Habilidades Comunicativas

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TEFL Glossary

Part One: ESL/EFL Terminology

*This Glossary includes terminology from the course text Learning Teaching, Scrivener, Jim (2005).
Abstract Items Vocabulary concepts that cannot be shown visually, such as truth, upset, love, hate. (Contrast: Concrete
Items)
Academic language language used in the learning of academic subject matter in formal schooling context; aspects of language
strongly associated with literacy and academic achievement, including specific academic terms or technical
language, and speech registers related to each field of study.
Accent This can mean word stress - control has the accent on the second syllable but we use it to mean the
pronunciation used by some speakers - a regional or class accent.
Acculturation The process of adapting to a new culture. This involves understanding different systems of thought, beliefs,
emotions, and communication systems. Acculturation is an important concept for understanding S.L.A.,
since successful learning is more likely when learners succeed in acculturating.
Active Vocabulary The words and phrases which a learner is able to use in speech and writing. (Contrast: Passive
Vocabulary)
Activity Something that students do. A single task or exercise.
Adapted Materials Modified; usually refers to authentic materials that have been simplified for lower-level students.
Advanced A level of attainment where the learner has mastered most of the structures and functions of the language
and is able to move freely through several registers - there may be a working vocabulary of in excess of
3000 words.
Aids to Teaching (a) Visual: Blackboard, whiteboard, overhead projector, realia, posters, wall charts, flipcharts, maps, plans,
flashcards, word cards, puppets. (b) Electronic: Tape recorder, TV or video player, computer, CD Rom,
language laboratory.
AmE American English
Antonym A word opposite in meaning to another. Fast is an antonym of slow.
Applied Linguistics The study of the relationship between theory and practice. The main emphasis is usually on language
teaching, but can also be applied to translation, lexicology, among others.
Approach A broad term for language teaching that reflects a certain model or research paradigm - like a theory.
(Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language, 2001)
Appropriacy Whether an item is suited to or appropriate for whom you use it with. For example, it is inappropriate to use
slang when speaking to the President. (See Register)
Aptitude The specific ability a learner has for learning a second language. This is separate from intelligence.
ARC A Lesson Format Authentic Use, Restricted Use, Clarification and Focus. In 'Learning Teaching,' Jim
Scrivener proposes a teaching sequence model which he calls 'ARC.' He suggests that any teaching
sequence could potentially have three elements to it: 'Authentic use,' 'Restricted use' and 'Clarification and
focus.'
'Authentic use' means exposure to or practice of real language use
'Restricted use' means controlled practice of language
'Clarification and focus' means drawing our students' attention to form.
Assessment standards Statements that establish guidelines for evaluating student performance and attainment of content
standards; often include philosophical statements of good assessment practice (see performance
standards).
Attitudes Learners possess sets of beliefs about language learning, target culture, culture, teacher, learning tasks,
etc. These beliefs are referred to as attitudes. They influence learning in a number of ways
Aural Pertaining to the ear.
Aural Comprehension: Understanding the spoken word.
Aural Discrimination: Distinguishing between spoken sounds, words, or phrases.
Authentic Exposure Exposure to language when it is being used naturally.
Authentic Language Real or natural language, as used by native speakers of a language in real-life contexts; not artificial or
contrived for purposes of learning grammatical forms or vocabulary.
Authentic Materials Unscripted materials or those which have not been specially written for classroom use, though they may
have been edited. Examples include newspaper texts and TV broadcasts; actual materials from the real
world, such as newspaper articles, pamphlets, radio broadcasts, and student writing. Produced for native
speakers, not for EFL students (Contrast: Graded Materials).
Authentic Output Students speaking or writing using the full range of language at their disposal. The language being used
has not been restricted in any way by your instruction or course book.
Authentic Task A task which involves learners in using language in a way that replicates its use in the 'real world' outside
the language classroom. Filling in blanks, changing verbs from the simple past to the simple present and
completing substitution tables are, therefore, not authentic tasks. Examples of authentic tasks would be

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answering a letter addressed to the learner, arguing a particular point of view and comparing various
holiday brochures in order to decide where to go for a holiday.
Authentic Text A text which is not written or spoken for language teaching purposes. A newspaper article, a rock song, a
novel, a radio interview and a traditional fairy tale are examples of authentic texts. A story written to
exemplify the use of reported speech, a dialogue scripted to exemplify ways of inviting and a linguistically
simplified version of a novel would not be authentic texts.
Auxiliary Verbs Forms of the verbs be, do and have which are used to create the different tenses in English:
am/is/are/was/were eating/ being eaten; do/does/did eat; has/have/had eaten/ been eaten.
BackChaining The technique used to help students say a difficult sentence by breaking it down into smaller parts and
practicing saying those pieces starting with the end of the sentence and slowly building up again to the
complete sentence.
Background Knowledge Existing knowledge that the language learner already has. In the second language comprehension
process, at least three types of backgrounds are potentially activated: (1) linguistic information, (2)
knowledge of the world (ones store of concepts and experiences), and (3) knowledge of discourse
structures or how various types of authentic discourse (conversations, radio broadcasts, newspaper
articles, political speeches) are generally organized.
Behaviorist Learning theory This a general theory of learning, developed by B F Skinner. It sees learning as the formation of habits.
Environmental factors (input, teacher, classroom, etc.) are seen as more important than the student's
mental, internal factors.
BICS Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (everyday conversational language) There are two kinds
of English proficiency that ESL students must learn. The first is basic interpersonal conversational skills
(BICS) that ESL students need when they carry on face-to-face conversation in social settings. BICS
English is characterized as context-embedded since contextual cues are available to both speaker and
listener involved in the conversation, and it is cognitively undemanding.
Biculturalism Near native like knowledge of two cultures; includes the ability to respond effectively to the different
demands of these two cultures.
Bilingual instruction Provision of instruction in school settings through the medium of two languages, a native and a second
language; the proportion of the instructional day delivered in each language varies by the type of the
bilingual education program in which instruction is offered and the goals of said program.
Bilingualism Being able to communicate effectively in two or more languages, with more or less the same degree of
proficiency.
Body language The gestures and mannerisms by which a person communicates with others.
Bottom-Up Mode (of
Language Processing):
The processing of language information is worked by the incoming language itself in this mode; the
understanding of incoming language proceeds from sounds or letters to words, grammatical relationships
and logical meaning, etc. The composite meaning of the message is arrived at based on the incoming
language data (see more at Skills-Based; Contrast: Top-Down Mode).
BrE British English
CALP Cognitive/Academic Language Proficiency (abstract and academic language used by scholars and
students) CALP English is characterized as context-reduced, as is found in written texts in content areas
such as math, science, and social studies. Due to its decontextualized nature, ESL students struggle to
comprehend what they read and to express what they know in writing. CALP English used in context-
reduced academic learning demands high cognition on the part of the ESL student. (Compare: BICS)
CanE Canadian English
CBT Computer Based Test
Chunking: Putting small groups of words together into meaningful phrases.
Citation Form This is the way that a word is pronounced if you say it on its own; shown in a dictionary. This is often
different from the typical in-sentence pronunciation in fluent connected speech.
Clarification A part of a lesson where students become clearer about language systems items, especially concerning
how they are formed, what they mean, how they are pronounced and how they are used.
Classroom Management The moment-by-moment decisions and actions concerning organization of the classroom and activities,
e.g. seating and grouping arrangements, starting and stopping activities, dealing with unexpected
problems, etc.
Closed Questions Questions which require a yes/no or one-word answer. (Contrast: Open Questions)
Cloze Exercise (Procedure) A type of gap-fill exercise where every fifth word (or sixth or seventh etc) is deleted from a text. The interval
between the deleted words should remain the same throughout the text. The student then supplies the
missing words, often relying on contextualization for help.
Cognate In a technical sense, two words that have a common origin are cognates. Most often, cognates are words
in two languages that have a common etymology and thus are similar or identical. For example, the English
"kiosk" and the Spanish quiosco are cognates because they both come from the Turkish kosk. (Contrast:
False Cognate)
Colligation A grouping of words, based on their functioning in the same type of syntactic structures, in contrast to a
semantic relationship (or COLLOCATION ).

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Collocation A grouping of words, based on their semantic relationship, in contrast to their syntactic structure (or
COLLIGATION); Collocation is the relationship between two words or groups of words that often go
together and form a common expression word partnerships.
Communicative Activity
(Focus on fluency)
An activity that has communication as its main aim as opposed to practice of particular language items. A
communication activity will normally involve an information gap.
Communicative
Competence

The ability to recognize and produce language correctly, idiomatically, fluently, and appropriately in a
variety of communicative settings. The term includes grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence,
discourse competence, and strategic competence, both orally and in writing; The ability to use the
language effectively for communication. Gaining such competence involves acquiring both sociolinguistic
and linguistic knowledge, or, in other words, developing the ability to use the language accurately,
appropriately, and effectively (See Competency).
Communicative Functions Purposes for which language is used; includes three broad functions: communicative, integrative, and
expressive; where language aids the transmission of information, aids affiliation and belonging to a
particular social group, and allows the display of individual feelings, ideas, and personality.
Communicative View of
Language
The communicative, or functional view of language is the view that language is a vehicle for the expression
of functional meaning. The semantic and communicative dimensions of language are more emphasized
than the grammatical characteristics, although these are also included. Approaches to language teaching
which aim to help learners to develop communicative competence (i.e., the ability to use the language
effectively for communication). A weak communicative approach includes overt teaching of language forms
and functions in order to help learners to develop the ability to use them for communication. A strong
communicative approach relies on providing learners with experience of using language as the main
means of learning to use the language. In such as approach, learners, for example, talk to learn rather than
learn to talk. Here are some of the areas of research in this view of language: sociolinguistics, pragmatics,
semantics. The target of language learning is to learn to express communication functions and categories
of meaning. Some of the language learning approaches and methods based on this view of language are:
communicative approaches, functional-notional syllabuses, The Natural Approach, The interactional view of
language. Adapted from Richards and Rodgers 1986.
http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/languagelearning/PrepareForLanguageLearning/TheCommunicativeViewOfLa
nguage.htm
Competency (Language) Communicative Competence - what a speaker needs to know in order to be communicatively competent in
a speech community. Canale and Swaine (1980) described four dimensions of communicative
competence.
Grammatical competence: refers to linguistic competence (enables speakers to produce
grammatically correct sentences)
Sociolinguistic competence: refers to an understanding of the social context in which
communication takes place (role relationships, shared beliefs and information between
participants )
Discourse competence: refers to the interpretation of individual messsage elements in terms of
their interconnectedness and how meaning is represented in relationship to the entire discourse
or text.
Strategic competence: refers to the coping strategies that participants use to initiate terminate,
maintain, repair and redirect communication
Comprehensible Input

(a) The language that the teacher uses which is graded to the right level so that students can understand
yet still be challenged. This can also include gestures and body language that aids student comprehension
(b) When native speakers and teachers speak to L2 learners, they often adjust their speech to make it
more comprehensible. Such comprehensible input may be a necessary condition for acquisition to occur.
Comprehensible Output The language produced by the learner (the 'output') may be comprehensible or incomprehensible. The
efforts learners make to be comprehensible may play a part in acquisition.
Comprehension Question Question to check understanding of a text/dialog or part of a text/dialog.
Comprehension Task A task designed to check understanding of a text/dialog or part of a text/dialog, such as True/False or
multiple-choice questions.
Concept Checking Checking students understanding of the meaning of a language item (such as a word or grammar
structure) which has been presented to them by asking CCQs (Concept Check Questions).
Concrete Items Vocabulary items that can be shown visually, such as book, table, elephant, house.
Connected Speech Fluent speech in which words are not pronounced separately. A number of recognizable pronunciation
changes occur, including weak forms and elision.
Connotation The associations that are connected to a certain word or the emotional suggestions related to that word.
Content Words Words with a full meaning of their own; nouns, main verbs (ie not auxiliary or modal verbs), adjectives and
many adverbs. (Contrast: Function Words)
Context The 'context' of an utterance can mean: (a) 'situational context' - the situation in which the utterance is
produced (b) 'linguistic context' - the linguistic environment (the surrounding language).
Contextualization (a) Presenting or practicing a language item in a context (such as a situation or text) rather than in isolation.
The context helps students better understand the meaning and use of the item (b) Placing the target
language in a realistic setting, so as to be meaningful to the student.

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Contextualized Sounds, vocabulary, and grammar presented within a meaningful context to facilitate learning.
Contrastive Analysis
Hypothesis
According to this hypothesis, L2 errors are the result of differences between the learner's first language and
the target language, and these differences can be used to identify or predict errors that will occur.
Cooperative/Collaborative
Group
A grouping arrangement in which positive interdependence and shared responsibility for task completion
are established among group members; the type of organizational structure encouraging heterogeneous
grouping, shared leadership, and social skills development. See Cooperative Learning.
Cooperative Learning Learning that takes place when students of various abilities and backgrounds are placed together in pairs
and small groups to work on tasks with instructor supervision and support. The instructor assesses the
groups work, not the individuals. Activities in which students are involved in pair or small group work in a
collaborative atmosphere with the teacher.
Core Series (Course book) A textbook or text series, which make up the main, or core, curriculum. The text usually integrates the four
skills plus grammar, and is used instead of individual skills texts. It aims to provide as much as possible in
one book and is designed so that it could serve as the only book which the learners necessarily use during
a course. Such a book usually focuses on grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, functions and the skills of
reading, writing, listening and speaking: See supplementary materials.
Creating Interest (Engage,
Setting Context)
Before working with a language concept, a reading text or listening excerpt, the teacher creates interest by
asking students what they know about the topic, or doing an activity that makes the topic relevant to the
students.
Cue Cards Cards with words or pictures on them which are used to encourage student response, or pair and group
work.
Culture The sum total of the ways of life of a people; includes norms, learned behavior patterns, attitudes, and
artifacts; also involves traditions, habits or customs; how people behave, feel and interact; the means by
which they order and interpret the world; ways of perceiving, relating and interpreting events based on
established social norms; a system of standards for perceiving, believing, evaluating, and acting.
Deductive In a language classroom, a deductive approach means teaching learners rules and then giving them
opportunities to apply them through practice. The role of the teacher is to present the rules and organize
the practice. The deductive approach is often thought of as a more traditional way of teaching: it is teacher-
led and teacher-centered, at least at the presentation stage; it focuses initially on rules and then use; it
often uses input language which is adjusted to the learners and not authentic. These do not in themselves
have to be traditional ways of teaching, but they indicate a traditional approach. (Contrast: Inductive).
Denotation The literal meaning of a word, the "dictionary definition."
Derivation The process by which words are formed from existing words or bases by adding affixes, as singer from
sing or undo from do, by changing the shape of the word or base, as song from sing, or by adding an affix
and changing the pronunciation of the word or base, as electricity from electric.
Detail Task (Questions) A task aimed at checking the comprehension of a listening or reading task. It requires the student to
read/listen carefully and to understand the details of the text. (Contrast: Gist Task)
Dialogue Short conversation between two or more people, written, spoken, or acted out in class.
Diphthong A phoneme containing two vowel sounds, one gliding into the second.
Discourse Unit of language greater than a sentence: language in action or performance communicatively.
Discourse Types The four basic modes of writing: description, narration argumentation/persuasion, and exposition (see
Expository Writing).
Drill (Drilling) (a) The intensive and repetitive practice of the target language, which may be choral or individual (b)
Activity which involves: students repeating sentences after the teacher, or students creating sentences with
prompts from teacher (e.g., Repetition Drill, Substitution Drill, Q & A Drill).
EAP English for Academic Purposes - English language learning in preparation for academic study, usually
focusing on advanced reading, technical writing, and comprehending college lectures.
Echoing When a teacher (for no valid reason) repeats back everything the students say. Though usually
subconscious, this increases TTT and makes lessons more teacher-centered.
EFF Equipped For the Future - The National Institute for Literacys standards based system reform initiative
aimed at improving the quality and outcomes of the adult literacy and lifelong learning delivery system. EFF
starts from the recognition that the skills adults need as parents, workers, and citizens go beyond the basic
academic skills that have traditionally been targeted by adult education programs.
EFL English as a Foreign Language - English language learning learned in a non-English speaking
environment. English language programs in countries where English is not the common or official
language. It is used in American university programs where international students study English although
the use of the word foreign is now avoided in some schools because of its xenophobic connotations.
ELA (a) English Language Acquisition (b) English Language Arts - K-12 national language arts standards for
both native and non-native speakers of English.
ELD English Language Development The progression of students learning English
Elementary Students at this level may have a vocabulary of up to 1000 words and will probably be learning or
practicing present simple and continuous tenses, past simple and present perfect, will/shall, 'going to'
futures. They should be able to hold simple conversations and survive in everyday situations.

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Elicit To draw an item or example from students by asking questions or giving prompts.
Elision The loss of some sounds in connected speech. For example, in Good morning sometimes the /d/ sound is
completely lost and the greeting sounds more like Gmorning.
ELL English Language Learner non-native English speakers learning English
ELT English Language Teaching - a more global term for ESL
ESA In How to Teach English [Longman 1998] Jeremy Harmer proposed a different three stage model, the ESA
model: Engage, Study, Activate.
Engage - This means getting the students interested in the class. Engaging students is important
for the learning process.
Study - Every lesson usually needs to have some kind of language focus. The study element of a
lesson could be a focus on any aspect of the language, such as grammar or vocabulary and
pronunciation. A study stage could also cover revision and extension of previously taught
material.
Activate - Telling students about the language is not really enough to help them learn it. For
students to develop their use of English they need to have a chance to produce it. In an activate
stage the students are given tasks which require them to use not only the language they are
studying that day, but also other language that they have learned.
ESL (a) English as a Second Language: English language learned in an English-speaking environment (b) L2:
English as a Second Language. The field of English as a second language; courses, classes and/or
programs designed for students learning English as an additional language.
ESOL English for Speakers of Other Languages: the preferred name for ESL in the adult and El-High sectors and
in some U.S. states. Refers to learners who are identified as still in the process of acquiring English as an
additional language; students who may not speak English at all or, at least, do not speak, understand, and
write English with the same facility as their classmates because they did not grow up speaking English
(rather they primarily spoke another language at home).
ESP English for Specific Purposes: meets the needs of adult learners who need to learn a foreign language for
use in their specific fields, such as science, technology, medicine, leisure, and academic learning. Includes
EAP, EST, VESL and English for Business and Economics.
EST English for Science and Technology.
EVP English for Vocational Purposes
Expansion Providing synonyms, antonyms, alternative ways to say the same thing, contrasts in register, etc. for
vocabulary and expressions. Providing contrasts and similarities when teaching structure (grammar).
Experiential Learning Learning derived from activities that are somewhat natural; activities where both the left (analytical) and the
right (holistic) sides of the brain are engaged; where content is contextualized, skills integrated, and
purposes real. It also refers to how one applies generalizations from a concrete experience to new
situations, and to a route to social and moral development. Thus it is a messy model of second language
acquisition involving reciprocal development of cognition, socialization, and language.
Exponent An item that is an example of a particular function. For example, Could you make me a cup of tea,
please? is an exponent of the function of making polite requests.
Expository Writing Writing that tries to explain something in the form of one or more of the rhetorical patterns of fact, process,
classification, comparison/contrast, analysis, illustration, cause and effect, definition, and analogy (see
Discourse Types).
Extensive
Reading/Listening
Reading or listening to longer pieces of texts without pausing and worrying too much about details, usually
for pleasure.
Extensive Reading Reading on ones own; reading for diverse or general meaning; the bulk of the reading that native speakers
do in everyday reading. Activities include skimming, scanning, pre-reading, and evaluation.
False Beginners A low-level language learner who has previously studied the language but failed to achieve full mastery for
that level. When applied to materials, it implies the use of a faster pace in earlier texts, and the inclusion of
a quick review of concepts and language previously learned.
False Cognate A word that reminds you of one in your own language and misleads you into guessing that it has the same
or a similar meaning in the new language (e.g. ropa in Spanish means clothes, not rope). (Contrast:
Cognate)
Feedback (a) The response learners get when they attempt to communicate. This can involve correction,
acknowledgement, requests for clarification, cues (e.g., "mmm"). Feedback plays an important role in
helping learners to test their ideas about the target language (b) refers to a range of techniques employed
by the teacher to facilitate responses from the students to an exercise or task.
Focus on Accuracy Practice of a specific language item, which has been presented to students. (Contrast: Focus on Fluency)
Focus on Fluency Speaking naturally without worrying too much about being 100% correct. Free speaking or writing. When
students use all the English they know to communicate, rather than consciously practicing specific
grammatical structures recently studied in class. (Contrast: Focus on Accuracy)
Form The way an item is written or said (spelling/pronunciation). Form is also used to refer to the grammatical
operation of items, as opposed to what they mean or how they are used. The structural components of

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linguistic items, i.e., the syntax (i.e., word order) and morphology (i.e. verb endings).
Frequency Used to describe the most commonly used words; how often a word (or lexical item) is used and heard in
communication
Function Words Function words (or structural/grammatical words) are words that have little lexical meaning or have
ambiguous meaning, but instead serve to express grammatical relationships with other words within a
sentence, or specify the attitude or mood of the speaker. (Contrast: Content Words)
Communicative Function What you express through a piece of language; e.g., inviting, apologizing, or expressing regret.

Gap-Fill A written exercise in which students put the appropriate items into gaps left in a sentence or text (fill-in-the-
blank). NOTE: Be careful not to confuse this with Information Gap.
Gist Task (Questions) A question/task asked to check students comprehension of the gist of a text. (Contrast: Detailed Task)
Gradable Opposite
(Antonym)
Gradable opposites are antonyms that lie at opposite ends of a continuous spectrum of meanings;
examples are hot and cold, slow and fast, and fat and skinny. These describe something which can be
measured and compared with something else.
Graded Language/Speech Language (in a text, in oral instructions, etc.) which is simplified, but still exemplifies natural speech
patterns, so that a foreign learner of English can understand it.
Graded Materials Scripted materials or those which have been specially modified (or simplified) and written for classroom
use. Examples include course books, graded readers, grammar books and other content specific texts (for
ESL/EFL). Produced for non-native speakers (or ESL/EFL students). (Contrast: Authentic Materials).
Grammar The rules that govern the form/structure of a language. A theory or hypothesis, about the organization of
language in the mind of speakers of that language--the underlying knowledge that permits understanding
and production of language.
Grammaring The ability to use grammatical structures accurately, meaningfully, and appropriately. This term, coined by
Diane Larsen-Freeman, refers to the need to teach a fifth skill so that students can master not only the
form of grammatical structures, but their meaning and their use as well.
Group Work Students work in small groups, rather than all together or individually. (Contrast: Open Class)
Guided Discovery Guided discovery, also known as an inductive approach, is a technique where a teacher provides examples
of a language item and helps the learners to find the rules themselves. In this lesson planning format,
students get some examples, in a meaningful context, and then answer leading questions which are
focused on the target language about the examples. The point is not to guess the rules but to give
students examples and clues which they have to think about in order to reach the end point of some
grammar rule.
Guided Writing Writing that serves to reinforce language principles and is controlled in order to reduce the possibility of
error.
Holistic Concerned with interacting wholes, or complete systems, rather than with the treatment of parts.
Homograph Words that are spelled the same but differ in meaning. The pronunciation may or may not be the same.
Homonym Words that are spelled the same and may be pronounced the same but have a different meaning.
Homophone Words that are pronounced the same, but has a different spelling or meaning.
Ice-Breaker Activities to help students and teachers get to know each other at the beginning of a course.
Illustrating/showing
Meaning
Using a picture, mime, text, situation story, definition, etc. to show the meaning of a language item during a
presentation (teaching) stage in a lesson plan.
Inductive In a language classroom, an inductive approach involves getting learners to discover rules and how they
are applied by looking at examples. The role of the teacher is to provide the language the learners need to
discover the rules, to guide them in discovery if necessary, and then to provide more opportunities to
practice. The inductive approach is often thought of as a more modern way of teaching: it involves
discovery techniques; it seeks in some ways to duplicate the acquisition process; it often exploits authentic
material; it has learners at the centre of the lesson; and the focus is on usage rather than rules. (Contrast::
Deductive)
Inferential/Interpretive
Questions
Questions that go beyond the literal meaning and decoding process.
Inflection = Intonation (NOTE: This use of the word inflection is specific to American English and will be
misunderstood by most speakers of other varieties of English.)
Information Gap An activity in which students use language to give and get information to/from each other.
Integrated Model of
Language Teaching
An instructional model that includes many kinds of instructional integration as well as integration of recent
educational research, theory, and practice from first and second oral language acquisition literature, and
first and second language literacy development literature.
Integrated Series A series that includes all four skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing, and often a grammar scope
and sequence. (Often a core series).
Interactional View of
Language
The interactional view of language sees language primarily as the means for establishing and maintaining
interpersonal relationships and for performing social transactions between individuals. Here are some of
the areas of research in this view of language: interactional analysis, conversational analysis, ethno-

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methodology, Target of language learning. The target of language learning in the interactional view is
learning to initiate and maintain conversations with other people. Some of the language learning
approaches and methods based on this view of language are: Strategic interaction, communicative
approaches. Adapted from Richards and Rodgers 1986.
http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/languagelearning/PrepareForLanguageLearning/TheInteractionalViewOfLang
uage.htm
Integrated Lesson A lesson Involving a combination of the four skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing as well as
grammar.
Intensive Reading Reading for detailed meaning; reading word for word followed by comprehension and discussion questions.
It often involves intensive evaluation of the structure and vocabulary of the text. Careful and detailed
reading of (or listening to) a section of a text or speech.
Interaction Patterns The direction of communication between students and teacher: S-T, T-S, or S-S.
Intonation Meaningful changes of voice pitch in a word, phrase or sentence. The music part of
pronunciation/phonology. Americans often refer to intonation as inflection.
Intrusive Sounds Extra sounds that appear in fluent, connected speech to help link two words, e.g., when saying sea air,
speaker might add a /j/ sound between the words.
Inverted Questions Questions which require the answer Yes or No; e.g., Did she go? Is he here? Inverted questions are
often called Yes/No Questions. (Contrast: Wh- Questions)
Jigsaw Activity An activity that involves different groups of students (or individuals) doing one thing per group. When they
come back together (or re-group) they can report back and compare (or put together) what they have
learned (or discovered).
L1 Language 1 (native language)
L2 Language 2 (the target language)
Language Acquisition Unconscious learning of picking up of language. A term used to describe language being absorbed
without conscious effort; i.e. the way children pick up their mother tongue. Language acquisition is often
contrasted with language learning. The internalization of rules and formulas which are then used to
communicate in the L2. For some researchers, such as Krashen, 'acquisition' is unconscious and
spontaneous, and 'learning' is conscious, developing through formal study.
Language Systems A way to classify language in terms of lexis - semantics and morphology, grammar structure/ syntax,
function use and register/appropriacy, and pronunciation.
Language/Grammar
through Text
This involves providing learners with data (in the form of a listening or reading text) to illustrate a particular
grammatical feature and getting them to analyze it so as to arrive at an understanding of how the feature
works. The text contains a language item/concept. The learners begin by reading/listening to a text that
contains examples of correct usage. They first process this for meaning. Then they read/listen again, this
time focusing their attention on the target language feature (i.e. they are helped to notice it). Next, they use
the data to try to arrive at an explicit understanding of the rule. This provides a basis for an error-
identification task, where they can check if they have understood the rule clearly. Finally, there is an
opportunity for the learners to try to use the correct grammatical structure in their own sentences.
Learning Strategies Specific actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques - such as seeking out conversation partners or giving
oneself encouragement to tackle a difficult language task - used by students to enhance their own learning.
Learning Styles General approaches that students use to learn a new language and many other subjects. The spectrum of
styles is: analytic-global aspect, sensory preferences, intuition vs. sensory/sequential learning, and
orientation toward closure or openness. The preferred way in which students are able to understand and
internalize lesson material.
LEP (Limited English Proficiency) the term (usually used in elementary and secondary education) for students
identified as needing ESL training.
Lesson Aims What the students will be able to do at the end of the lesson that they couldnt do at the beginning. The
aims should be written so that the teacher will know whether the aims have been met. Poor example:
Students will understand the listening text. Good example: Students will show understanding of the
listening text by correctly answering the comprehension questions. Measurable results that are to be
achieved during a lesson, learner outcomes.
Lexical Unit/Item A word or a number of words that could be considered a single item of vocabulary (or meaning).
Lexical Set A group of words or fixed expressions connected by form or meaning; e.g., six adjectives of size, or seven
words relating to travel, or six phrasal verbs ending with up.
Lexis Vocabulary. Words or fixed expressions.
Literacy The ability to read, write, and compute well enough to function in a community or on a job.
Literal Comprehension
Questions:
Information questions, or display questions, which answer what, when, where, who, how many, etc.
M.I.T. Multiple Intelligence Theory explores and defines cognitive processes that show a tendency toward
learning styles. Multiple Intelligence Theory was developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner, professor of
education at Harvard University. It suggests that traditional ways of testing for intelligence may be biased to
certain types of individuals. The original Multiple Intelligence theory was developed in 1983 and first

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published in his book, Frames of Mind. The book strongly suggests that everybody has a different mind,
and no two profiles of intelligence are the same. Therefore, the traditional concept of measuring intelligence
by I.Q testing is far too restricted. From the 8 primary intelligences, an individual may excel in one, two or
even three of these, but nobodys good at them all.
Mastery Learning This defines the idea that learning builds on learning. Each lesson builds upon the previous lessons and
students must know the lesson material before the next lesson is introduced. This is sometimes referred to
scaffolding.
Matching Exercise A written exercise where students have to match given words/sentences with appropriate pictures,
definitions, etc.
Meaning (a) The message being conveyed by the target language (i.e. language item/concept) and (b)The message
that the speaker wishes to convey using the target language.
Meaningful An activity is meaningful if students cannot complete it unless they understand the meaning of what they
are saying or writing. Repeating sentences you do not understand is not meaningful! (Contrast:
Mechanical)
Mechanical Not involving communication. Repetition and Substitution Drills are mechanical. Mechanical activities risk
being meaningless. (Contrast: Meaningful)
Metacognition Learning to learn; thinking about the learning process.
Metalanguage The language used to talk about language, e.g., the word verb is an item of metalanguage.
Method A guide to language teaching that is a set of procedures which show you how to teach English. More
specific than an approach. Methods are typically compatible with one (maybe more) approaches. (Celce-
Murcia, M. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language, 2001)
Mingle An activity which involves students interacting (standing up) to find information from other students.
Minimal Pair A pair of sound clusters (hit/heat or nice/rice) used to practice sound discrimination.
Modeling Teacher does/says/models what is expected of the students for both new language items as well as
activities.
Monitoring After a teacher gives instructions and models a task for pair/group work, he/she walks around the room to
make sure students understand the activity, and to listen for errors that can be corrected later.
Morphology The study of the meaning units in a language (morphemes); the internal structure of language
Morpheme A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in the grammar of a language.
Needs Analysis Ways of finding out what students need/want to study in a language course. Using questionnaires,
interviews, etc.
OHP Overhead Projector
Open Class When the whole class is listening to one student or the teacher, or watching a video, or doing a drill, etc.
Open Enrollment (Open-
Entry)
A situation usually in Adult Education ESL programs where students are allowed to enroll in the class at
any point in the semester.
Open Questions Questions which require an answer involving either sentences or else utterances of more than one word.
For example, Why did he go? or How did she get the job? (Contrast: Closed Questions)
Pair Work Work done by students in groups of two without the direct supervision of the teacher.
Pair Work (closed) When pairs of students work on a task at the same time that other pairs are working on the same or other
tasks. (Contrast: Open Class / Pair Work {open})
Pair Work (open) One pair of students carries out an activity (e.g., dialogue), while the other students listen/watch. (Contrast:
Pair Work {closed})
Passive Vocabulary The vocabulary that students are able to understand compared to that which they are able to use.
(Contrast: Active Vocabulary)
Peer Editing/Peer
Evaluation:
Feedback given to the language learner by fellow students.
Personalization/Personalize
d
An activity which involves students talking/writing about their life experience. When students interact with
what they are doing throughout the class, including the reading or listening material, and bring their own
knowledge and experiences to the activity/content.
Phonology Phonology is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages. The phonological
system of a language includes (a) an inventory of sounds and their features, and (b) rules which specify
how sounds interact with each other. Phonology is just one of several aspects of language. It is related to
other aspects such as phonetics, morphology, syntax, and pragmatics.
Phoneme A phoneme is the smallest contrastive unit in the sound system of a language.
Phonetics Phonetics is the study of human speech sounds.
Phonetic Alphabet The International Phonetic Alphabet is a system of phonetic notation designed to represent the sounds
of all spoken languages. Sometimes referred to as the Phonemic Alphabet/Chart.
The IPA is used in dictionaries to indicate the pronunciation of words.
The IPA has often been used as a basis for creating new writing systems for previously unwritten
languages.

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The IPA is used in some foreign language text books and phrase books to transcribe the sounds
of languages which are written with non-latin alphabets. It is also used by non-native speakers of
English when learning to speak English.
Phrasal Verb A verb and preposition (or adverb) which combine to produce a meaning different from the meanings of the
verb and preposition separately; e.g., to run up a bill or to get away with. They are sometimes called
two-word verbs or two-part verbs, even though they sometimes have three parts.
PPP The introduction and practice of a language item through a process of Presentation - Practice -
Production. A lesson planning format based on the idea of giving (presenting) small items of language to
students, providing them with opportunities to use it in controlled ways (practice) and finally integrating it
with other known language in order to communicate (production). Although traditionally a deductive
approach, the presentation stage may be modified to incorporate more inductive approaches (e.g. guided
discovery, task-based, grammar through texts).
Pragmatics (a) study of how context affects the users interpretation of language (b) study of the aspects of meaning
and language use that are dependent on the speaker, the addressee and other features of the context of
utterance.
The effect that the following have on the speakers choice of expression and the addressees
interpretation of an utterance: context of utterance, generally observed principles of
communication, the goals of the speaker
Presentation The first stages of giving or input of (probably) a new language to students. It is usually followed by
practice and production of that item.
Pre-Set (Question) Comprehension questions given to students before they read or listen to a text, so that they know what to
focus on. (Also referred to as listening for a purpose questions.)
Pre-Teach Present or review language items (usually vocabulary) before giving students a text or activity which
contains those items.
Process Writing A way of teaching writing as a process of searching for and developing ideas, getting feedback from peers,
drafting, revising, editing, and completing the final product and reflecting on the learning experience. The
focus is on the process, part of which is the written product. This is fluency writing in which students use a
process similar to essay or composition writing to develop their own piece (own thoughts).
Product Writing A traditional way of teaching writing that provides students with examples of good writing that they attempt
to duplicate. The focus is on the written product. This is guided writing in which a model is presented and
students must produce a similar piece.
Productive Skills Speaking and Writing. (Contrast: Receptive Skills)
Proficiency The level of understanding and usage of language by a student.
Prominence The main syllables emphasized in a tone group.
Prompt A word, mime, etc. which elicits an item, etc. from a student.
Pronunciation The study or practice of sounds, stress, and intonation
Rapport The quality of relationship within the classroom.
Realia The actual object used to illustrate meaning. For example, if you were teaching the word fruit you could
bring in realia: bananas, strawberries, oranges, etc. Real objects or picture of them, such as money, maps,
menus, want ads, clothing, food, and so on.
Receptive Skills Reading and Listening (Contrast: Productive Skills)
Recognition The process of determining the pronunciation and (to some degree) meaning of a word in spoken or printed
form; the quick and easy identification of written and spoken words.
Register The term for distinguishing between formal and informal speech. (Can be referred to as appropriacy.)
Relevant Tangents Expansion of lesson material by related discussions or personalizing practice of vocabulary, expressions
and grammar.
Repetition Drill Students repeat an item immediately after it has been presented.
Restricted Exposure Students read or listen to texts specifically designed to draw attention to language points. The language
available for the students to hear or read has in some way been restricted.
Restricted Output Speaking or writing when students use less than the full quantity of language they know. Practice that uses
language in ways that are controlled or deliberately simplified in a way that makes the task less demanding.
Retelling An activity where students summarize and retell a story or conversation; one of the best ways to test
comprehension.
Review Brief re-presentation (and practice) of an item, which you think or know the students have previously
learned.
Role Play The acting out of a dialogue or conversation, based on some (usually situational or functional) prompts.
Running Commentary When a teacher thinks out loud in class, giving too much input to students and increasing TTT. It is
usually said very quickly and quietly, or comes in the form of explanation that students usually do not
need or understand. Example: Ok, now Im going to give you guys a handout, its probably too easy for
you but just go ahead and do it any, and its not a very good photocopy

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Scanning Reading with the aim of finding out items of specific information; Quickly searching a text for some
particular piece of information.
Schema Theory Readers interact with what they are reading, bringing their experiences to bear on it. The more students
personal experience or knowledge extant linguistic knowledge) can be used, the more easily they will read.
Calling on this knowledge is referred to as activating the students schema.
Scope and Sequence The amount and order of presentation of language forms that comprise a curriculum or course of study.
Semantic Fields Associative networks of words; groups of words that have related meaning or function.
Semantics The study of meanings of individual words and or larger units such as phrases and sentences.
Situations Specific places where survival language is spoken; for example, at school, at the post office, in the doctors
office. Can be called context.
Skills (Language) Reading, Writing, Speaking, Listening
Skills-Based Focuses on pieces of language, building from the smallest units of language (for example, sounds to words
and phrases) or breaking down the larger segments of language into individual units.
Skimming Reading, usually done quickly, with the aim of understanding the general meaning or gist of a piece of
text.
Ss Students
Stress The emphasis placed on a syllable in a word (= word stress) or on a word in a sentence (= sentence
stress). Word stress and sentence stress are two of the components of Pronunciation.
Strip Story A story, dialogue, or any written text cut into pieces (strips/sentences) which students assemble in the
correct order.
Structural View of
Language
Language is a system of structurally related elements for the transmission of meaning. These elements are
usually described as phonological units (phonemes), grammatical units (phrases, clauses, sentences),
grammatical operations (adding, shifting, joining or transforming elements), lexical items (function words
and structure words). Here are some of the areas of research in this view of language: linguistic analysis,
textual discourse analysis. The target of language learning, in the structural view, is the mastery of
elements of this system. Some of the language learning methods based on this view of language are: the
Audiolingual method, Total Physical Response, the Silent Way, The communicative view of language.
Adapted from Richards and Rodgers 1986.
http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/languagelearning/PrepareForLanguageLearning/TheStructuralViewOfLangua
ge.htm
Structure Grammar; form
Student Self-Correction Prompting a student to correct him/herself.
STT Student Talking Time - The amount of talking done by students in class. (Contrast: TTT)
Student-Centered Any approach which encourages students to participate fully in the learning process, and which fosters
autonomous learning. A student-centered lesson would include, e.g., Eliciting, Pair Work (Closed), and
Student Self-Correction and more inductive lesson planning approaches. A student-centered approach to
planning and teaching involves using information from learners and about learners as the basis for
developing teaching materials, strategies, and techniques. (Contrast: Teacher-Centered).
Student-Student Correction Prompting a student to correct another student.
Substitution Drill The teacher gives a model sentence, and then prompts individual students to change specific words in it.
Survival Skills Linguistic, cultural, and practical information that people need to get along in everyday life.
Survival Writing: Nonacademic, everyday writing, such as filling out forms and writing memos and notes.
Synonym A word having the same or nearly the same meaning as another in the language, as joyful, elated, glad.
Syntax The study of the sentence patterns of a language and rules that govern the correctness of a sentence.
Task Chain An integrated sequence of tasks in which the successful completion of one task is dependent on the
successful completion.
Task-Based Materials or curricula incorporating pieces of classroom work that involves learners in comprehending,
manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language, while their attention is principally focused on
meaning rather than form.
TBL In task-based learning, the tasks are central to the learning activity. Originally developed by N Prabhu in
Bangladore, southern India, it is based on the belief that students may learn more effectively when their
minds are focused on the task, rather than on the language they are using. In the model of task-based
learning described by Jane Willis, the traditional PPP (presentation, practice, production) lesson is
reversed. The students start with the task. When they have completed it, the teacher draws attention to the
language used, making corrections and adjustments to the students' performance. In A Framework for
Task-Based Learning, Jane Willis presents a three stage process:
Pre-task - Introduction to the topic and task.
Task cycle - Task planning and report
Language focus - Analysis and practice.
TTT Teacher Talking Time - The amount of talking done by a teacher in class. (Contrast: STT)

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Teacher-Centered A teaching approach that is requires more teacher-talk time and uses more of a deductive approach to
lesson planning. (Contrast: Student-centered)
Teacher-Created/Generated
context,
or Situational Presentation
Situational grammar teaching is a contemporary way of teaching grammar points of a foreign language by
presenting and practicing them in a context or a situation, instead of presenting charts/rules cold. In the
presentation of a language item/concept, language is introduced via a context that the teacher has created.
Teachers can incorporate either an inductive or deductive techniques.
Teaching Opportunities Teaching times within a lesson when a teacher hears, sees, or senses a teaching point because of an
error, confusion, mispronunciation and/or misuse of word or structure. Usually not planned.
TEAL Teaching English as an Additional Language
TEFL Teaching English as a Foreign Language
Technique A classroom device or activity. The narrowest category of Approach, method and technique. Some
techniques are widely used and found in many methods (e.g., dictation, imitation, and repetition); however,
some are specific to or characteristic of a given method (e.g., using Cuisenaire rods = the Silent Way).
(Celce-Murcia, M. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language, 2001)
TEFL Teaching English as a Foreign Language
TESL Teaching English as a Second Language
TESOL Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages
Test-Teach-Test A lesson planning format which involves starting by checking what students know about an item. The
teacher then presents or clarifies the aspects, which the students have problems with. Then, the teacher
provides more practice with those aspects.
Text Any piece of language which is recorded or written down; e.g., a newspaper article, radio news, a taped
dialogue, or a poem.
The Chain Error correction technique that involves students passing corrections to each other across the classroom.
Thematic Grouping according to common themes.
Time-Line A visual representation of a verb tense; used for concept illustration or checking.
TL Target Language: a new language item/concept in a systems lesson
Top-Down Mode (of
Language Processing)
The processing of language information comes from prior knowledge that allows learners to predict on the
basis of context what the incoming message can be expected to be, and how the pieces fit into the
whole. Top-down processing involves prediction and inference on the basis of hierarchies of facts,
propositions, and expectations, and it enables the listener or reader to bypass some aspects of bottom-up
processing (Contrast: Bottom-Up mode).
Transitions Moving from stage to stage (or activity to activity) within a lesson. This is critical to flow and continuity of a
class and allows students time to process the change in activity.
TS Target Sentence or Target Structure: the sentence or structure the target language appears in (usually for
practice/repetition drill)
Two-Word Verb See: Phrasal Verb
Unabridged A complete piece of work; not based on a larger piece.
Unadapted Not modified or simplified, usually referring to reading or listening materials.
Unscripted: Refers to lectures delivered without notes.
Use The pragmatic constraints governing the use of a particular form in context (e.g., its politeness level). Use
is connected to context and meaning; function.
VESL Vocational ESL provides adult immigrants with English skills on an as-needed basis in cooperation with a
program of vocational training.
Wait Time After asking a question or making a statement, give Ss time to process the information and formulate an
answer or response. Dont answer your own questions or restate anything until you know its necessary.

Warm-up activity (Warmers) A short activity at the start of a lesson (to break the ice, re-establish group harmony, allow late students to
arrive, etc.), before the teacher moves into the main part of the lesson. Warmers are sometimes called
Ice-Breakers.
WB White board
Wh- Question Any question starting with Where, Who, etc., and with How. (Contrast: Inverted questions)
Word Stress The emphasized syllable (s) in a word.

Part Two: Teaching Approaches & Methods
* The following information was taken/adapted from the following:
http://coe.sdsu.edu/people/jmora/ALMMethods.htm
http://www.onestopenglish.com/section.asp?docid=146498
http://www.jwelford.demon.co.uk/brainwaremap/suggest.html
http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Brown-CBEC.html
http://www.thecenterlibrary.org/cwis/cwisdocs/pdfs/sheltered-english.pdf

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Celce-Murcia, M. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (2001)
Larsen-Freeman, D. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching (1986)
Richards, J., Rodgers, T. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (2007)

Name Overview Characteristics and/or Techniques
The Grammar-
Translation Approach

This approach was historically used in
teaching Greek and Latin. The approach
was generalized to teaching modern
languages.

Classes are taught in the students mother tongue, with little active use
of the target language. Vocabulary is taught in the form of isolated word
lists. Elaborate explanations of grammar are always provided.
Grammar instruction provides the rules for putting words together;
instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words. Reading
of difficult texts is begun early in the course of study. Little attention is
paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in
grammatical analysis. Often the only drills are exercises in translating
disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother
tongue, and vice versa. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.

The Direct Approach
(Method)

This approach was developed initially as a
reaction to the grammar-translation
approach in an attempt to integrate more
use of the target language in instruction
and produce learners who could
communicate in the foreign language they
had been studying.

Lessons begin with a dialogue using a modern conversational style in
the target language. Material is first presented orally with actions or
pictures. The mother tongue is NEVER, NEVER used. There is no
translation. The preferred type of exercise is a series of questions in the
target language based on the dialogue or an anecdotal narrative.
Questions are answered in the target language. Grammar is taught
inductivelyrules are generalized from the practice and experience
with the target language. Verbs are used first and systematically
conjugated only much later after some oral mastery of the target
language. Advanced students read literature for comprehension and
pleasure. Literary texts are not analyzed grammatically. The culture
associated with the target language is also taught inductively. Culture is
considered an important aspect of learning the language.

The Reading
Approach

This approach is a reaction to the
problems experienced in implementing the
Direct Approach. This approach is
selected for practical and academic
reasons. For specific uses of the language
in graduate or scientific studies. The
approach is for people who do not travel
abroad for whom reading is the one
usable skill in a foreign language.

The priority in studying the target language is first, reading ability and
second, current and/or historical knowledge of the country where the
target language is spoken. Only the grammar necessary for reading
comprehension and fluency is taught. Minimal attention is paid to
pronunciation or gaining conversational skills in the target language.
From the beginning, a great amount of reading is done in L2, both in
and out of class. The vocabulary of the early reading passages and
texts is strictly controlled for difficulty. Vocabulary is expanded as
quickly as possible, since the acquisition of vocabulary is considered
more important that grammatical skill. Translation reappears in this
approach as a respectable classroom procedure related to
comprehension of the written text.

The Audiolingual
Method
(Audiolingualism)

This method is based on the principles of
behavior psychology. It adapted many of
the principles and procedures of the Direct
Method, in part as a reaction to the lack of
speaking skills of the Reading Approach.
Dominant in the US during the 1940s, 50s
and 60s.

New material is presented in the form of a dialogue. Based on the
principle that language learning is habit formation, the method fosters
dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and over-
learning. Structures are sequenced and taught one at a time. Structural
patterns are taught using repetitive drills. Little or no grammatical
explanations are provided; grammar is taught inductively. Skills are
sequenced: Listening, speaking, reading and writing are developed in
order. Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context. Teaching
points are determined by contrastive analysis between L1 and L2.
There is abundant use of language laboratories, tapes and visual aids.
There is an extended pre-reading period at the beginning of the course.
Great importance is given to precise native-like pronunciation. Use of
the mother tongue by the teacher is permitted, but discouraged among
and by the students. Successful responses are reinforced; great care is
taken to prevent learner errors. There is a tendency to focus on
manipulation of the target language and to disregard content and
meaning.

Oral-Situational
Approach
This method is based on the principles of
behavior psychology. It adapted many of
the principles and procedures of the Direct
Method, in part as a reaction to the lack of
speaking skills of the Reading Approach.
Dominant in the Britain during the 1940s,
50s and 60s.

The spoken language is primary in the classroom. All language material
is practiced orally before being presented in written form. Therefore,
reading and writing are taught only after an oral base in lexical and
grammatical forms have been established. Only the target language
should be used in the classroom. Only the most general and useful
vocabulary are presented. Grammatical structures are graded from
simple to complex. All new lexical and grammatical items are
introduced and practiced situationally in the bank, at the dinner table.
Cognitive Approach A reaction to the behaviorist features of
the Audiolingual Approach which was
Rather than simply being responsive to stimuli in the environment,
learners are seen to be much more actively responsible for their own

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influenced by cognitive psychology and
Chomskyan linguistics. Proponents of the
Cognitive Approach hold that language is
not the result of conditioning and habit
formation, but based on mental processes
involving the application of rules. Thus,
grammar is taught explicitly as well as
implicitly.
learning, engaged in formulating hypotheses in order to discover the
rules of the target language. Language learning is viewed a rule
acquisition, not habit formation. Their errors are inevitable and are
sings to the teacher that the students are actively testing their
hypotheses. Student progress in accomplished little by little, with a lot
of imperfection expected in the beginning. All four skills are worked on
from the beginning, and meaning is as important as form. The teacher
is expected to have good general proficiency in the target language as
well as an ability to analyze the target language.
Affective-Humanistic
Approach
A reaction to the general lack of affective
considerations in both Audiolingualism
and the Cognitive Approach.
Affective-Humanistic Approach considered the affective involved in the
learning process, such as, respecting the individual and his/her
feelings, atmosphere and interests. There are meaningful interaction,
pair and group works and peer support. The teacher is viewed as a
facilitator and is proficient in both languages because translation is
allowed in the initial stages.
The Silent Way

Silent Way originated in the early 1970s
and was the brainchild of the late Caleb
Gattegno. The three basic tenets of the
approach are that learning is facilitated if
the learner discovers rather than
remembers or repeats, that learning is
aided by physical objects, and that
problem-solving is central to learning. The
use of the word "silent" is also significant,
as Silent Way is based on the premise
that the teacher should be as silent as
possible in the classroom in order to
encourage the learner to produce as much
language as possible. As far as the
presentation of language is concerned,
Silent Way adopts a highly structural
approach, with language taught through
sentences in a sequence based on
grammatical complexity, described by
some as a "building-block" approach. The
structural patterns of the target language
are presented by the teacher and the
grammar "rules" of the language are learnt
inductively by the learners. Cuisenaire
rods (small colored blocks of varying sizes
originally intended for the teaching of
mathematics) are often used to illustrate
meaning (the physical objects mentioned
above). New items are added sparingly by
the teacher and learners take these as far
as they can in their communication until
the need for the next new item becomes
apparent. The teacher then provides this
new item by modeling it very clearly just
once. The learners are then left to use the
new item and to incorporate it into their
existing stock of language, again taking it
as far as they can until the next item is
needed and so on.
This method begins by using a set of colored rods and verbal
commands in order to achieve the following:

To avoid the use of the vernacular.
To create simple linguistic situations that remain under the
complete control of the teacher
To pass on to the learners the responsibility for the
utterances of the descriptions of the objects shown or the
actions performed.
To let the teacher concentrate on what the students say and
how they are saying it, drawing their attention to the
differences in pronunciation and the flow of words.
To generate a serious game-like situation in which the rules
are implicitly agreed upon by giving meaning to the gestures
of the teacher and his mime. To permit almost from the start
a switch from the lone voice of the teacher using the foreign
language to a number of voices using it. This introduces
components of pitch, timbre and intensity that will constantly
reduce the impact of one voice and hence reduce imitation
and encourage personal production of ones own brand of
the sounds.
To provide the support of perception and action to the
intellectual guess of what the noises mean, thus bring in the
arsenal of the usual criteria of experience already developed
and automatic in ones use of the mother tongue.
To provide a duration of spontaneous speech upon which the
teacher and the students can work to obtain a similarity of
melody to the one heard, thus providing melodic integrative
schemata from the start.
Suggestopedia Suggestopedia is a teaching method
which is based on a modern
understanding of how the human brain
works and how we learn most effectively.
It was developed by the Bulgarian doctor
and psychotherapist Georgi Lozanov (see
right). The term 'Suggestopedia', derived
from suggestion and pedagogy, is often
used loosely to refer to similar accelerated
learning approaches. However, Lozanov
reserves the title strictly for his own
method, and he has his own training and
certification facilities. Suggestopedia was
originally applied mainly in foreign
language teaching, and it is often claimed
that it can teach languages approximately
three times as quickly as conventional
Some of the key elements of Suggestopedia include a rich sensory
learning environment (pictures, color, music, etc.), a positive
expectation of success and the use of a varied range of methods:
dramatized texts, music, active participation in songs and games, etc.
Suggestopedia adopts a carefully structured approach, using four main
stages as follows:
Presentation
A preparatory stage in which students are helped to relax and move
into a positive frame of mind, with the feeling that the learning is going
to be easy and fun.
First Concert - "Active Concert"
This involves the active presentation of the material to be learnt. For
example, in a foreign language course there might be the dramatic
reading of a piece of text, accompanied by classical music.
Second Concert - "Passive Review"
The students are now invited to relax and listen to some Baroque
music, with the text being read very quietly in the background. The

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methods. music is specially selected to bring the students into the optimum
mental state for the effortless acquisition of the material.
Practice
The use of a range of games, puzzles, etc. to review and consolidate
the learning.

Community Language
Learning

This methodology is not based on the
usual methods by which languages are
taught. Rather the approach is patterned
upon counseling techniques and adapted
to the peculiar anxiety and threat as well
as the personal and language problems a
person encounters in the learning of
foreign languages. Consequently, the
learner is not thought of as a student but
as a client. The native instructors of the
language are not considered teachers but,
rather are trained in counseling skills
adapted to their roles as language
counselors.
The language-counseling relationship
begins with the clients linguistic confusion
and conflict. The aim of the language
counselors skill is first to communicate
empathy for the clients threatened
inadequate state and to aid him
linguistically. Then slowly the teacher-
counselor strives to enable him to arrive at
his own increasingly independent
language adequacy. This process is
furthered by the language counselors
ability to establish a warm, understanding,
and accepting relationship, thus becoming
an other-language self for the client. The
process involves five stages of adaptation:

STAGE 1
The client is completely dependent on the language counselor.
1. First, he expresses only to the counselor and in English what he
wishes to say to the group. Each group member overhears this English
exchange but no other members of the group are involved in the
interaction.
2. The counselor then reflects these ideas back to the client in the
foreign language in a warm, accepting tone, in simple language in
phrases of five or six words.
3. The client turns to the group and presents his ideas in the foreign
language. He has the counselors aid if he mispronounces or hesitates
on a word or phrase. This is the clients maximum security stage.
STAGE 2
1. Same as above.
2. The client turns and begins to speak the foreign language directly to
the group.
3. The counselor aids only as the client hesitates or turns for help.
These small independent steps are signs of positive confidence and
hope.
STAGE 3
1. The client speaks directly to the group in the foreign language. This
presumes that the group has now acquired the ability to understand his
simple phrases.
2. Same as 3 above. This presumes the clients greater confidence,
independence, and proportionate insight into the relationship of
phrases, grammar, and ideas. Translation is given only when a group
member desires it.
STAGE 4
1. The client is now speaking freely and complexly in the foreign
language. Presumes groups understanding.
2. The counselor directly intervenes in grammatical error,
mispronunciation, or where aid in complex expression is needed. The
client is sufficiently secure to take correction.
STAGE 5
1. Same as stage 4.
2. The counselor intervenes not only to offer correction but to add
idioms and more elegant constructions.
3. At this stage the client can become counselor to the group in stages
1, 2, and 3.

Total Physical
Response

James J. Asher defines the Total Physical
Response (TPR) method as one that
combines information and skills through
the use of the kinesthetic sensory system.
This combination of skills allows the
student to assimilate information and skills
at a rapid rate. As a result, this success
leads to a high degree of motivation.

The basic tenets are:
Understanding the spoken language before developing the
skills of speaking.
Imperatives are the main structures to transfer or
communicate information.
The student is not forced to speak, but is allowed an
individual readiness period and allowed to spontaneously
begin to speak when the student feels comfortable and
confident in understanding and producing the utterances.

1. Step I The teacher says the commands as he
himself performs the action.
2. Step 2 The teacher says the command as both the
teacher and the students then perform the action.
3. Step 3 The teacher says the command but only
students perform the action
4. Step 4 The teacher tells one student at a time to do
commands
5. Step 5 The roles of teacher and student are
reversed. Students give commands to teacher and
to other students.
6. Step 6 The teacher and student allow for command
expansion or produces new sentences.

Competency Based CBLT is based on a functional and Key Features:

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Language Teaching interactional perspective on the nature of
language. It seeks to teach language in
relation to the social contexts in which it is
used. Language always occurs as a
medium of interaction and communication
between people for the achievement of
specific goals and purposes. CBLT has for
his reason most often been used as a
framework for language teaching in
situations where learner have specific
needs and are in particular roles and
where the language skills they need and
can be fairly accurately predicted or
determined.
A focus on successful functioning society.
A focus on life skills
Task- or performance-centered orientation.
Modularized instruction
Outcomes that are made explicit a priori
Continuous and ongoing assessment
Demonstrated mastery of performance objectives.
Individualized, student-centered instruction.
Comprehension-
Based Approach
An outgrowth of research in first language
acquisition that led some language
methodologists to assume that second or
foreign language learning is very similar to
first language acquisition.

Listening comprehension is very important and is viewed as
the basic skill that will allow speaking, reading, and writing to
develop spontaneously over time, given the right conditions.
There is a silent period where learners should not speak until
they fell ready to do so, but can respond nonverbally in
meaningful ways before they produce language.
Learners progress by being exposed o meaningful input that
is just one step beyond their level of competence. Rule
learning may help learner awareness, but not contribute to
their acquisition.
Error correction is seen as unnecessary.
Teachers should be native speakers (or near-native).
The Communicative
Approach
(Communicative
Language Teaching)
CA referes to a divers set of principles that
reflect a communicative view of language
and lanuage learning that can be used to
suporta wide variety of classroom
procedures. The goal of CA is to develop
communicative competence.
Principles:
Learners learn a language through using it to communicate.
Authentic and meaningful communication should be the goal
of classroom activities.
Fluency is an important dimension of communication.
Communication involves the integration of different language
skills.
Learning is a process of creative construction and involves
trial and error.

Characteristics of current CA applications:
Appropriateness of language use
Message focus
Psycholinguistic processing
Risk taking
Free practice
The Natural Approach The Natural Approach was developed by
Tracy Terrell and Stephen Krashen,
starting in 1977. It came to have a wide
influence in language teaching in the
United States and around the world.
The Communicative view of language is
the view behind the Natural Approach.
Particular emphasis is laid on language as
a set of messages that can be
understood. The Natural Approach
focuses on developing language skills in a
natural context. Students acquire
language through interaction in authentic
and meaningful learning experiences.
Teachers provide input in the target
language that students can understand.
Teachers begin with language input that
can be made comprehensible through
modeling and visuals and continue to add
new learning to that base.

The Natural Approach is based on the following tenets:
Language acquisition (an unconscious process developed
through using language meaningfully) is different from
language learning (consciously learning or discovering rules
about a language) and language acquisition is the only way
competence in a second language occurs. (The
acquisition/learning hypothesis)
Conscious learning operates only as a monitor or editor that
checks or repairs the output of what has been acquired. (The
monitor hypothesis)
Grammatical structures are acquired in a predictable order
and it does little good to try to learn them in another
order.(The natural order hypothesis).
People acquire language best from messages that are just
slightly beyond their current competence. (The input
hypothesis)
The learner's emotional state can act as a filter that impedes
or blocks input necessary to acquisition. (The affective filter
hypothesis)

The syllabus for the Natural Approach is a communicative syllabus.
Comprehensible input is presented in the target language, using
techniques such as TPR, mime and gesture. Group techniques are
similar to Communicative Language Teaching. Learners start to talk
when they are ready. The Natural Approach adopts techniques and
activities from different sources but uses them to provide
comprehensible input.

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The principles behind the Natural Approach are:
Comprehension precedes production. Students are not
asked to repeat or produce language until they are
comfortable and begin to do so naturally.
Production emerges in stages.
A syllabus based on communicative goals is more effective.
The instructional focus is on meaning rather than correct
form in early stages.
The students anxiety level must be low in order for learning
to take place.
Functional-notional
Approach

This method of language teaching is
categorized along with others under the
rubric of a communicative approach. The
method stresses a means of organizing a
language syllabus. The emphasis is on
breaking down the global concept of
language into units of analysis in terms of
communicative situations in which they
are used.

Principles of the FNA:
Notions are meaning elements that may be expressed
through nouns, pronouns, verbs, prepositions, conjunctions,
adjectives or adverbs. The use of particular notions depends
on three major factors: a. the functions b. the elements in the
situation, and c. the topic being discussed.
A situation may affect variations of language such as the use
of dialects, the formality or informality of the language and
the mode of expression. Situation includes the following
elements:
A. The persons taking part in the speech act
B. The place where the conversation occurs
C. The time the speech act is taking place
D. The topic or activity that is being discussed
Exponents are the language utterances or statements that
stem from the function, the situation and the topic.
Code is the shared language of a community of speakers.
Code-switching is a change or switch in code during the
speech act, which many theorists believe is purposeful
behavior to convey bonding, language prestige or other
elements of interpersonal relations between the speakers.

Strategic Interaction
Approach
Strategic Interaction is an approach to
language instruction that calls upon
learners to use the target language
purposefully and skillfully in
communicating with others. Robert J. Di
Pietro talks about this approach in his
book Strategic Interaction: Learning
Languages through Scenarios (Cambridge
University Press, 1987)
The focal activity in the strategic interaction classroom is the scenario,
which replicates real-life situations and requires language in order to
reach a resolution. Students are assigned roles that oblige them to
work out and implement personal game plans through dialogs with
other role players. Students are always themselves, and personal
agendas will inevitably differ, creating the dramatic tension that makes
strategic interaction realistic and involving.
Lexical Approach: An approach to language learning set
forth by Michael Lewis (1990s). The lexical
approach to second language teaching
has received interest in recent years as an
alternative to grammar-based approaches.
The lexical approach concentrates on
developing learners' proficiency with lexis,
or words and word combinations. It is
based on the idea that an important part of
language acquisition is the ability to
comprehend and produce lexical phrases
as unanalyzed wholes, or "chunks," and
that these chunks become the raw data by
which learners perceive patterns of
language traditionally thought of as
grammar
Teachers using the Lexical Approach will not analyze the target
language in the classroom, but will be more inclined to concentrate
learners' attention upon these chunks. The principles of The Lexical
Approach include (i) the grammar/vocabulary dichotomy is invalid, (ii)
collocation is used as an organizing principle, (iii) successful language
is a wider concept than accurate language, (iv) the Observe-
Hypothesize-Experiment cycle replaces the Present-Practice-produce
paradigm, and (v) language consists of grammaticalized lexis - not
lexicalized grammar. http://www.ericdigests.org/2002-2/lexical.htm
Whole Language Whole language is not a systemized
approach, but rather a philosophy that
assumes that reading and general
language competencies are acquired
through integrated use instead of through
learning separate, finite skills, such as
word attack, comprehension, and
vocabulary. It relies heavily on the use of
literature and trade books, rather than
basal readers, and usually involves
integrated thematic studies and the
extended use of writing.
It is based on the following eight principles:
a. Learning in the classroom and out of the classroom are not
different
b. Language learning is a social event - classrooms have a
workshop atmosphere where learners interact and share
c. The emphasis is on process; classrooms are organized to
support individual growth
d. Language is the means of creating and communicating new
knowledge
e. The four language processes (listening, speaking, reading,
writing) are interrelated and interdependent
f. Authentic reading materials provide the best models for
language

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g. The purpose of language is to create meaning
h. Learners must be involved in real language activities.

The Language
Experience Approach
The language Experience Approach
involves children in their own language
learning, acknowledges the worth of their
language, and organizes the curriculum
around their experiences. Children probe
language to acquire its meaning. The
language experience approach (LEA) is a
whole language approach that promotes
reading and writing through the use of
personal experiences and oral language.
It can be used in tutorial or classroom
settings with homogeneous or
heterogeneous groups of learners.
Beginning literacy learners relate their
experiences to a teacher or aide, who
transcribes them. These transcriptions are
then used as the basis for other reading
and writing activities.

Features of the Language Experience Approach:
The LEA is as diverse in practice as its practitioners.
Nonetheless, some characteristics remain consistent (Hall,
1970):
Materials are learner-generated.
All communication skills--reading, writing, listening, and
speaking--are integrated.
Difficulty of vocabulary and grammar are determined by the
learners own language use.
Learning and teaching are personalized, communicative,
creative.
T
A Sample:
The Language Experience Approach begins with a shared
class experience; a novel, exciting experience works well
when first using the LEA strategy.
After the class activity is completed, the teacher asks the
students to dictate the story of the experience to her and
writes what they say word for word on large chart paper.
She reads the sentences back to the class so that the story is
written exactly how they have composed it.
The teacher reads the final story to the class and then has
the class read it with her.
As the students read their words about their experience
aloud they are building their reading vocabularies.
From here the teacher can personalize the lesson to focus on
language arts concepts in which the class needs instruction
or practice.

http://www.cal.org/caela/esl_resources/digests/LEA.html
http://primary-school-
curriculum.suite101.com/article.cfm/language_experience_approach
Content-Based E.S.L.
Curriculum
A model of language education that
integrates language and content
instruction in the second language
classroom; a second language learning
approach where second language
teachers use instructional materials,
learning tasks, and classroom techniques
from academic content areas as the
vehicle for developing second language,
content, cognitive and study skills.
Essential ingredients in implementing CBEC.
First, ESL students must read authentic texts. The teacher
should include time for reading texts in every class--the
students can repeatedly read the same part.
Second, there have to be strong language learning
components. The teacher has to design lessons in which
ESL students must use academic oral English in the context
of debates, group projects, or cooperative learning.
Third, the teacher must integrate writing so that it is
purposeful and meaningful in context--writing aids students'
conceptual learning. The salient grammar points in a specific
unit should be emphasized and reinforced throughout
reading, writing, and speaking activities.
Fourth, higher-order thinking and critical thinking skills should
be reinforced through the use of real-life problem solving
situations.
Fifth, scaffolding is critical when ESL students learn abstract
concepts. Hands-on activities and visual demonstration are
considered part of scaffolding because they facilitate
students' concept learning.
CALLA The Cognitive Academic Language
Learning Approach (CALLA) is an
instructional model for second and foreign
language learners based on cognitive
theory and research. CALLA integrates
instruction in priority topics from the
content curriculum, development of the
language skills needed for learning in
school, and explicit instruction in using
learning strategies for academic tasks.
The goals of CALLA are for students to
learn essential academic content and
language and to become independent and
self-regulated learners through their
increasing command over a variety of
CALLA's principal objectives are to assist students in:
Valuing their own prior knowledge and cultural experiences,
and relating this knowledge to academic learning in a new
language and culture
Learning the content knowledge and the language skills that
are most important for their future academic success;
Developing language awareness and critical literacy
Selecting and using appropriate learning strategies and study
skills that will develop academic knowledge and processes
Developing abilities to work successfully with others in a
social context
Learning through hands-on, inquiry-based, and cooperative
learning tasks
Increasing motivation for academic learning and confidence
in their ability to be successful in school

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strategies for learning in school. CALLA
can be used in ESL, EFL, bilingual,
foreign language, and general education
classrooms.
Evaluating their own learning and planning how to become
more effective and independent learners.

CALLA was developed by Anna Uhl Chamot and J. Michael O'Malley,
and is being implemented in approximately 30 school districts in the
United States as well as in several other countries.
http://calla.ws/CALLAHandoutWY.pdf
SIOP Sheltered Instruction Observation
Protocol; research-based sheltered
instruction. Sheltered Instruction
incorporates academic language
objectives into daily lesson plans and
makes content meaningful for English
language learners. An approach to
teaching that makes grade-level content
comprehensible for English Language
Learners while they are developing
English proficiency. SI classrooms, which
may include a mix of native English
speakers and English Language Learners,
integrate language and content with socio-
cultural awareness. Teachers scaffold
instruction to aid student comprehension
of content topics and objectives by
adjusting their speech and instructional
tasks and by providing appropriate
background information and experiences.
Teachers also develop students ability to
communicate in English within the content
area.
1. Target the big ideas of the content.
Identify clear objectives, main principles, and key vocabulary.
Establish clear, realistic, and achievable objectives to be sure
that all activities will lead to content and language objectives.
Locate appropriate materials.
2. Access and build upon students prior knowledge.
Connect students knowledge and experiences to new
lesson.Get everyone on the same page.
Ask appropriate questions to facilitate student interaction
about their prior knowledge and experiences.
Use the native language as a tool.
3. Make sure that the new information is comprehensible.
Speak clearly without using the slang or idioms
Model language just above the language competence of the
learners.
Use a variety of literacy and vocabulary activities before,
during, and after reading.
Retell, clarify, and give examples.
Use visuals, manipulatives, gestures, and hands-on
experiences, modeling, and demonstrations.
Move from the concrete to the abstract.
4. Organize purposeful interactions.
Utilize peers to facilitate learning and sharing ways of
thinking.
Implement paired and buddy reading activities.
Teach through cooperative learning activities.
Encourage native language support from peers and adults.
5. Use fair and appropriate assessment strategies.
Encourage students to creatively use the English language
they know.
Be easy on the red pen with emergent English writers,
focusing on the message, rather than the form
Use a variety of writing activities and assessment strategies.
6. Provide instruction in a low-risk environment where students can
take risks.
Comprehension
Strategy Instruction
Comprehension strategies are specific,
learned procedures that foster active,
competent, self-regulated, and intentional
reading. Reading comprehension strategy
instruction (CSI) refers to explicitly training
these procedures either in isolation or in
multiple component packages.

The Reciprocal Teaching Method, developed and empirically validated
by Palincsar and Brown is a highly effective form of comprehension
strategy instruction. Students learn to read strategically by partnering
with teachers and mentors who demonstrate and make explicit the
thinking processes used to construct meaning from text. Students are
prompted to stop and think about what they have read using
questioning, predicting, clarifying, and summarizing techniques. As
teachers describe what they are thinking, they model the mental
processes good readers use, showing learners both how they make
sense of text and what kind of sense they are trying to make. These
reciprocal teaching strategies have been researched and successfully
applied in expository and narrative text across age grades including
high school settings.
Explicit teaching of techniques that are particularly effective for
comprehending text. The steps of explicit instruction include direct
explanation, teacher modeling ("think aloud"), guided practice, and
application. Some strategies include direct explanation (the teacher
explains to students why the strategy helps comprehension and when
to apply the strategy), modeling (the teacher models, or demonstrates,
how to apply the strategy, usually by "thinking aloud" while reading the
text that the students are using), guided practice (the teacher guides
and assists students as they learn how and when to apply the strategy)
and application (the teacher helps students practice the strategy until
they can apply it independently).

http://www.dldcec.org/pdf/alert12.pdf

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Part Three: ALTE Framework (Can-Do Statements)
The Can-Do statements are helpful for lesson planning ideas and sequencing, finding and using activities/tasks, putting together a syllabus,
student assessment and placement, and writing and identifying learning objectives.
About ALTE http://www.alte.org/about/index.php
The ALTE Framework defined http://www.alte.org/framework/table.php
A2: ALTE Level One http://www.alte.org/alteframework/level1.php
B1: ALTE Level Two http://www.alte.org/alteframework/level2.php
B2: ALTE Level Three http://www.alte.org/alteframework/level3.php
C1: ALTE Level Four http://www.alte.org/alteframework/level4.php
C2: ALTE Level Five http://www.alte.org/alteframework/level5.php
A complete guide to the development of the Can-Do Project http://www.alte.org/downloads/index.php?doctypeid=10
Overview of the Can-Do Statements http://www.alte.org/cando/index.php
Chart for General Abilities http://www.alte.org/cando/general.php
Social and Tourist Abilities http://www.alte.org/cando/social.php
Work Typical Abilities http://www.alte.org/cando/work.php
Study Typical Abilities http://www.alte.org/cando/study.php

Chart for Can-Do: General Abilities (Example) http://www.alte.org/cando/general.php
LEVELS Listening / Speaking Reading Writing
C2
Level 5
CAN advise on or talk about
complex or sensitive issues,
understanding colloquial
references and dealing
confidently with hostile
questions.
CAN understand documents,
correspondence and reports,
including the finer points of
complex texts.
CAN write letters on any subject
and full notes of meetings or
seminars with good expression
and accuracy.
C1
Level 4
CAN contribute effectively to
meetings and seminars within
own area of work or keep up a
casual conversation with a good
degree of fluency, coping with
abstract expressions.
CAN read quickly enough to
cope with an academic course,
to read the media for information
or to understand non-standard
correspondence.
CAN prepare/draft professional
correspondence, take
reasonably accurate notes in
meetings or write an essay
which shows an ability to
communicate.
B2
Level 3
CAN follow or give a talk on a
familiar topic or keep up a
conversation on a fairly wide
range of topics.
CAN scan texts for relevant
information, and understand
detailed instructions or advice.
CAN make notes while
someone is talking or write a
letter including non-standard
requests.
B1
Level 2
CAN express opinions on
abstract/cultural matters in a
limited way or offer advice within
a known area, and understand
instructions or public
announcements.
CAN understand routine
information and articles, and the
general meaning of non-routine
information within a familiar area.
CAN write letters or make notes
on familiar or predictable
matters.
A2
Level 1
CAN express simple opinions or
requirements in a familiar
context.
CAN understand straightforward
information within a known area,
such as on products and signs
and simple textbooks or reports
on familiar matters.
CAN complete forms and write
short simple letters or postcards
related to personal information.
A1
ALTE breakthrough level
CAN understand basic
instructions or take part in a
basic factual conversation on a
predictable topic.
CAN understand basic notices,
instructions or information.
CAN complete basic forms, and
write notes including times,
dates and places.

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