I N B U I L D I N G E N V E L O P E S

BY CHRISTINE BEALL,NCARB,CCS
aterpenetrationthrougha
buildingenclosuredepends
onthesimultaneousoccur
renceofthreethings:
Thepresenceofwater.
Anopeningthroughwhichwater
canenter.
Aphysicalforcetomovethewater. Watercanbepresentasrain,melting snow,andsoilmoisture.Buildingshave openingsforegress,daylight,ventilation, andutilities,aswellasunintentionalgaps, voids,cracks,andjoints.Severalforces cancausewaterpenetrationthroughthese openings(Figure1): Gravity Aircurrents Capillarysuction Surfacetension Kineticenergy(momentum) Airpressure Hydrostaticpressure GravityJointsandopeningsin horizontalsurfacesareparticularlyvulner abletowaterpenetrationcausedbygravi ty. AirCurrentsRainoccurringinthe absenceofwind(orontheleewardsideof Figure1:Forcescausingwaterpenetrationthroughbuildingenclosures. abuilding)strikesonlythehorizontaland CapillarySuctionSmallcapillarypassages(lessthan slopingsurfacesofabuilding,whiletheverticalsurfacesstaydry. Raindrivenbywind,though,iscarriedatananglebytheair 1/8)inandbetweenexteriorbuildingmaterialscancreateasuc currentsandstrikesthewallsaswell.Windpatternscreate tionforcewhichdrawsinwater.Thesmallerthepassage,the swirlingcurrentsatthetopsandcornersofbuildings,increasing greatertheforceandthehigherthecapillarypotential.Amater thewettedareaattheselocations(Figure2).Thetopsandedges ialwithfinecapillarypassageswillattractandretainmorewater ofabuildingmaybesubjectedto20to30timesasmuchrain thanonewithlargercapillarypassages. wettingasthecenterportionofafacade.Thismeansthatpara SurfaceTensionWaterclingstoasurfacebysurface petwallsareatahigherriskofwinddrivenrainpenetrationthan tension.Waterthatisflowingdownthefaceofaverticalsurface anyotherelementofabuilding. willturnandfollowtheprofileofthesurfaceflowinghorizontal

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Groundwaterinthesoilexertshydrostaticpressureagainst abasementwaterproofingmembrane.Thedeeperthestruc ture,thegreaterthepressureexerted.Pondedwaterexerts gravitationalpressureonaroofmembrane,butalsoexerts hydrostaticpressureontheverticalflashingsandjoints. Continuoushydrostaticpressureplacesstringentrequire mentsonwaterproofingmembranesandwillcausefailureat evensmallflawsordiscontinuities.

PREVENTINGWATERPROBLEMS
Itisnotpossibletoeliminaterain,snow,andground waterortheforcesthatmovethem,anditisimpossibleor impracticaltoeliminatealloftheintentionalandinadver tentopeningsandpenetrationswhichoccurinabuilding enclosure.Itispossible,though,tomitigatethefactors whichcontributetowaterpenetrationbyapplyingthree basicmoistureprotectionstrategies. 1. Limitwaterpenetrationintoabuildingorbuilding enclosurewith: Barrierssuchasmembranesandjointsealants. Diversionssuchasslopingsurfacesandgutters. Screenssuchasprojectionsandbaffles. 2. Preventwateraccumulationbyproviding: Drainage. Drying/evaporation. Ventilation. 3. Neutralizethephysicalforcesthattransportwaterwith: Capillarybreaks. Drips. Protectedopenings. Rainscreens. LimitingWaterPenetration Figure2:Windincrementswettingatbuildingtopandcorners. lyontosoffitsandintocracks,jointsandopenings. KineticEnergy(Momentum) Themomentumof blowingrainwillcarryitdirectlythroughopenwindows,doors andjoints.Iftheopeningsaresmall,orifthetrajectoryofthe rainissuchthatitcannotenterdirectly,watercansplashinto openingsraindropscansplashfromasillthroughanopen windoworatticventorsplashintoajoint. AirPressureInadditiontotheforceofwinddriving rainagainstasurfaceandblowingitintoopenings,windalso createsairpressuredifferentialsacrossthebuildingenvelope. Thetotalairpressuredifferencebetweentheoutsideandthe insideofawallisproducedbythecombinedeffectsofwind, stackeffect,andmechanicalventilation.Windpressurehasthe mosteffectonrainpenetration.Theexactpressuredifferentialat anygivenpointonawallorroofwillvarydependingonthe locationwithrespecttothewinddirectionandtheshapeofthe building.Pressuredifferencesonawallcanforcewaterthrough evenmicroscopicopeningsinabuildingenvelopethroughasort ofpumpingaction,andwindpressurecanevendrivewater uphill. HydrostaticPressureBothstandingwaterandground watercanexerthydrostaticpressureagainstabuildingenvelope. Itisdifficulttoeliminatewaterpenetrationbutrelatively simpletolimitit.Continuousroofingandwaterproofingmem branesformbarrierstopreventwaterpenetrationthroughcracks andopeningsandintoporoussurfaces.Theeffectivenessof thesebarriers,however,dependsonmembranecontinuity,the integrityofseamsandjoints,andproperlydetailedflashingat perimetersandpenetrations.Elastomericsealantspreventwater penetrationthroughlargejoints,butinstallationmustbenear perfecttoformacompletebarrier. Waterpenetrationcanbelimitedbydivertingtheflowof waterasitcrossesthebuildingenclosure.Slopedsurfaces,for example,areeffectiveindrainingwaterquicklyfromaroof,cop ing,orsillsothatithaslessopportunitytopenetratethrough cracksorimperfections.Consideringtheinaccuracyofthecon structionprocessandtheanticipatedtolerancesinerectingand assemblingbuildingcomponents,mostflatsurfacesactually slopeinonedirectionoranotherandtheunintendedslopecan easilybeinadirectionwhichcollectsratherthanshedswater. Waterpenetrationcanalsobelimitedbyreducingthe amountofwaterthatstrikesbuildingsurfacesandjoints.Over hangsandprojectionscanprotectwallsandopeningsfromrain; louverscanshieldanatticvent;bafflesorbattenstripscanblock joints;andgutterswithdownspoutscandirectwaterawayfrom foundationwalls.

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Figure3:Shieldsandlabyrinthskeepwateroutofjoints. Preventing WaterAccumulation Waterthatpenetratesabuildingenclosuremaynotnecessari lycausedamageifitcanbedrainedordriedquickly.Flashing andweepholesareusedinmanydifferentkindsofbuildingsys temstocollectanddrainwaterthathaspenetratedtheexterior surface.Porousmaterialscanbeprotectedfromexcessivesurface absorptionwithcoatingsorwaterrepellenttreatments,anddry ingcanbeexpeditedbyallowingaircirculationbehindthe cladding. NeutralizingForces Toresistwaterpenetrationcausedby gravityflow,particularattentionmustbe paidtohorizontalsurfaces.Wallcapsor copingsshouldbeslopedtoshedwater, andthejointssealedwithahigh performancesealant.Roofsshouldslopeto drains,scuppers,oroverhangs.Window sillsandotherprojectionsshouldbe slopedtotheoutsidesothatwaterwillrun off.Aminimum15degreeslopeisgener allyrecommendedforsills. Topreventrainpenetrationcausedby thekineticenergyormomentumofthe rain,roofoverhangsandprojectionssuch asbalconiesandporchesprovidemuch thesameprotectionasanumbrella,inter ceptingtheraindropsbeforetheystrike thewallsurface.Similarly,ashieldinfront ofanopeningwillstoptherain.Ashield canbeincorporatedinthejointsbetween componentsofthecladdingsuchasabat tenstriponverticalwoodsiding,orthe jointitselfcanbeshapedorbaffledto avoidastraightthroughopening(Figure3). Itisnotnecessaryforthesedevicestobe sealedtightlytopreventthemomentum oftherainfromcarryingitthroughthe opening,sosmallimperfectionsareoflit tleconsequence. Topreventthepenetrationofwater causedbysurfacetension,thesurfacepro fileshouldbedesignedtobreakthesurface

tensionandforcewatertodripoff.Sincewater cannotflowupwardwithoutsomeforcebeing applied,asharpchangeindirectiontoanother verticalsurfacewillcausethewatertocollect untilitsweightissufficientthatgravityover comesthesurfacetension,andthewaterdrips downward.Figure4 showsseveralexamplesof dripprofilesordripsthatcanbeincorporated inmasonry,precast,EIFS,andstuccosystems. Capillarysuctioncanbeeliminatedby interruptingthepassageswithasheetmaterial suchasmetalflashingorawaterproofing membrane.Capillarysuctioncanalsobeelimi natedbyintroducinganairgapintothemois turepath(Figure5).Airgaps,drainagecavities, andgravelbedsareeffectivecapillarybarriers commonlyusedindrainagetypewallsystemssuchasmasonry cavitywalls,underfloorslabs,andadjacenttobasementwalls. Airgapsinverticalwallsorjointscanalsoserveasdrainage channelstodirectpenetratedwaterbacktotheoutside. Topreventthepenetrationofrainblownagainstabuilding byaircurrents,openingsintheenclosuremustbeshieldedina mannersimilartothatdiscussedunderkineticenergyforces. Roofoverhangsprotectthetopsofwalls,balconyandporch

Figure4:Dripsbreaksurfacetension.

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projectionsshielddooropenings,andawningtypewindows allownaturalventilationwhileshieldingtheopeningfromblow ingrain.Similarly,ashieldincorporatedinthejointsbetween componentsofthecladdingintheformofbafflesorsplineswill

preventrainfromblowingintotheopening. Equalizingthepressuredifferentialsontwooppositesidesof awallstopsrainpenetrationcausedbyairpressure.Pressure equalizationrequiresanairchamberbetweentheinsideandout sidefaceoftheenclosurethatcanbesealed againstairleakageatthesidesandatthe insideplane.Pressureequalizationprinciples werefirstdevelopedforuseinthecurtain wallindustry,buthavebeenadaptedwith varyingdegreesofsuccesstoothercladding systems. Windpressurecanalsodrivewater throughopeningsandupaverticalsurface. Wherewindpressurescannotbeequalized,a backdamorflashingoverlapmustbeofsuffi cientheighttocontainthiswater,depending ontheexpectedwindspeedandpressure. Hydrostaticpressureleakscanbeprevent edbyawaterproofbarriermembraneand belowgradedrainage.Thehydrostaticpres surecanberelievedwithapermeable drainagematorgravellayeradjacenttobase mentwallsandbelowslabs(Figure6).

BARRIERS,DRAINS,ANDRAIN SCREENS
Thedesignconceptswhichincorporate oneormoreofthesethreebasicmoisture protectionstrategiesarebarriersystems, drainagesystems,andrainscreensystems. Barriersystemsattempttolimitthenumberof openingsinabuildingenvelope.Drainage systemslimittheamountofwaterthatcan accumulatebycontrollingitsflow.Rain screensneutralizesomeoftheprimaryforces whichmovewaterthroughtheenclosure. Figure5:Capillarybreakspreventsuction. BarrierSystems Barriersystemsarealsosometimes referredtoasfacesealorprime sealmethodsofmoistureprotection. Barriersystemsarecommonlyusedin roofing,belowgradewaterproofing, EIFS,architecturalprecastcladding, andmetalbuildingsystems(Figure7). Barriersystemsrelyexclusivelyonan airandwatersealattheexterior weatheringsurface.Allexteriorjoints andopeningsmustbeperfectly sealedorwaterwillenterandbe trappedinsidethewall.Toexpect suchperfectionisunrealisticbecause abuildingthatreliesonjointsealants andsurfacetreatmentsasitsfirstand onlylineofdefensewilleventually leak. Barriersystemsareunforgivingof evenminorerrorsindesignorinstal

Figure6:Hydrostaticpressurerelief.

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Figure7:Rainbarriertypesystems. lation.Exteriorsealsaredifficulttoachieveandmaintainbecause ofexpansionandcontractionandlongtermexposuretoultra violetradiation.Interstitialcondensationfrominteriormoisture sourcescanalsobeaproblemsincebarriersystemsdonotincor porateanymethodofventingordrainage.Barriersystemsare theleastexpensivemethodofprovidinginitialweatherresis tance,buttheyrequirefrequentmaintenanceofsealantjointsto assuresatisfactoryperformance. DrainageSystems Drainagesystemsincorporateacavityormem branebehindtheexteriorweatheringsurfaceto collectmoisturewhichmaypenetratetheouter plane.Thecavityisthendrainedofpenetrated waterbyflashingand/orweeps(Figure8).Drainage systemscanbeusedinmasonry,precastconcrete, stucco,metalroofsandmetalwindows.Drainage systemsprovideredundantprotectionwherethe exteriorskinstopsmostoftheincidentrainbut doesnothavetofunctionasaperfectbarrier.The internalcollectionanddrainagesystemprovidesa secondlineofdefenseandpreventswaterfrom penetratingtotheinterior.Drainagesystemsare generallymoreexpensivethanbarriersystems,but whenproperlydesignedandconstructed,they requirelessmaintenance,havealongerexpected servicelife,andprovideahigherlevelofprotection againstwaterpenetration. Drainagesystemsaremoreforgivingthanbarri ersystemsbutcanstillexperiencewaterpenetra tionproblemsiftheflashingandweepsarenot adequatelydesignedandinstalled. Rain Screen Systems Rainscreensystemscreateapressureequalized cavitybehindthecladdingandmustincludeastruc

Figure8:Drainagetypesystems. turallysupportedairbarrier,asealedandcompartmentedair chamber,adequatedrains,andexternalvents.Windpressureis transmittedtothecavitythroughdrainandventholes,whilean airbarrierandsealedcompartmentsconfinethecavitypressure andpreventairfrommovingtothebuildinginteriororaround corners(Figure9).

Figure9:Rainscreensystemconcept.

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Asaruleofthumb,intentionalopeningsintheouterwall shouldbetentimestheareaoftheunintentionalopeningsinthe airbarrier.Theforceproducingrainpenetrationandthequanti tyofwaterpenetratingtheexteriorsurfaceisthusreducedto aboutonetenthofwhatitwouldhavebeen.Theairchamber mayalsoserveasadrainagecavityforcollectingpenetrated wateranddirectingitbacktotheoutside. Rainscreensarehighperformancewallsystems.Theypro videmultiplelayersofprotectionbylimitingwaterpenetration, collectinganddrainingpenetratedwater,andmovingtheprima ryairsealfromtheweatheringsurfaceofthewalltoaprotected locationwithinthewall.Rainscreensystemsaremoreexpensive thanbarrieranddrainagewallsystems,buttheyalsohavethe lowestmaintenanceandthehighestsafetyfactorinprotecting againstwaterinfiltration. Combining ProtectiveStrategies Inreality,manyenclosuresystemsuseacombinationof methodstoresistwaterpenetration.Abuildingmightconsistof barriermembranewaterproofingbelowgradewithadrainage mediumprovidedasacapillarybreaktohydrostaticpressure;a slopingrooftoshedsnowandrain;apressureequalizedalu minumcurtainwallsystem;andamasonrycavitywallwithflash ingandweepsfordrainage.Acombinationofprotective strategiescanbeselectedbasedonthetypeofbuildingandits occupancyrequirements,theseverityofmacroandmicro environmentalexposure,andappropriatenessforthetypeof buildingsystemunderconsideration.

**ThisarticleisbasedonmaterialfromMs.Beallsbook ThermalandMoistureProtectionManual (McGrawHill,1999), reprintedherewithpermission.

REFERENCES
Allen,Edward,ArchitecturalDetailing:Function,Constructability, Aesthetics,NewYork,JohnWiley&Sons,1993. Lstiburek,JosephandJohnCarmody,MoistureControlHandbook, NewYork:VanNostrandReinhold,1993. Quirouette,R.L.RainPenetrationControl,TheConstruction Specifier,(November1994),pp.4856. AmericanArchitecturalManufacturersAssociation,Aluminum CurtainWallDesignGuideManual,Palatine,Illinois,AAMA, 1979. Beall,Christine,MasonryDesignandDetailing, 4thed.,NewYork: McGrawHill,1997.

ABOUT

THE

AUTHOR

ChristineBeall isaconsultingarchitectfromLakeMcQueeney, Texas,whospecializesinproblemsofarchitecturaldetailing,speci fications,claddingsystems,andmoistureprotection.Shehaswrit tenextensivelyonavarietyofdesignandconstructiontopics,and haspublishedseveralbooksincludingtheThermalandMoisture ProtectionManual onwhichthisarticleisbased.Christineisamem berofASTM,TheMasonrySociety,andtheAssociationfor PreservationTechnology.ShehasbeenaspeakeratnumerousRCI functions,includingtheMarch2000RCIconventioninReno.Visit herwebsiteatwww.christinebeall.com.

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