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Soil Reaction/Soil pH
Soil reaction:
The degree of acidity or alkalinity of a soil is called soil reaction. It is an indicator of the acidity or alkalinity and is measured in pH scale. It is the most outstanding characteristics for plant growth factors because it determines the availability of plant nutrients and the amount of toxic substance in the soil. Microorganisms and higher plants respond markedly to soil reaction because it tends to control so much of their chemical environment. It is used in diagnosing the fertility as well as productivity of soils.

Soil acidity & alkalinity:

Soil acidity is common in all regions where precipitation is high enough to leach appreciable quantities of exchangeable base forming cations (Ca+, Mg+, K+ & Na+) from the surface layers of soils. Alkalinity occurs when there is a comparatively high degree of saturation with bas-forming cations. The presence of Ca, Mg & Na carbonates also can result in a preponderance of hydroxy ions over hydrogen ions in the soil solution. 2Na+ + CO3+ HOH 2Na+ + OH+HCO3 Under such conditions, the soil is alkaline (the OHion greatly enhances alkalinity), sometimes very strongly so. Alkaline soils are characteristic of arid & semiarid regions. Two adsorbed cations hydrogen & aluminium are largely responsible for soil acidity. Classification of soil acidity: Research suggests that three major kinds/pools of acidity are common in soils: 1. active acidity 2. salt-replaceable(exchangeable) acidity, and 3. Residual acidity/reserve acidity. Active acidity: Active acidity is due to the H+ and Al+ ions in the soil solution. The active acidity pool is defined by the H+ ion actively in the soil solution. This pool is very small compared to the acidity in the exchangeable and residual pools.

For example, only about 2Kg of calcium carbonate are needed to neutralize the active acidity in the upper 15cm of a hectare of an average mineral soil at pH 4 and 20% moisture. The anion exchange is extremely important, since it determines the solubility of many substances and provides the soil solution environment to which plant roots and microbes are exposed. Very acid soils contain aluminium ions in solution, which can add to the active acidity as they hydrolyze. Salt replaceable salt: This type of acidity is primarily associated with exchangeable hydrogen and aluminium ions that are present in large quantities in very acid soils. These ions can be released into the soil solution by cation exchange with an unbuffered salt, such as KCl. K+ Al+ K+ Micelle Micelle + 4KCl K+ + AlCl3 + HCl H+ K+ (Soil solid) (Soil solution). Once released to the soil solution, the aluminium hydrolyzes to form additional H+. The chemical equivalent of salt replaceable acidity in strongly acid soils is commonly thousands of times that of active acidity in the limestone needed to neutralize this type of acidity are commonly more than 100 times that needed to neutralize the soil solution (active acidity). At a given pH value, exchangeable acidity is generally highest for smectites, intermediate for vermiculites and lowest for Kaolinite. Residual acidity/reserve acidity: Exchangeable & active acidity, together account for only a fraction of the total soil acidity. The remaining residual acidity (reserve acidity) is generally associated with hydrogen and aluminium ions, including the aluminium hydroxy ions that are bound in non-exchangeable forms by organic matter and silicate clays. As the pH increases, the bound hydrogen dissociates and the bound aluminium ions are released and precipitate as amorphous Al (OH)3 [Al (OH)3++ Al(OH)2+ OH Al(OH)3].These changes free up negative cation exchange sites and increase the cation exchange capacity. The reaction with a liming material (e.g. Ca(OH)2) slows how the bound hydrogen and aluminium can be released. Al Ca Micelle Micelle H +2Ca(OH)2 Ca + Al(OH)3 + H2O (Soil solid) (Soil air) (soil solid) (soil solution)

The residual acidity is commonly for greater than either the active or salt-replaceable acidity. # These types of acidity all add up to the total acidity of a soil. In addition, a much less common, but sometimes very important fourth pool, namely potential acidity, arises from the oxidation of sulfur compounds in certain acid-sulfate soils. Total acidity: For most soils (not potential acid sulfate soils) the total acidity that must be overcome to raise the soil pH to a desired value can be defined as: Total acidity= active acidity+ salt replaceable acidity+ residual acidity. Critical pH value: The pH value of most agricultural soils are in the range of 5 to 8.5. the minimum pH value above which liming will not increase crop yield, is called the critical pH value. It varies from plant species to species and with soil type. It is important for liming. The critical pH values for some crops are as followsSugar beat ------- 6-6.5 Barley-------------5.5-6.0 Cotton, soyabean, wheat----- 5.5-6.0 Rice------------5-5.5 Distinguish between active acidity & reserve acidity: Active acidity Reserve acidity 1. Acidity refers to the activity of 1. Reserve acidity refers to the hydrogen ions in the aqueous phase hydrogen & aluminium ions held on of a soil. the soil colloids. 2. It is the primary source of soil 2. It is the secondary source of soil acidity. acidity. 3. Small amount of lime is required 3. Large amount of lime is required to neutralize the active acidity. to neutralize the reserve acidity. 4. It is generally much less than 4. It is commonly for greater than the reserve acidity.[the no. of adsorbed H active acidity. It may be 1000 times ions in the diffuse layer is much greater than the active acidity in a greater than those in true solution.] sandy soil and 50,000 or even 100,000 times greater in a clayey soil high in organic matter. 5. Buffering capacity of soil is not 5. Buffering capacity of soil is dependent on the active acidity. directly related to the reserve acidity.

Buffer capacity & the soil as a buffer:

Buffers or buffer system can maintain the pH of a solution within a narrow range when small amounts of acid or base are added. So, buffering defines the resistance to a change in pH. Soils tend to resist change in the pH of the soil solution when either acid or base is added. This resistance to change is called buffering or buffer action of soil, and the system is said to be buffered. The buffer action is effective only within a certain pH range. The range depends upon the type of acid or base present. As soon as the acid or basic buffer is neutralized, the buffer action disappears. A number of substances, especially weak acids, both mineral & organic and their salts possess buffer action as their power of dissociation is very poor. They are never more than very slightly dissociated, no matter to what extent they are diluted with water. Among mineral acids, carbonic, phosphoric and basic acids are the weak acids that are usually present in soil. A number of weak organic acids such as acetic, citric, lactic, etc are also present in soil. In the aqueous solution of these acids, most of the hydrogen remains combined or undissociated, and only a small portion is present as free H+ ions. Strong acids have, on the other hand, no buffering effects as they have no undissociated molecules when dissolved in water. Soils, i.e. clay minerals behave like weak acids (as they are composed of complex alumino-silicic acid) that buffer the pH accordingly. Humic acid is also a weak organic acid that does not dissociate readily. In aqueous suspensions, most of the hydrogen of these acids remains in an adsorbed form and only a part goes in true solution in the ionic form. The colloidal complex thus acts as a powerful buffer in the soil and does not allow rapid and sudden changes in soil reaction. In acid soils the adsorbed Al+ will maintain equilibrium with Al+ in the soil solution, which hydrolyzes to produce H+. Al+ Ca++ Clay Mg++ Al+ H2O AlOH+ + H+ K+ Al+ If the hydrogen ion (H+) is neutralized by adding a base and the Al+ in solution precipitates as Al(OH)3, more exchangeable

Al+ will adsorb to resupply solution Al+. Thus, the pH remains the same or is buffered. As more base is added, the preceding reaction continues, with more adsorbed Al+ neutralized and replaced on the CEC with the cation of the added base. As a result, there is a gradual increase in soil pH. The reverse of the preceding reaction also occurs. When acid is continually added to a neutral soil, OHin the soil solution is neutralized. Gradually, the Al(OH)3 dissolves, which increase Al+ in the solution and subsequently on the CEC. As the reaction continues, there is a continual but slow decrease in soil pH as the Al+ replaces adsorbed basic cations. Depending upon the amount of colloidal material present in it, a soil may be highly or poorly buffered. Soils containing large amounts of clay and organic matter are highly buffered and require larger amounts of lime to increase the pH than soils with a lower BC. Sandy soils with small amounts of clay and organic matter are poorly buffered and require only small amounts of lime to effect a given change in pH. Soil containing mostly 1:1 clays (ultisols & oxisols) are generally less buffered than soils with principally 2:1 clay minerals (alfisols & mollisols). It will be noticed that the buffer capacity of a soil lies in its reserve or adsorbed hydrogen or cation content of the colloidal complex. The adsorbed hydrogen content of fully saturated clay is the same as its CEC. Hence, the BC of the soil varies with its CEC. The greater the CEC, the greater will be its BC. Therefore, the heavier the texture and the greater the organic matter content of a soil, the greater the amount of acid or alkaline material required to change its pH. The importance of buffer action is self evident. As it prevents sudden changes and fluctuations in soil pH, it regulates all those activities which are influenced by soil reaction. The availability of plant nutrients which depends so much on soil pH is kept at its optimum due to the buffering action. Wide fluctuations in soil pH would directly affect plant growth as plants cannot adjust themselves to new environment immediately with every change in pH. The same is the case with microorganisms. They cannot adjust themselves to rapid fluctuations in soil reaction. The importance of buffer action in stabilizing soil pH cannot therefore, be overemphasized.

Explain the fact that it is difficult to change the pH of clayey soil.

The colloidal complex acts as a powerful buffer in the soil and does not allow rapid and sudden changes in soil reaction. Depending upon the amount of colloidal material present in it, a soil may be highly or poorly buffered. Clay soils are more highly buffered than sandy or mineral soils. Exchangeable ions on clay and humus are in equilibrium with the ions in solution. Therefore, if additional H+ is added to the soil, most of these ions will be attracted to the cation exchange complex, where they will exchange with other ions, such as Ca+. The H+ ion concentration in the solution will therefore not change very much. If H+ ions in solution are neutralized by addition of a base (lime), they will be immediately replaced/replenished by H+ ions and various aluminium ions released from exchange sites on clay and humus, thereby minimizing the change in soil solution pH. These occur when the amount of H+ ions in solution is relatively low (i.e. pH>6). Likewise, if the H+ ion concentration of the soil solution is increased, the reverse reactions occur, consuming H+ and again minimizing changes in soil solution pH. Thus, because of the involvement of residual and exchangeable acidity, we can see that soils with higher clay & organic matter contents are likely to better buffered in the intermediate pH levels (5 to 7), and therefore, it is difficult to change the pH of a clayey soil.

Sources of hydrogen ions:

1. Carbonic acid: Perhaps the most ubiquitous contributor to soil acidity is the formation and subsequent dissociation of H+ ions from carbonic acid. This weak acid is formed when CO2 gas from soil air dissolves in H2O. Root respiration and the decomposition of soil organic matter by microorganisms produce high levels of CO2 in soil air. Pushing the following reaction to the right: CO2 + H2O H2CO3 HCO3+H+ ; pKa = 6.35

The HCO3ions react with bases (e.g. Ca++), removed from colloidal complex by H+ ions and thus precipitations reducing the basic cations. Therefore, soil acidity increases. 2. Acids from biological metabolism: Many organic acids are generated as microbes break down soil organic matter. Some of these are low molecular weight organic acids, such as citric or malic acids, that only weakly dissociate. Others are more complex and stronger acids, such as the carboxylic and phenolic acid groups in humic substances produced by litter breakdown. A generalized reaction showing a carboxylic group is given: [RCH2OH] + O2 + H2O RCOOH RCOO+H+; pKa= 3 to 5 (O.m generalized) (Strong organic acid) Phenolic acid group (R-OH) dissociates at higher pH levels. 3. Accumulation of organic matter: The accumulation of organic matter tends to acidify the soil for two reasons: First, Organic matter forms soluble complexes with nonacid nutrient cations such as Ca+ & Mg+, thus facilitating the loss of these cations by leaching. Second, organic matter is a source of H+ ions because it contains numerous acid functional groups from which these ions can dissociate. Different groups dissociate at different pH levels. If pH is increased, more functional groups undergo dissociation of H+ ions, leaving behind an increasing number of negatively charged sites on the molecule. OH H+ Organic Organic O + matter matter COOH COO H+ Thus, dissociation reactions involving organic matter (humus) comprise an important source of H+ ions in soils. 4. Oxidation of nitrogen (nitrification): Oxidation reactions generally produce H+ ions as one of their products. Reduction reactions, on the other hand, tend to consume H+ ions and raise soil pH.

Nitrogen from organic matter or from most fertilizers is released into the soil solution as NH4 ions. As the NH4+ ions, in turn are subject to oxidation, they form nitrate ions (NO3). The oxidation process is usually carried out by specific soil bacteria, but can also take place by purely chemical reactions. The reaction with oxygen, termed nitrification releases two H+ ions for each NH4+ ion oxidized: NH4+ + 1 O2 Nitrosomonas Bacteria Nitrobactor Bacteria NO2+ 2H+ + H2O + energy

NO2+ O2 OR, NH4+ +2O2

NO3 + energy

H2O + H+ + H+ + NO3.

Because the NO3 produced is the anion of a strong acid (HNO3), it does not tend to recombine with the H+ ion to make the reaction go to the left. 5. Oxidation of sulfur: The decomposition of plant residues commonly involves the oxidation of organic SH groups to yield sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Another important source of this strong acid is the oxidation of reduced sulfur in minerals such as pyrite: FeS2 + 3 O2 + H2O FeSO4 + 2H+ + SO4 Pyrite Dissociated Sulfuric acid. This & related reactions are responsible for producing large amounts of acidity in certain soils in which reduced sulfur is plentiful & oxygen levels are increased by drainage or excavation. There are five species of the genus Thiobacillus (autotrophic bacteria) related to S-oxidation: 1. Thiobacillus thiooxidants. 2. Thiobacillus novellas 3. Thiobacillus denitrification 4. Thiobacillus ferroxidants 5. Thiobacillus thioparus.

The oxidation reductions with H2S & elemental sulfur(S): H2S + 2O2 H2SO4 2H+ + SO4 2S + 3O2 +2H2O H2SO4 4H+ +SO4 6. Acids in precipitation: Precipitation (rain, snow, fog and dust) contains a variety of acids that contribute H+ ions to the soil receiving the precipitation. As raindrops fall through unpolluted air, they dissolve CO2 and form enough carbonic acid to lower the pH of the water form 7.0 (the pH of pure water) to about 5.6. Varying amounts of sulfuric and nitric acids form in precipitation from certain nitrogen and sulfur gases produced by lightning, volcanic eruptions, forest fires and the combustion of fossil fuels. Unlike carbonic acid, these strong acids completely dissociate to form H+ ions and sulfate or nitrate anions: H2SO4 SO4+ 2H+ HNO3 NO3+ H+ 7. Plant uptake of cations: Plants must maintain a balance between the positive & negative charges on the ions they take up from the soil solution. For every positive charge taken in on a cation, a root can maintain charge balance either by talking up a negative charge as an anion or by exuding a positive charge as a different cation. When they take up for more of certain cations (e.g. K+, NH4+,Ca++) than they do of anions (e,g.NO3, SO4), plants usually exude H+ ions into the soil solution to maintain charge balance. In the first two of the following example plant material uptake results in the addition of H+ ions to the soil solution: Root interior Example1 Soil solution NH4+ H+ Ca+ Ca+ SO4 uptake of cations balanced by release of H+ ions from root (an acidifying effect.) uptake of cations balanced by uptake 2H+ of anions (no effect on pH).

Example2 Example3

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8. Aluminosilicate clays: The adsorbed Al is in equilibrium with Al+ ions in the soil solution and Al+ ions contribute to soil acidity through their tendency to hydrolyze. Two specified reactions illustrate how adsorbed aluminium can increase acidity in soil solution.
Micelle

Al+

Al+ aluminium ion in soil solution.

Absorbed aluminium

The aluminium ions (are actually highly hydrated, being present in forms such as Al (H2O)6+) in the soil solution are then hydrolyzed to aluminium hydroxy ions. Al+ + H2O Al (OH) + + H+ Al (OH) + + H2O Al (OH)2+ + H+ Al (OH) + + H2O Al(OH) + H+ Al (OH)3+ + H2O Al(OH)4+ H+ The H+ ions thus released lower the pH of the soil solution and are the major source of hydrogen in most very acid soils. Adsorbed hydrogen ions are a second but much more limited source of H+ ions in very acid soils. A simple equation to show the release of adsorbed hydrogen to the soil solution is: H+ hydrogen ion in Soil solution In moderately acid soils, the small amount of readily exchangeable hydrogen contributes to soil acidity.
Micelle

H+ Adsorbed hydrogen

Micelle

H + Ca Calcium ion

Micelle

Ca+ Calcium ion

+ 2H+ Hydrogen ion

H Bound hydrogen

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(Not dissociated) (In soil solution)

(Exchangeable) (In soil solution)

9. Hydrous oxides of Fe & Al: Hydrous oxides are mainly the oxides of Fe & Al. Iron (Fe+) also is solubilized under acid conditions and forms hydroxy cations, just as does aluminium. Therefore, hydrous oxides of Fe & Al act as sources of hydrogen ions, and undergo hydrolysis to produce H+. Fe+ + HOH Fe(OH)+ + H+ Fe(OH)+ + HOH Fe(OH)2+ + H+ Fe(OH)2 + + HOH Fe(OH)3 + H+ 10. Soluble salts: Acid, neutral or basic salts in the soil solution originate from mineral weathering, organic matter decomposition, or addition as fertilizers and manures. The cations of these salts will displace adsorbed Al+ in acid soils and thus decrease soil solution pH. Divalent cations have a greater effect on lowering soil pH than monovalent metal cations. 11. Carbon dioxide: In calcareous soils, the pH is influenced by the partial pressure of CO2 in the soil atmosphere. The pH of a soil containing free CaCO3 in equilibrium with atmospheric CO2 is 8.5; however, increased CO2 in soil air causes the pH to decrease to 7.3-7.5. Decomposition of organic residues and root respiration increase CO2 in soil air, which combines with water to provide a source of H+ to lower pH according to the following: H2O + CO2 H2CO3 H2CO3 HCO3+ H+ Influence of ph in soil: Pedological aspects of pH: Soil pH influences the properties of soil profile. Edaphological aspects of pH: 1. A toxic & destructive effect of OHor H+ ion on root growth: It is found that a destructive action on root tissues by acidity or alkalinity usually does not take place until the pH drops below 4.0 or rises above 9.0. When pH goes below 4.0 or above 9.0,it causes damage/decay of root cells. There is an internal pH (4-6) of plant root cells.

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Thats why, when pH remains 4.0 outside, plants can tolerate it. But below this, it will be harmful. 2. An unfavorable effect of low pH on the balance between the basic & acidic soil constituents available for absorption by plants: A certain balance exists between the acidic and basic nutrients which are available for adsorption by plants. At low pH, H+ ions are more available in soil solution whereas the basic cations at high pH. As dominant ions are uptaken by plants, H+ ions are taken up by plant at low pH, and it (excess H+ ions) changes the buffer capacity inside the plant, which disturbs various systems in the plant. And then the plant cant grow or will die. * Indirect effects: The indirect influence of soil pH on plant growth may be due to effects oni. availability of nutrient elements, ii. activity of microorganism, iii. toxicity of various substances due to high solubility, iv. physical condition of the soil, v. prevalence of plant disease vi. Competitive powers of different plant species. 1. Availability of nutrient elements: The main effect of soil reaction is on the availability of plant nutrients in the soil. The unproductiveness of acid or alkaline soils is very often due to the lack of available plant nutrients rather than to the acid or alkaline nature of the medium. Relationship existing in mineral soils between pH and the availability of plant nutrients are shown below:

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Figure: relationship existing in mineral soils between pH & the availability of plant nutrients.
# Nitrogen (N) The availability of N is controlled mainly by microbial activity. Plants absorb most of their N in the form of nitrate whose availability depends on the activity of nitrifying organisms. The microbial organisms responsible for nitrification are most active when the pH is between 6.5 and 7.5. They are adversely affected if the pH falls below 5.5 and are completely inactive if it is less than 4.0. Nitrification is also affected if the soil is very alkaline and pH greater than 9.0. The decomposition of organic matter which is the primary source of N is slow under highly acid conditions. Therefore, the available nitrogen becomes a limiting factor in soils that are highly acid or alkaline. # Ca & Mg The availability of these two nutrients is linked with the degree of base saturation and thus indirectly with reaction. The availability of these two nutrients cannot be increased unless calcium and magnesium compounds that can easily dissolve in soil solution and increase the

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concentration of Ca & Mg ions by replacing H+ ions in the colloidal complex are added to the soil. The quantity of available Ca & Mg increases with the rise in pH and hence their availability in alkaline soils, not exceeding pH 8.5, is always high. Above pH 8.5, the availability of these nutrients again decreases. # Phosphorus (P) The availability of P is at its highest when the reaction is between 6.0 and 7.0. When the reaction is above or below this range, availability is reduced. In the strongly acid range when the pH is less than 5.0, Fe, Al, Mn and similar other bases are usually present in a soluble state. The phosphate ions react with these bases and insoluble phosphates of these elements are precipitated and rendered unavailable. The phosphates also react with sesquioxides clay, i.e. hydrated oxides of Fe & Al such as limonite, gibbsite, etc, present in the soil, and form insoluble hydroxyphosphates of Fe & Al, e.g. Al(OH)2 H2PO4. In all these cases, the reaction leads to the fixation of available phosphate. Fixation of phosphate takes place even when the soil is alkaline, this time in combination with Ca & Mg. the phosphate ions react with Ca & Mg carbonates and form insoluble calcium & magnesium phosphates. The reaction may be represented as: 3Ca (HCO3)2 + 2H3PO4 Ca3(PO4)2 + 6H2CO3. Thus, in soils with pH 7.5 to 8.5, phosphate is present mainly as tricalcium phosphate and hence mostly unavailable for plant growth. When the pH is more than 8.5, the availability of phosphate again increase probably because of the formation of soluble sodium phosphate. # Potassium (K) The availability of K does not seem to be influenced by soil reaction to any appreciable extent. The availability of K does not depend on mineralization, but on the solubility of minerals. In acid soils, there is a risk of K being lost through leaching. In alkaline soils, particularly if the alkalinity is due to an excess of CaCO3 or is brought about by over liming, the solubility of soil K is depressed. But, at pH 6 or above it, K availability is best. # Sulfur(S) The availability of sulfur is not affected by soil reaction as sulfur compounds are soluble in the whole pH range. The availability of sulfur depends on the activity of sulfur-oxidizing and organic matter decomposing microorganisms. The sulfur-oxidizing bacteria are active over a wide range of pH normally met within soils. Hence, its availability is

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unimpaired by a change in soil reaction; pH 5.5 to 9.0 is the best range for S availability. # Fe, Al & Mn The availability of these nutrients is regulated by soil reaction to a marked degree. When the pH is low, the solubility of Fe, Al & Mn compounds is increased, and hence they are readily available in acid soils. In soils having pH ranging from 5.5 to 7.0 or even 7.5, the concentration of these nutrients in soil solution is significant to meet the requirement of most plant species. At this pH range, Fe & Mn are present in the Fe++ & Mn++ forms. At pH below 5.5, the solubility of these compounds is considerably increased with the result that they have a toxic influence on plant growth. Of the three, Mn goes into solution & becomes toxic much before Fe & Al. Under neutral and alkaline conditions, Fe & Mn are usually present in Fe+++ & Mn++++ states. Hence, in soils with pH 7.5 and above, they become unavailable. # Micronutrients (Cu, Zn) The availability of Cu decreases as the soil pH increase, its availability is also reduced under highly acid conditions. Though Cu is adsorbed by clay particles, a major portion of its soluble salts is leached out of the soil and thus becomes unavailable to plants. Zinc behaves very much like copper. Its availability is high in the moderately acid or neutral range, but decreases thereafter as alkalinity increases. # Molybdenum The availability of Mo is reduced under acid conditions. It is more available in neutral and alkaline (pH 6.5 and above) soils. In general, its solubility increases as the pH rises. # Boron The availability of B in the alkaline range decreases till the soil reaction reaches pH 8.5. Thereafter, it increases again. In the pH range 5.0 to 7.0, B availability is the best. In the pH range 7 to 8.5, the excess of calcium in solution has been found to hinder the entry of B into plant roots. The cause of this antagonism in soil is not known. The non-availability of B at low pH is mainly due to the leaching of its salts from the soil. As boron is not adsorbed by colloidal particles, it is easily lost in drainage.

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2. Activity of microorganisms: From the previous figure, it is found that most generalize bacteria and Actinomycetes function well at intermediate and high pH values. Fungi seem to be particularly versatile flourishing satisfactorily over a wide ph range. Therefore, fungal activity tends to predominate in acid soil. However, at intermediate and higher pH Actinomycetes and bacteria are strong competitions and tend to dominate the microbial activity. For bacteria, best pH is 5.5 & above at pH above 5.5 nitrification takes place in soil. 3. Toxicity of various substances due to high solubility: Solubility varies with soil pH. At low pH, some metals are solubilized in the soil solution, with the result that they have a toxic influence on plant growth. As plants require Fe, Mn, Al in very small amounts, their presence in soil solution in more than very low concentration exerts a toxic effect. Aluminium toxicity Aluminium causes several types of damage in plants. On the membranes of young root tips, Al can block the sites where Ca is normally taken in. Al binds very strongly with P and in so doing interferes with the metabolism of P-containing compounds essential for energy transfers (ATP) and genetic coding (DNA). Al also restricts cell wall expansion as it binds to pectins making the wall more rigid. Manganese toxicity Although not as widespread as Al-toxicity, Mn-toxicity is a serious problem for plants in certain acid soils with a high control of Mncontaining compounds/minerals. Unlike Al, Mn is an essential plant nutrient, but is toxic when taken up in excessive quantities. Like Al, Mn becomes increasingly soluble a pH drops, but in case of Mn, toxicity is common at pH level as high as 5.6 Plant species and genotypes within species vary widely with regard to their susceptibility to Mn-toxicity. Toxic effects of Mn include crinkling or cupping of leaves and splotches of chlorotic tissue. Iron toxicity Iron can become toxic to plants in the oxidized form at very low pH levels (usually <4.0), or if anaerobic conditions cause the iron to become reduced to the Fe (II) form, which is for more soluble than the oxidized from.

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Toxicity of reduced iron can be a problem in acid rice paddies. Again, plant species and strains vary widely with regard to their susceptibly to ion toxicity. Hydrogen ion toxicity At pH levels below 4.0 to 4.5, the H+ ions themselves are of sufficient concentration to be toxic to some plants, mainly by damaging the root membranes. Such low pH, even in the absence of high Al or Mn, has been found to kill certain beneficial soil bacteria such as the Rhizobium bacteria that help supply legume plants with nitrogen. Aluminium toxicity Al toxicity stands out as the most common and severe problem associated with acid soils. Not only plants are effected, many bacterial are also adversely impacted by the high levels of Al associated with low soil pH. Al appears to enter root cells passively by osmosis or with the flow of transpiration water, possibly through damaged membranes. 4. Physical condition of the soil: The reaction of the soil exerts an important influence on soil structure. As soil pH is governed by the nature of cations held by colloidal particles, the cations control the aggregation of colloidal clay, and hence soils reaction indirectly influences soil structure. A soil becomes deflocculated when its pH goes above 8.2, 8.3. Then the particles are dispersed, soil structure is broken down, pore space becomes closed, water percolation is decreased, and some other physical disturbances occur. At low pH, the properties of cementing agents, such as polysaccharides, get damaged but at pH 6 to 7, all conditions remain well. 5. Prevalence of plant diseases: Soil pH regulates the prevalence of plant diseases. Diseases are of two types- transmittable that caused by pathogen and non-transmittable caused by nutrient deficiency. Both are influenced indirectly by soil pH, e.g. Steptomyces scabese a soil borne pathogen responsible for sweet potato pox, favors the pH 4.3-4.8. But, if the ph is reduced to below 4.2, that pathogen cant survive. 6. Competitive powers of different plant species: Soil pH also affects the competitive powers of different plant species. For example, in acid soil, acid loving or acid tolerant plants can grow well whereas others cant grow. Fate of NH4+ in soil

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NH4+ volatilization Nitrification & Plant uptake. Classification of soil according to pH value (USDA): Category pH value 1. extremely acid Below 4.5 2. very strongly acid 4.5-5.0 3, strongly acid 5.1-5.5 4. medium acid 5.6-6.0 5. slightly acid 6.1-6.5 6. very slightly acid 6.7-6.9 7. neutral 6.6-7.3 8. Very mildly alkaline 7.1-7.2 9. mildly alkaline 7.4-7.8 10. moderately alkaline 7.9-8.4 11. strongly alkaline 8.5-9.0 12. very strongly alkaline 9.1 & Higher In some important case, more accurate values can be obtained. Biological effects of soil ph The pH of the soil solution is a critical environmental factor for the growth of all organisms that live in the soil, including plants, animals and microbes. The impacts of strong acidity include toxicities of Al, Mn & H, as well as deficiencies of Ca, Mg, Mo & P. * Factors affecting/controlling soil reaction/acidity Acidity & basicity of fertilizers Removal of basic cations Nature & concentration of soil solution Nature of soil colloids Climate & parent material Soil management (cultural practices)