignes magnanimidade; mdfull altivo; mdlas sem nimo

by compounding: e.g. mdcrft inteligncia; mdlufu afeto.

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The Viking Legacy

AD 787 1042 Viking invasions and conquest Vikings spoke a Germanic language (Scandinavian) very similar to Old English. Linguistic similarity meant that form words (pronouns *e.g. they, them, him+, prepositions, adverbs, part of the verb to be *e.g. are]) were also absorbed.

Syntactic features: loss of relative pronoun in some relative clauses (e.g. the man I saw) and placement of preposition at the end (e.g. Where do you come from? the book Im looking for) use of shall and will for future phrasal verbs

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Britain AD 890

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Old Norse
er eir kmu at, vissu eir eigi hvrt Gunnarr myndi heim vera, ok bu at einnhverr myndi fara heim fyrir ok vita hvers vss yri, en eir settusk nir vllinn. orgrmr austmar gekk upp sklann; Gunnarr sr at rauan kyrtil bar vi glugginum, ok leggr t me atgeirinum hann mijan. orgrmi skruppu ftrnir ok var lauss skjldrinn, ok hratai hann ofan af ekjunni. Gengr hann san at eim Gizuri, ar er eir stu vellinum. Gizurr leit vi honum ok mlti, "Hvrt er Gunnarr heima?" orgrmr svarar, "Viti r at, en hitt vissa ek, at atgeirr hans var heima." San fell hann nir daur. When they arrived, they did not know whether Gunnar would be at home, and they said that someone should go up to the house and find out for certain, while the others set themselves down on the ground. Thorgrim, a Norwegian, went up to the hall; Gunnar saw that a red tunic appear at the window, and shot out a spear at his midsection. Thorgrim's feet slipped and his shield came loose, and he tumbled down off the thatch. Then he went back to the rest, Gizur among them, where they sat on the ground. Gizur looked at him and said, "Is Gunnar home?" Thorgrim answered, "You find out; but I discovered this: his spear was home." Then he fell down dead.

Source: Brennu-Njls Saga, 13th century

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A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 3

1066-1200 Norman conquest language of court and government, upper class and church became Norman French; period of bilingualism 1200-1500 Bilingualism to English only as England and France break apart and English nationalism grows Middle English period (1150-1500) huge influx of loanwords from French inflection greatly simplified leading to fixing of word order and shift of grammatical gender to natural gender loss of native words huge increase in number of regular verbs formed from nouns or imported

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Middle English
`Thou hast yhad fyve housbondes,' quod he, `And that ilke man that now hath thee Is noght thyn housbonde,' thus seyde he certeyn. What that he mente therby, I kan nat seyn; But that I axe, why that the fifthe man Was noon housbonde to the Samaritan? How manye myghte she have in mariage? Yet herde I nevere tellen in myn age Upon this nombre diffinicioun. Men may devyne and glosen, up and doun, But wel I woot, expres, withoute lye, God bad us for to wexe and multiplye;

Source: Geoffrey Chaucer, The Wife of Baths Prologue, 14th century

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A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 3

1500 present Modern English period changes in pronunciation, fixing of spelling, input of loanwords from more exotic languages. From 16th century onwards, progressive verb forms started to develop (he was on laughing > he was alaughing > he was laughing). Progressive began to be used in all verb tenses, creating an aspectual system. British Empire and then American influence spread English around the world: today, first language of 400 million, second language of 1.4 billion.

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Early Modern English

As for the antiquitie of our speche, whether it be measured by the ancient Almane, whence it cummeth originallie, or euen but by the latest terms which it borroweth daielie from foren tungs, either of pure necessitie in new matters, or of mere brauerie, to garnish it self withall, it cannot be young. Onelesse the Germane himself be young, which claimeth a prerogatiue for the age of his speche, of an infinit prescription: Onelesse the Latin and Greke be young, whose words we enfranchise to our own vse, tho not allwaie immediatlie from them selues, but mostwhat thorough the Italian, French, and Spanish: Onelesse other tungs * + will for companie sake be content to be young, that ours maie not be old. Source: Richard Mulcaster, The First Part of the Elementarie, 1582

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Exercise 1
Find a Germanic word or phrasal verb to replace the underlined words: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Remove the foil lid before placing the lasagna in the oven. He had to have several of his teeth extracted. I will now distribute some questionnaires for you to complete. Please board now as the train is about to depart. I need to deposit these cheques and withdraw some cash. It is prohibited to consume alcoholic beverages on these premises. You would have obtained a higher grade if you had not omitted the second paragraph of the translation. Did you acquire any French during your stay in Paris?

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Exercise 2
1. 2. 3. 4. De onde voc veio hoje? O homem com quem eu falava o diretor da escola. Este o lugar a que temos que voltar. Voc tem uma sacola para eu colocar as minhas coisas? 5. O que que voc est olhando? 6. Ele finalmente achou a casa que estava procurando. 7. Voc vai no carro de quem? 8. um assunto em que no quero entrar. 9. Voc sabe do que so feitas aquelas esculturas? 10. O rio muito largo para atravessarmos a nado.

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Difference between English and Portuguese in motion expressions

Consider the following sentences: Lets swim across. Vamos atravessar a nado. A tank rumbled past. Um tanque de guerra passou com grande estrondo.

The thief crept in and stole the money. O ladro entrou de mansinho e roubou o dinheiro.

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Phrasal Verbs of Motion

Phrasal verbs of motion consist of: verb of motion + adverb of direction e.g. go up, come out, walk around, run across

Phrasal verbs of motion can also be transitive: e.g. take sth up, bring sth out, carry sth around, ferry sb across, push sth down

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Adverbs of Direction
across along around (round, about) apart away back by/past down in on off out over through under up

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Examples of Motion Phrasals

Lets swim across. I was cycling along when all of a sudden my chain broke. Move your legs further apart. The children were running around in the garden. He got in the car and drove away. I had no money left so I had to hitch back to where my parents live. A tank rumbled past. The cat was up in a tree and couldnt get down. The thief crept in and stole the money. The elephant knelt down so I could climb on. Her sandals kept slipping off. When the bell went, the students flooded out into the schoolyard. There was a big puddle outside the door and we had to jump over. There was a very small opening but I managed to squeeze through. There was a gap below the fence and the dog had crawled under. The elevator wasnt working so we had to walk up.

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Prepositions of Direction
across along around (round, about) by/past down from into / in onto / on off out of over through to under up

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Examples using Prepositions of Direction

They ran across the road. He cycles around town. We drove past your house. They skied down the mountain. He dashed in/into the kitchen. The car shot out of a side road. They clambered over the wall. We had to crawl under the fence. He managed to scramble up the riverbank.

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Exercise 3
1. Fui pedalando at o centro da cidade. 2. Desci a escada de mansinho, para ningum me ouvir. 3. perigoso atravessar a rua correndo. 4. Vou trabalhar de carro 5. Deram a volta na ilha a nado. 6. Ela saiu da sala igual a um furaco. 7. O jogador saiu mancando do campo. 8. Decidimos voltar para So Paulo de avio.

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Directionality in English
entrar sair subir descer voltar atravessar passar to go in/to come in to go out/to come out to go up/to come up to go down/to come down to go back/to come back to go across/to come across to go by/to come by

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Direction of motion relative to the speaker

The verbs go and come and transitive equivalents take and bring show direction of motion relative to the speaker: go/take - motion away from the speaker come/bring - motion towards the speaker Portuguese has the same distinction: ir/levar vs. vir/trazer, but basic rules are broken in some cases in English:

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Differences in usage of come/bring and vir/trazer (1)

In English, come/bring are also used when motion is towards the place where the addressee is, will be or was: Ill come and see you at your office tomorrow. (vou) Do you mind if I bring someone to the party? (se eu levar) Look out! Theres a snake coming toward you! (indo ) When youre living in China, Ill come and visit you. (vou) Hollywood, here I come! (l vou eu!)

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Differences in usage of come/bring and vir/trazer (2)

Come/bring are usually used when the speaker talks about accompanying the addressee somewhere, especially when the addressee is about to leave, or when it is the speaker who is going somewhere: Do you want me to come with you? (que eu v) Oh, so youre going to see a movie? Can I come too? (ir) Ill come to the library with you and bring my laptop. (vou ... levo ...) Im going to the mall. Do you want to come? (ir)

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Exercise 4
1. Voc pode subir aqui um pouco? 2. Ns vamos sair. Quer sair conosco? 3. Voc pode trazer a roupa suja para baixo? 4. D uma buzinada quando voc chegar que eu deso. 5. Volto para a Inglaterra amanh. 6. Voc fica aqui que eu subo com as compras. 7. Vimos o ladro entrando na casa da vizinha. 8. Ela entrou na sala e me cumprimentou. 9. Vai sair agora? Que horas voc volta? 10. Vou a almoar com voc. Quer que eu leve alguma coisa?

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What is a phrasal verb?

Semantic definition any combination of a verb and an adverb/preposition that has a distinct meaning from the simple verb (includes verbs like count on and account for). Syntactic/phonetic definition combination of a verb and a stressed particle (adverb/preposition). Adverb particles can usually be placed before or after a noun object e.g. put on your hat or put your hat on (excludes verbs like count on and account for).

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Phrasal Verbs in ELT Dictionaries

Most ELT dictionaries use the semantic definition because it facilitates look-up: stand stand around stand by stand down stand for stand in etc.

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Teaching Phrasal Verbs

In terms of teaching, the phonetic/syntactic definition is more useful to ensure correct pronunciation, comprehension and object placement. Examples of phrasal verbs in Portuguese: jogar fora, levar adiante, vir abaixo account for, count on, stand for type we can call prepositional verbs (cf. Port.: contar com)

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Prepositional Verb or True Phrasal?

Apart from the difference in spoken stress, there are two tests which determine whether a given combination is a prepositional verb or a true phrasal: With prepositional verbs, you can only place the object after the preposition (since it is actually a prepositional object). With most phrasal verbs, the object can also be placed before the particle: cf. we count on your support we count your support on we put on our coats we put our coats on With prepositional verbs, you can put an adverb between the verb and the prepositional phrase. With phrasal verbs, you cannot: cf. we count heavily on your support we put quickly on our coats

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Prepositional Phrasal Verbs

Our definition of phrasal verbs includes cases like: get on the bus go up the stairs You cannot say get the bus on or go the stairs up, but the stress is on the preposition and get on and go up alone are clearly phrasals. You cannot put anything between verb and preposition: get quickly on the bus

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But arent phrasal verbs informal?

You may have heard that phrasal verbs are informal and should be avoided in formal writing. This is FALSE. Corpus evidence shows that phrasal verbs are frequently used even in the most formal written contexts. Most phrasal verbs are neutral in register, but there are formal, informal, slang, technical etc. phrasal verbs just as with other lexical items It is true that phrasal verbs are extremely common in everyday spoken English, so learning to use them correctly and with confidence is one of the keys to sounding like a native speaker!

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The meaning of a phrasal verb

The meaning of a phrasal verb is a combination of two elements:
the meaning of the verb the meaning of the particle

The exact meaning of the particle is determined by the meaning of the verb: e.g. around
with verbs denoting linear motion = in various directions walk around, run around, dance around, look around with verbs denoting circular motion = in circles turn around, spin around, whirl around

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Moving beyond motion verbs

Phrasal verbs have developed new meanings because:
the basic verbs have developed figurative meanings and/or the particles have developed figurative meanings

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Figurative meanings of around (1)

Literal meaning in various directions, to different places in various directions, to different places Figurative meaning to different people distribution, circulation Examples ask around, phone around go around, hand sth around, pass sth around, spread sth around

in various directions, to different places

aimlessly, without purpose

fool around, hang around, lie around, lounge around, mess around, mope around, play around, sit around, stand around, wait around
boss sb around, order sb around, push sb around

in various directions, to different places

making a person go in various directions

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Figurative meanings of around (2)

Literal meaning turning Figurative meaning changing your/sbs mind Examples bring sb around, come around, talk sb around, win sb around

turning
surrounding going around an obstacle

from unconsciousness

bring sb around, come around

crowd around, gather around

avoiding or finding an alternative way

get around sth, go around sth, skirt around sth, work around sth

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The progression from literal to figurative meaning

go around I went around collecting signatures. Theres a rumor/virus going around. You cant go around threatening people. I hope theres enough food to go around. literal

figurative

come around Call the waiter when you see him coming around. literal A note came around saying there would be no school on Friday. Why dont you come around tonight? My birthdays coming around again soon. The patients starting to come around from the anesthetic. Im glad hes finally come around to our way of thinking. figurative

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Different figurative senses

Some particles have a wide range of figurative sentences (e.g. out, up) so can combine with the same polysemous verb to produce quite diverse meanings, e.g. bring up: Literal sense: Will you bring the suitcases up? Figurative sense 1: Bringing up children is not easy. (cf. grow up) Figurative sense 2: Why did you have to bring the subject up? (cf. come up. dig up, rake up) Figurative sense 3: I brought up my dinner. (cf. cough up, throw up) Figurative sense 4: The salesman brought the prices up on the screen for me to look at. (cf. come up, hang up, put up)

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Exercise 5
Read the following sentences. Identify five different figurative meanings of off and put the sentences into pairs: Im not sure Ill be able to get that day off. Well get the contract off to you today. Get off youre hurting me! He got off with a $200 fine. Im getting off at the next stop. I have to get the kids off by 8.00 a.m. Her fathers hired a top lawyer to get her off. What time do you get off on Fridays? Would you please get your feet off the table? The cabin crew helped to get the passengers off safely.

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The grammar of phrasal verbs

In terms of grammar, we can distinguish three main types of phrasal verb: 1. verb + adverb (classic phrasal)

2. verb + preposition (prepositional phrasal) 3. verb + adverb + preposition (three-word phrasal)

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Classic phrasals
This category includes the vast majority of phrasals:
all intransitive phrasals (e.g. go out, laze around, come over etc.)

most transitive phrasals (e.g. take out, put on, tear down etc.)

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Intransitive phrasals
Verb and particle cannot be separated: He sat slowly down. He sat down slowly. Did you go last night out? Did you go out last night?

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Transitive phrasals
A noun object can be placed either before or after the particle: bring up a subject or bring a subject up take off your shoes or take your shoes off A personal pronoun object only between the verb and the particle: bring up it bring it up take off them take them off

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Prepositional phrasals
Both noun and pronoun objects can only be placed immediately after the particle: get on the bus > get on it fall down the stairs > fall down them This is because, in these cases, the particle is a preposition:
cf. to go up (adverb) to go up the ladder (preposition)

This category includes all phrasals with after as second element:

look after the children > look after them look the children after > look them after

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Three-word phrasals
These consist of a verb, a particle and a preposition (e.g. look forward to, make up for, put up with, stand up for). The object can only be placed after the final preposition: Im looking forward to it. Im looking it forward to Im looking forward it to

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Exercise 6
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Vou descer na prxima estao. Ele limpou os culos e colocou-os. O dentista tirou o dente podre. Ela no via a hora de tirar o sapato. Quando eu virei, tinha um policial atrs de mim. Ele ficou de retornar a minha ligao depois do almoo. Vou embora para Nova York amanh. Estou ansioso. A gasolina subiu de novo. Ns nos damos superbem. A histria no verdadeira. Eu a inventei. Os idosos s vezes tm dificuldade para subir no nibus. No sei como voc aguenta aquele barulho!

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Phrasal verbs with two objects

Some phrasal verbs have two objects by virtue of their meaning. The objects can only appear in the positions shown: Examples: to do sb out of sth The taxi driver did me out of $10. to help sb through sth His friends helped him through the illness. to let sb in for sth What have I let myself in for? to let sb in on sth Ill let you in on a secret. to put sth down to sth I put her bad mood down to tiredness. to put sb up to sth It was Jack who stole the car, but his friends put him up to it. to take sth out on sb Dont take your anger out on me! to take sb up on sth I decided to take them up on their offer. to talk sb out of sth We tried to talk her out of marrying him.

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Difficulties with phrasal verbs

The same verb + particle combination can have very different meanings: bring up a child bring up your lunch The same verb + particle combination can have different grammar and different meanings: get across the river get the message across There are many idioms and fixed collocations involving phrasal verbs. In these, the order of elements is usually fixed: put up a fight put a fight up get a move on get on a move

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Tips on learning and teaching phrasal verbs (1)

Concentrate first on the most frequent phrasals those that are introduced in coursebooks and simple motion phrasals (come in, go out etc.) Once students have learned basic verb conjugation and object pronouns, introduce them to the concept of phrasal verbs using some very simple examples (e.g. put on, take off, come in, go out etc.) and comparison with Portuguese (e.g. jogar fora). This helps students to identify and observe phrasals in the course of study. Dont try to learn lists of phrasals you will just get confused. Dictionaries of phrasal verbs list every one imaginable, so are bewildering unless there is some indication of frequency. Better to pick up phrasals as you go along.

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Tips on learning and teaching phrasal verbs (2)

With transitive phrasals, try to memorize (and teach) them together with a typical object, e.g. turn the light off, put your shoes on etc. Note that some transitive phrasals are used with a very restricted range of objects, e.g. run up a debt/bill. With transitive phrasals with a noun object, if you always place the noun object after the particle you will never be wrong. As you read English, start to take note of what meanings phrasal verb particles have in combination with certain kinds of verbs, e.g. with verbs of giving, out often has the idea of distribution to a number of people, as in deal out, give out, hand out, send out, share out. This will help you to guess and learn the meaning of new phrasals.

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Tips on learning and teaching phrasal verbs (3)

Opposites can be helpful when learning and teaching phrasals. e.g. on vs. off
literal meaning (Start the skateboard moving and then jump on/If you cant stop the skateboard, just jump off) means of transport to get on vs. to get off with clothes put on vs. take off with machines turn on vs. turn off

Also transitive vs. intransitive equivalences: e.g. bring vs. come bring up trazer baila come up vir baila bring out publicar; ressaltar come out sair; sobressair put vs. go etc.

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Phrasal nouns and phrasal adjectives

There are many phrasal nouns derived from phrasal verbs. Verb and particle are joined with a hyphen or written together: set-up, check-in, breakup, crackdown There are also phrasal adjectives spelled with hyphens: sought-after, made-up, watered-down For those ending in -ing, the particle comes first: off-putting, ongoing, upcoming, outstanding

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New phrasals
Native speakers create and understand new phrasal verbs all the time by analogy with existing ones, e.g. She vacuumed up the crumbs. Can you copy me in on that e-mail? I bluetoothed the photos across to my laptop. Im carnivaled out. Lets watch that moment back and see exactly what happened. Tony Blair denied that he had asked anyone to sex up the report.

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Recommended Dictionary