BDA 30803 Notes (Student Version - Printable) Sem 2 2012 - 2013 PDF

BDA 30803 - Mechanical Engineering Design
(Lecture Slides)
Semester I 2013 / 2014
FACULTY OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
Course Coordinator : MR. MOHD AZWIR BIN AZLAN
Lecturer :
1) Mr. Mohd Azwir bin Azlan
(S1, S2 & S3 BDA 30803) ; (S1 BDA 3083)

2) Dr. Sia Chee Kiong
(S4, S5 & S6 BDA 30803)

Lampiran A
RPP-04 / Prosedur Perlaksanaan Kuliah
Edisi: 3 / No. Semakan: 0

PERANCANGAN KULIAH
LECTURE PLAN

MAKLUMAT MATA PELAJARAN (COURSE INFORMATION)

SEMESTER / SESI (SEMESTER / SESSION)

: I / 2013 - 2014
KOD MATA PELAJ ARAN (COURSE CODE)

: BDA 30803 / BDA 3083
NAMA MATA PELAJ ARAN (COURSE NAME)

: REKABENTUK KEJ URUTERAAN
MEKANIKAL /
(MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN)
BEBAN AKADEMIK PELAJ AR (COURSE
ACADEMIC LOAD)

:
Aktiviti Pembelajaran
(Learning Activity)
Minggu
(Week)
Jam / Minggu
(Hours / Week)
Bilangan Jam /
Semester
(Hours / Semester)
Kuliah (Lecture)
14 3 42
Tutorial (Tutorial)
0 0 0
Amali (Practical)
0 0 0
Pembelajaran Kendiri (Independent Study)
14 3 42
Lain-lain (Others)
1. Projek (Project)
2. Tugasan (Assignment)

32
4
JUMLAH JAM BELAJAR (JJB)
TOTAL STUDENT LEARNING TIME (SLT)
120

Matapelajaran Pra-syarat (Pre requisite courses) : BDA 10203 Statik / Statics
BDA 20103 Dinamik / Dynamics
BDA 30303 Mekanik Pepejal II / Solid Mechanics II
BDA 20402 Pemilihan Bahan / Material Selection

Nama Pensyarah (Lecturers name)

: Mr. Mohd Azwir Azlan - coordinator
(S1, S2 & S3 BDA 30803) (S1 BDA 3083)

Dr. Sia Chee Kiong
(S4, S5, & S6 BDA 30803)

Disediakan oleh (Prepared by) :

Tandatangan (Signature) :

Nama (Name) : MOHD AZWIR BIN AZLAN

Tarikh (Date) : 19
th
August 2013

Disahkan oleh (Approved by) :

Tandatangan (Signature) :

Nama (Name) : Dr. NUR AZAM
BADARULZAMAN

Tarikh (Date) : 19
th
August 2013

UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA

FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN MEKANIKAL DAN PEMBUATAN
Lampiran A

MATLAMAT (GOALS) :

Matlamat kursus ini adalah untuk menyediakan para pelajar dengan keupayaan untuk mengaplikasi, menganalisis dan
merekabentuk komponen mesin yang lazim seperti, aci, galas, giar dan skru yang menekankan kepada kekuatan,
ketegaran, kegagalan statik dan lesu.

The goal of this course is to provide the student with the capability to apply, analyze and design of standard machine
components such as shaft, bearing, gears and screws etc. which are emphasized on strength, rigidity, static and
fatigue failure.

SINOPSIS (SYNOPSIS) :

Kursus ini terdiri daripada analisis, sintesis dan reka bentuk bagi komponen mekanikal asas dan kompleks iaitu galas,
aci, giar, sambungan kekal dan tidak kekal, spring, skru dan pengikat dengan mengambil kira faktor kekuatan,
ketegaran, keboleharapan serta kegagalan statik dan lesu.

This course consists of analysis, synthesis and design basic and complex mechanical component i.e. bearings, shafts,
gears, permanent and non permanent joining, springs, screw and fastener with consideration of strength, rigidity,
reliability, static and fatigue failure.

HASIL PEMBELAJARAN (LEARNING OUTCOMES) :

Di akhir kursus ini, pelajar dapat :

Mengira faktor keselamatan dengan menggunakan teori-teori kegagalan statik dan lesu. (C3, LO1)
Menganalisa beberapa komponen mesin (iaitu gear, aci dan galas) yang berfungsi dalam satu sistem
mekanikal atau mesin. (C4, LO10)
Mencari sumber maklumat yang paling sesuai bagi pemilihan komponen dalam projek reka bentuk. (A3,
LO6)
Menghasilkan model dan simulasi dengan menggunakan perisian kejuruteraan untuk pengesahan reka
bentuk projek. (P4, LO2)

After completing this course, the students are able to:

Calculate factor of safety by using static and fatigue failure of theories. (C3, LO1)
Analyze several machine component (i.e. gears, shafts and bearing) that function in one mechanical system
or machine. (C4, LO10)
Seek for the most appropriate information source for component selection in the design project. (A3, LO6)
Produce model and simulate by using engineering software for project design validation. (P4, LO2)

ISI KANDUNGAN (CONTENT) :

MINGGU
(WEEK)
KANDUNGAN
(CONTENT)
PENTAKSIRAN
(ASSESSMENT)

W1

(9
th
~13
th

Sept 2013)

1.0 PENGENALAN KEPADA PROSES REKABENTUK
(INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN PROCESS) ---- (1 hours)

1.1 Definisi Rekabentuk (Design Definition)
1.2 Rekabentuk Kejuruteraan Mekanikal (Mechanical Engineering Design)
1.3 Proses Rekabentuk (Design Process)
1.4 Sumber Rujukan dan Peralatan Rekabentuk (Design Tools and
Resources)

Lampiran A

1.5 Tanggungjawab Professional J urutera Rekabentuk (Design
Engineers Professional Responsibilities)
1.6 Kod dan Piawaian (Standards and Codes)
1.7 Ekonomik (Economics)

2.0 ANALISIS DAN SINTESIS (ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS) ---- (2 hours)

2.1 Kekuatan dan Kekerasan Bahan (Material Strength and Stiffness)
2.2 Keseimbangan dan GBB (Equilibrium and FBD)
2.3 J enis-J enis Daya(Types of Load)
2.4 Tegasan (Stress)
2.5 Prinsip Tegasan untuk Tegasan Satah (Principle Stress for Plane Stress)
2.6 Bulatan Mohr bagi Tegasan Satah (Mohrs Circle for aPlane Stress)
2.7 Asas Tegasan 3 Dimensi (General 3 Dimensional Stress)
2.8 Tegasan Tertabur Seragam(Uniformly Distributed Stresses)
2.9 Tegasan Normal pada Rasuk akibat Lenturan (Normal Stress for Beam
in Bending)
2.10 Tegasan Ricih pada Rasuk akibat Lenturan (Shear Stress for Beam in
Bending)
2.11 Kilasan (Torsion)
2.12 Penumpuan Tegasan (Stress Concentration)

Ujian 1 (1
st
Test)

W2

(16
th
~20
th

Sept 2013)

3.0 TEORI-TEORI KEGAGALAN REKABENTUK STATIK (STATIC
DESIGN FAILURE OF THEORIES) ---- (3 hours)

3.1 Pengenalan (Introduction)
3.2 Kenapa Perlu Teori Kegagalan (Why Need Failure Theories)
3.3 Teori Kegagalan Statik (Static Failure Theories)
3.4 Teori Tegasan Ricih Maksimum(Maximum Shear Stress Theory)
3.5 Teori Tenaga Herotan (Distortion Energy Theory)
3.6 Teori Column-Mohr (Column-Mohr Theory)
3.7 Teori Tegasan Normal Maksimum(Maximum Normal Stress Theory)
3.8 Teori Pengubahsuaian Column-Mohr (Modification of Mohr Theory)

Tugasan 1
(1
st
Assignment),
Ujian 1 (1
st
Test)

W3 & W4

(23
rd
Sept ~
4
th
Oct
2013)

4.0 TEORI-TEORI KEGAGALAN BAGI REKABENTUK LESU
(FATIGUE DESIGN FAILURE OF THEORIES) ---- (6 hours)

4.1 Pengenalan kepada Lesu (Introduction to Fatigue)
4.2 Kegagalan dan Beban Lesu (Fatigue Load and Failure)
4.3 Hayat dan Kekuatan Lesu (Life and Fatigue Strength)
4.4 Rajah S-N (S-N Diagram)
4.5 Had Ketahanan (Endurance Limits)
4.6 Faktor Berubah Had Ketahanan (Endurance Limit Modifying Factors)
4.7 Penumpuan Tegasan dan Kepekaan Takuk (Stress Concentration and
Notch Sensitivity)
4.8 Kekuatan Lesu (Fatigue Strength)
4.9 Ciri-ciri Tegasan Berulang (Characterizing Fluctuating stressess)
4.10 Kombinasi Mod Beban (Combination of Loading Modes)
4.11 Faktor Keselamatan (Safety Factor)

Tugasan 2
(2
nd
Assignment),
Ujian 1 (1
st
Test)

W5 W7

(7
th
~25
th

Oct 2013)

5.0 GEAR (GEAR) ---- (9 hours)

5.1 Pengenalan: tatanama, jenis-jenis giar dan kengunaannya
(Introduction: terminology, types of gears and its application)
5.2 Pembinaan Giar (Construction of gears)

Projek
berkumpulan
(Group Project),
Ujian 2 (2
nd
Test)

Lampiran A

5.3 Sistem Gigi (Tooth systems)
5.4 Nisbah Giar (Gear ratio)
5.5 Barisan gear (Gear train)
5.6 Analisis Daya pada Gigi (Gear Tooth Analysis)
5.7 Analisis Lenturan Gigi Giar (Gear Tooth Bending Analysis)
5.8 Analisis Kehausan Gigi Giar (Gear Tooth Wear Analysis)
5.9 Faktor Keselamatan (Factor of Safety)

PROJEK REKABENTUK (DESIGN PROJECT)

Pembahagian Kumpulan, Penerangan Ringkas Projek Rekabentuk.
(Group distribution, Short Briefing of Design Project)

UJIAN 1 (1
st
TEST) ---- (1.5 hours) (08/10/2013 ; 8:00 9:30 pm)

W8

(28
th
Oct ~
1
st
Nov
2013)

6.0 REKABENTUK ACI (SHAFT DESIGN) ---- (3 hours)

6.2 Bahan-Bahan Aci (Shaft Materials)
6.3 Aturan pada Aci (Shaft Layout)
6.4 Rekabentuk Aci untuk Tegasan (Shaft Design for Stress)
6.5 Had dan Padanan (Limits and Fits)

Projek
berkumpulan
(Group Project),
Ujian 2 (2
nd
Test)

W9

(11
th
~15
th

Nov 2013)

7.0 GALAS (BEARING) ---- (3 hours)

7.2 J enis-J enis Galas (Bearing Types)
7.3 Perletakan dan Pemasangan galas (Bearing Mounting and Enclosures)
7.4 Hayat Galas (Bearing Life)
7.5 Hayat Galas Berbeban Pada Kadar Keboleharapan (Bearing Load,
Life at Rated Reliability)
7.6 Perhubungan Hayat, Beban dan Keboleharapan (Relating Load, Life
and Reliability)
7.7 Kombinasi Beban J ejarian dan Paksi (Combined Radial and Thrust
Loading)
7.8 Pelinciran (Lubrication)

UJIAN 2 (2
nd
Test) ---- (2.5 hours) (12/11/2013 ; 8:00 10:30 pm)

Projek
berkumpulan
(Group Project),
Ujian 3 (3
rd
Test)

W10
W12

(18
th
Nov ~
6
th
Dec
2013)

8.0 PENYAMBUNGAN SEMENTARA
(NON-PERMANENT JOINTS) ---- (9 hours)

8.2 Definasi dan piawaian bebenang (Thread standard and definition)
8.3 Mekanik skru kuasa (The mechanic of power screw)
8.4 Bebenang pengikat (Threaded fasteners)
8.5 Penyambung: Kekukuhan pengikat (Joints: Fastener stiffness)
8.6 Penyambung: Kekukuhan anggota (Joints: Member stiffness)
8.7 Kekuatan bolt (Bolt strength)
8.8 Ketegangan sambungan : Beban luaran (Tension joints : The
external load)

Ujian 3 (3
rd
Test)

Lampiran A

8.9 Perkaitan daya kilas bolt dengan ketegangan bolt
(Relating bolt torque to bolt tension)
8.10 Ketegangan sambungan beban statik berserta pra beban
(Statically loaded tension joint with preload)
8.11 Sambungan gasket (Gasketed joints)
8.12 Beban lesu pada ketegangan sambungan
(Fatigue loading of tension joints)
8.13 Bolt dan penyambungan rivet dibebankan dalam ricihan
(Bolted and riveted joints loaded in shear)

W13
W14

(9
th
~20
th

Dec 2013)

9.0 PENYAMBUNGAN KEKAL (PERMANENT JOINTS) ---- (6 hours)

9.1 Simbol Kimpalan (Welding symbol)
9.2 Tegasan pada Penyambungan Kimpalan di dalam Kilasan dan
Lenturan (Stresses in Welded Joint in Torsion and Bending)
9.3 Kekuatan Penyambungan Kimpalan (The Strength of Welded Joints)
9.4 Beban Statik dan Lesu (Satic and Fatigue loading)

UJIAN 3 (3
rd
Test) ---- (2.0 hours) (12/12/2013 ; 8:00 10:00 pm)

PENGHANTARAN LAPORAN PROJEK REKABENTUK
(SUBMISSION OF DESIGN PROJECT REPORT 20
th
Dec 2013)

Laporan Akhir
Projek (Final
Project report)

TUGASAN / PROJEK (ASSIGNMENT / PROJECT) :

Projek rekabentuk merupakan antara aspek penting di dalam kursus ini. Ia membawa pemberat bernilai 40% di
mana ianya bertujuan untuk memenuhi kehendak Universiti yang menawarkan pengajaran dan pembelajaran
berkualiti berpusatkan pelajar dengan melaksanakan aktiviti PBL (Problem Based Learning).
Projek ini akan dijalankan di dalam kumpulan di mana setiap kumpulan mempunyai ahli antara 3 hingga 5 orang
pelajar. Projek ini berhubungkait dengan merekabentuk sebuah kotak transmisi yang bersesuaian yang akan
digunakan pada sebuah mesin. Pelajar perlu menganalisis semua komponen-komponen mekanikal di dalam sistem
gearbox/transmisi seperti aci, galas dan giar dari segi kekuatan, keselamatan statik dan lesu, keboleharapan,
pergerakan dinamik, jangka hayat dan lain-lain seperti apa yang telah dipelajari dalam teori bagi meramalkan
sistem fizikal dan tingkah laku sebenar produk. Kemudian, pelajar perlu membuat pemodelan 3D rekabentuk
tersebut beserta dengan lukisan kejuruteraannya dengan menggunakan perisian CAD yang bersesuaian.

Design project is one of the important aspects in this course where it brings 40% of marks. This design project is target to
meet the requirements of the University which offer high quality learning through student-centered learning by implementation
of a PBL (Problem Based Learning) activity.
The project will be carried out in groups where each group has 3 to 5 members. In this project, students have to design an
appropriate gearbox that will apply to a machine. Students must analyze all mechanical components inside the gearbox /
transmission system such as shaft, bearing and gears in term of their strength, static and fatigue safety, reliability, dynamic
motion, life estimation and others like what have been learned in the theory to predict the real physical system and product
behaviour. Then students also need to make a 3D model of their design include with the engineering drawing by using suitable
CAD software.
Lampiran A

PENILAIAN (ASSESSMENT) :

1. Kuiz (Quiz) : 0 %
2. Tugasan (Assignment) : 10 %
3. Ujian 1 (Test 1) : 10 %
4. Ujian 2 (Test 2) : 20 %
5. Ujian 3 (Test 3) : 20 %
5. Projek (Project)
Laporan Akhir (Final Report) 35 %
Kemahiran Insaniah (Soft Skill) 5 %
: 40 %
6. Peperiksaan Akhir
(Final Examination)
: 0 %
Jumlah (Total) : 100 %

RUJUKAN (REFERENCES) :

1. BDA 30803 Lecturer notes
2. Shigley, J. E., Mischke, C. R. & Budynas, R. G., (2010), Mechanical Engineering Design, Ninth Edition,
McGraw Hill.
3. Hamrock, Bernard J., Steven R. Schmid, Bo O. Jacobson, (2005), Fundamentals of Machine Elements,
2nd Edition, Boston: McGraw-Hill,

Lampiran A

KEHADIRAN / PERATURAN SEMASA KULIAH (LECTURE ATTENDANCE / REGULATION)
(1) Pelajar mesti hadir tidak kurang dari 80% masa pertemuan yang ditentukan bagi sesuatu mata pelajaran
termasuk mata pelajaran Hadir Wajib (HW) dan mata pelajaran Hadir Sahaja (HS).
Students must attend lectures not less than 80% of the contact hours for every subject including
Compulsory Attendance Subjects (Hadir Wajib HW) and Attendance Only Subjects (Hadir Sahaja
HS).

(2) Pelajar yang tidak memenuhi perkara (1) di atas tidak dibenarkan menghadiri kuliah dan menduduki
sebarang bentuk penilaian selanjutnya. Markah sifar (0) akan diberikan kepada pelajar yang gagal
memenuhi perkara (1). Manakala untuk mata pelajaran Hadir Wajib (HW), pelajar yang gagal memenuhi
perkara (1) akan diberi Hadir Gagal (HG).
Students who do not fulfill (1) will not be allowed to attend further lectures and sit for any further
examination. Zero mark (0) will be given to students who fail to comply with (1). While for Compulsory
Attendance Subjects (Hadir Wajib HW), those who fail to comply with (1) will be given Failure
Attendance (Hadir Gagal HG).

(3) Pelajar perlu mengikut dan patuh kepada peraturan berpakaian yang berkuatkuasa dan menjaga disiplin diri
masing-masing untuk mengelakkan dari tindakan tatatertib diambil terhadap pelajar.
Students must obey all rules and regulations of the university and must discipline themselves in order to
avoid any disciplinary actions against them.

(4) Pelajar perlu mematuhi peraturan keselamatan semasa pengajaran dan pembelajaran.
Student must obey safety regulations during learning and teaching process.

MATRIK HASIL PEMBELAJARAN KURSUS DAN HASIL PEMBELAJARAN PROGRAM (COURSE
LEARNING OUTCOMES AND PROGRAMME LEARNING OUTCOMES MATRIX)

Dilampirkan (Attached)

Faculty: Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering
Programme:
Course: Mechanical Engineering Design
Code: BDA 30803
No
PLO
1
PLO
2
PLO
3
PLO
4
PLO
5
PLO
6
PLO
7
PLO
8
PLO
9
PLO
10
PLO
11
PLO
12
PLO
13
Delivery Assessment KPI

C3

C4

A3

P4

x x - - - x - - - x - - -
P1 Perception C1 Remembering A1 Receiving
P2 Set C2 Understanding A2 Responding
P3 Guided Response C3 Applying A3 Valuing
P4 Mechanism C4 Analyzing A4 Organising
P5 Complex Overt Response C5 Evaluating A5 Internalising
Revised date: 21/03/2013 P6 Adaptation C6 Creating
Prepared by: MOHD AZWIR BIN AZLAN P7 Origination
Course Learning Outcome, Delivery and Assessment Template
4
Assignment,Test,
Project
Compliance to PLO
Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering with Honours
6
Course Learning Outcomes
Seek for the most appropriate information source for component
selection in the design project. (A3, LO6)
Total
Psychomotor Affective
Level of Learning Taxonomy
Cognitive
5
Analyze several machine components (i.e. gears, shafts and
bearing) that function in one mechanical system or machine. (C4,
LO10)
Calculate factor of safety by using static and fatigue failure of
theories. (C3, LO1)
Assignment,Test,
Project
PBL
Lecture, Case
Study, PBL
1
2
3
Lecture, Case
Study, PBL
100% of students must
get 40% of marks and
above
above
Project
Produce model and simulate by using engineering software for
project design validation. (P4, LO2)
PBL
above
above
Project
C3
A3
P4
C4
Chapter 1
Introduction to Engineering Design
Prepared by: Mohd Azwir Bin Azlan
Department of Material and Engineering Design,
Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering,
University of Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) Johor.
BDA 30803 Notes Mechanical Engineering Design
Week 1
2
BDA 30803 Mechanical Engineering Design
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this topic, the students would be able to apply
and appreciate the knowledge to:
understand the basic principles of mechanical engineering
and its applications in engineering design.
recognize the approach and the process of engineering
design.
practice standards and codes, ethics and professionalism of
mechanical engineer.
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Engineering Design
3 Department of Material and Engineering Design,
What you will be learn here?
1.1 - Design Definition
1.2 - Mechanical Engineering Design
1.3 - Design Process
1.4 - Design Tools and Resources
1.5 - Design Engineers Professional Responsibilities
1.6 - Standards and Codes
1.7 - Economics
1.1 Design Definition
Word design is derived from the Latin designare, which
means to designate, or mark out.
Websters gives several definitions, to outline, plot, or
plan, as action or workto conceive, invent contrive.
To design is either to formulate a plan for satisfaction of
a specified need or to solve a problem.
Design is an innovative and highly iterative process. It is
also a decision making process.
1.2 - Mechanical Engineering Design
Mechanical engineering design involves all disciplines of
mechanical engineering.
Examples:
A simple journal bearing involves fluid flow, heat transfer, friction,
energy transport, material selection, thermomechanical
treatments, and so on.
Recognition of Need
Often consist highly creative act,
because the need may be only a
vague discontent, a feeling of
uneasiness, or a something is not
right.
Usually triggered by a particular
adverse circumstance or a set of
random circumstances that arises
almost simultaneously.
Recognition of need
Definition of Problem
Is more specific and must include
all the specifications for the object
that is to be designed.
The specifications are the input
and output quantities, the
characteristics and dimensions of
the space the object must occupy,
and all the limitations on these
quantities.
Definition of Problem
Synthesis
The combination of ideas into a
complex whole.
Is sometimes called the invention
of the concept or concept design.
Generate concept variant
concept concept selection
concept improvement detailing
concept.
Synthesis
Analysis and Optimization
Construct or devise abstract
models of the system that will
admit some form of mathematical
analysis.
Carry out to simulate or predict
real physical system very well.
Analysis and Optimization
Evaluation
Is the final proof of a successful
design and usually involves the
testing of a prototype in the
laboratory.
Intent to discover if the design
really satisfies the needs.
Is it reliable? Will it compete
successfully with similar products?
Is it economical to manufacture
and to use? Is it environmental
friendly?
Evaluation
Presentation
Presentation is a selling job.
When designers sell a new idea, they
also sell themselves. If they are
repeatedly successful in selling ideas,
designs and new solutions to
management, they begin to receive
salary increases and promotions; in
fact, this is how anyone succeeds in
their profession.
Undoubtedly, many great designs,
inventions and creative works, have
been simple lost because the
originators were unable to explain their
accomplishment to others.
Presentation
1.4 - Design Tools and Resources
Today engineer has a great variety of tools and resources available to
assist in the solution of design problems:-
Computational Tools
CAD (Computer Aided Design) AutoCAD, I-Deas, SolidWorks, ProEngineer
CAE (Computer Aided Engineering) Cosmos, Algor, Fluent, ADAMS
CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) MasterCam, UniGraphic, SolidCAM
Acquiring Technical Information
Libraries Encyclopaedia, Monographs, Handbooks, J ournals
Government sources U.S. Patent and Trademarks Office, SIRIM
Professional societies ASME, SAE, SME, ASTM, AWS
Commercial vendors Catalogs, Test data, Samples, Cost information
Internet the computer network gateway to website associated with most of the
categories listed above.
1.5 - Design Engineers Professional Responsibilities
Required to satisfy the needs of customers and is expected to do so
in a competent, responsible, ethical and professional manner.
The way to develop professional work ethic and skills:
Sharpen your communication skills either oral or writing
Keep a neat and clear journal / logbook of your activities, entering dated
entries frequently
Develop a systematic approach when working on a design problem
Must keep current in the field of expertise by being an active member of
a professional society, attending meetings, conferences and seminar of
societies, manufacturers, universities, etc.
Conduct activities in an ethical manner.
1.6 - Standards and Codes
Standard is a set of specifications for parts, materials, or
processes intended to achieve uniformity, efficiency and
a specific quality.
aim to place a limit on the number of items in the
specification so as to provide a reasonable inventory of
tooling, sizes, shapes and varieties.
Code is a set of specifications for the analysis, design,
manufacture and construction of something.
aim to achieve a specific degree of safety, efficiency
and performance or quality.
1.6 - Standards and Codes cont
Some organizations or societies that interest to mechanical engineers are:-
Aluminum Association (AA)
American Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA)
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM)
American Welding Society (AWS)
American Bearing Manufacturers Association (ABMA)
British Standards Institute (BSI)
Industrial Fasteners Institute (IFI)
Institution of Mechanical Engineers (I. Mech. E.)
International Bureau of Weights and Measure (BIMP)
International Standard Organization (ISO)
Society of Automotive Engineer (SAE)
1.7 - Economics
The consideration of cost plays such an important role in the design
decision process.
Some general concepts and simple rules of cost factor study involves:
Standard Sizes
Use of standard or stock sizes is a first principle of cost reduction.
Specify a parts that are readily available.
Select a part that are made and sold in large quantities because of
usually the cost is somewhat less.
Large Tolerances
Tolerances, manufacturing processes and surface finish are
interrelated and influence the producibility of the end product in many
way.
Large tolerances can often be produced by machines with higher
production rates; costs will be significantly smaller.
1.7 - Economics cont
Breakeven Points
Use when two or more design
approaches are compared to
cost.
The choice between the two
depends on a set of conditions
such as the quantity of
production, the speed of the
assembly lines, or some other
condition.
The point corresponding to
equal cost known as the
breakeven point.
Chapter 2
Analysis and Synthesis
Week 1
2
Learning Outcomes
perform and analyse load, stress and strain, which applied
in standard machine components.
CHAPTER 2 Analysis and Synthesis
2.1 - Material Strength and Stiffness
2.2 - Equilibrium and Free Body Diagram
2.3 - Types of Load
2.4 - Stress
2.5 - Principle Stress for Plane Stress
2.6 - Mohrs Circle for Plane Stress
2.7 - General Three Dimensional (3D) Stress
2.8 - Uniformly Distributed Stresses
2.9 - Normal Stresses for Beams in Bending
2.10 - Shear Stress for Beam in Bending
2.11 - Torsion
2.12 - Stress Concentration
2.1 Material Strength and Stiffness
A typical tension-test specimen. Some of the standard
dimensions used for d
o
are 2.5, 6.25 and 12.5 mm and
0.505 in, but other sections and sizes are in use. Common
gauge length l
o
used are 10, 25 and 50 mm and 1 and 2 in.
The standard tensile test is used to obtain a variety of material
characteristics and strengths that are used in design.
2.1 Material Strength and Stiffness cont
Stress-strain diagram obtained from the
standard tensile test for Ductile material
pl Proportional limits
Curve begins to deviate from a straight line
No permanent set observable
The slope of the linear known as Youngs modulus or the
Modulus of elasticity; E.
el Elastic limit
Beyond this limit, plastic deformation will occur and material
will take on permanent set when load is removed
y Yield point
Strain begins to increase very rapidly without a
corresponding increase in stress
Point a is define by offset method usually about 0.2% from
original gauge length ( = 0.002)
Stress at this point known as yield strength, S
y
u maximum stress
Stress at this point known as Ultimate or tensile strength, S
u
f fracture point
Stress at this point known as fracture strength, S
f
2.1 Material Strength and Stiffness cont
Stress-strain diagram obtained from the
standard tensile test for Brittle material
y Yield point
Strain begins to increase very rapidly without a
corresponding increase in stress
Point a is define by offset method usually about 0.2% from
original gauge length ( = 0.002)
Stress at this point known as yield strength, S
y
u maximum stress
Stress at this point known as Ultimate or tensile strength, S
u
f fracture point
Stress at this point known as fracture strength, S
f
There is little deformation occurs for brittle
material before it fail.
For brittle material ultimate strength is
sometimes called as fracture strength
2.2 Equilibrium and Free Body Diagram
= 0 F
= 0 M
Equilibrium
Assume that the system to be studied is motionless or at most have
constant velocity then the system has zero acceleration.
Under this condition, the system is said to be in equilibrium.
For equilibrium, the forces and moments acting on the system
balance such that:
2.2 Equilibrium and Free Body Diagram cont
Free Body Diagram (FBD)
Use to simplify the analysis of a very complex structure or machine
by isolating or freeing a portion of the total system in order to study
the behaviour of one of its segments.
Thus FBD is essentially a means of breaking a complicated
problem into manageable segments, analyzing these simple
problems, and then usually putting information together again.
FBD Example Gear reducer
Gearbox
Input Shaft
Output Shaft
Info given:
Input torque, T
i
= 240 Ibf
Pitch radii of gear ;
G
1
r
1
= 0.75 in
G
2
r
2
= 1.50 in
Gear pressure angle, = 20
o
Answers:
T
o
= 480 Ibf
R
AY
= 192 Ibf
R
AZ
= 69.9 Ibf
R
BY
= 128 Ibf
R
BZ
= 46.6 Ibf
R
CY
= 192 Ibf
R
CZ
= 69.9 Ibf
R
DY
= 128 Ibf
R
DZ
= 46.6 Ibf
2.3 Types of Load
Tension load
Compression load
Bending load
Torsion load
Shear load
2.4 Stress
The force distribution will not be uniform across the surface.
The force distribution at a a point will have components in the normal an tangential
direction giving rise to a normal stress () and tangential shear stress ().
2.4 Stress cont
Stress components on
surface normal to x direction
General three-dimensional
stress
Plane stress with cross-shears
equal
If the stresses in one face is zero, the state of stress is called plane stress.
xy
xy
ave
ave
1,2
1,2
o
Stress components on surface
normal to x and y direction
Maximum and minimum normal
stresses are called principle stresses
which have zero shear stresses
Maximum shear stresses have
average normal stresses
2.5 Principle Stress for Plane Stress
2
2
2 1
2 2
,
xy
y x y x
+
=
2
2
2 1
2
,
xy
y x

=
2
y x
ave

+
=
2.6 Mohrs Circle for Plane Stress
In design, 3D transformations are rarely
performed since most maximum stress
states occur under plane stress conditions.
But if there is need to be countable, make
sure the principle normal stress are always
ordered so that
1
>
2
>
3
Therefore
max
=
1/3
where
2.7 General Three Dimensional (3D) Stress
2
2 1
2 / 1

=
2
3 2
3 / 2

=
2
3 1
3 / 1

= ; ;
Simple tension, compression and shear loads that always perform this uniform
distribution of stress which results
2.8 Uniformly Distributed Stresses
A
F
=
A
F
=
: tensile and compression stress
: shear stress e.g. a bolt in shear
F F
A
F
F
A
Bending stress, is directly proportional to the distance, c
from the neutral axis and bending moment, M.
2.9 Normal Stresses for Beams in Bending
I
Mc
=
where;
M moment
c distance from neutral axis
I second moment of area
Bending Moment Diagram
Is sometimes needed to determine:-
location where moment is maximum
moment in specified location.
E.g.
2.9 Normal Stresses for Beams in Bending cont
A B
Loading diagram
Shear-force diagram
Bending-moment diagram
A B
M
A
M
B
M
max
=
Maximum shear stress exists when y
1
= 0, which is at
bending neutral axis
As it move away from the neutral axis, the shear stress
decrease parabolically until it zero at the outer surfaces
where y = c
2.10 Shear Stresses for Beams in Bending
Formula for Maximum Shear Stress Due to Bending
2.10 Shear Stresses for Beams in Bending cont
A 2
3
max

=
A
2
max
=
A 3
4
max

=
Beam Shape Formula Beam Shape Formula
Rectangular
Circular
Hollow, thin-walled round
Structural I beam (thin-walled)
Web
web A
=
max
Any moment vector that is collinear with an
axis of a mechanical element is called a
torque vector or torsion.
For solid round bar, the shear stress is zero at
the center at maximum at the surface.
2.11 Torsion
J
Tr
=
max

where ;
T = torque
r = bar radius
J = polar second moment of area
For noncircular cross-section members especially rectangular b x c
section bar which use to transmit torque, maximum shearing stress is:
+ =
c b bc
T
/
8 . 1
3
2 max
where ;
b = is the longer side
c = is the shorter side
Obtain the torque T from a consideration of the power and speed of a rotating shaft
2.11 Torsion cont
025 , 63 000 , 198 ) 12 ( 000 , 33
2
000 , 33
Tn Tn Tn FV
H = = = =

T H =
n
H
T 55 . 9 =
where ;
H = power (hp)
(1 hp = 33,000 ft.Ib/s)
T = torque (Ibf.in)
where ;
H = power (W)
T = torque (Nm)
= angular velocity (rad/s)
When USC units is used, the equation is :
When SI units is used, the equation is : The torque T corresponding
to the power in watts is given
approximately by
n = shaft speed (rev/min)
F = force (Ibf)
V = velocity (ft/min)
2.12 Stresses Concentration
w
B B
A A
max
d
Stress
trajectories
Stress
distribution
Stress distribution near a hole in a
plate loaded in tension. The tensile stress
on a section B-B, remote from the hole is
= F/A where A = wt
and t is the plate thickness. On a section
at A-A, through the hole, the area
A
0
= (w-d)t
and nominal stress,
o
= F/A
o
.
Note that the stress are increases when
move towards to the hole and
maxsimum stress occur at the edge of
the hole where the load lines become
very compact there.
Stress distribution near a hole in a
plate loaded in tension. The tensile stress
on a section B-B, remote from the hole is
= F/A where A = wt
and t is the plate thickness. On a section
at A-A, through the hole, the area
A
0
= (w-d)t
and nominal stress,
o
= F/A
o
.
Note that the stress are increases when
move towards to the hole and
maxsimum stress occur at the edge of
the hole where the load lines become
very compact there.
= F/A
0
= F/A
0
A = wt
A
0
= (w-d )t
max
>
0
>
Any discontinuity in a machine part alter a
stress distribution in the neighbourhood of the
discontinuity
Such discontinuities are called stress raisers,
and the regions in which they occur are called
areas of stress concentration.
2.12 Stresses Concentration cont
o
t
K
max
=
A theoretical or geometric, stress concentration factor K
t
or K
ts
is used to relate the actual
maximum stress at the discontinuity to the nominal stress.
The factors are define by the equations:
where K
t
is used for normal stress and K
ts
for shear stress.
The stress concentration factor depends on the geometry of the part which cause difficult
problem since not many analysis of geometric shapes solutions can be found.
However stress concentration factors for a variety of standard geometries may be found in
Tables A-15 and A-16.
In static loading, stress concentration factors are applied as follow to predict critical stress;
x Ductile material (
f
0.05) not usually applied since has a strengthening effect in plastic region
Brittle material (
f
< 0.05) applied to the nominal stress before comparing it with strength
o
ts
K
max
=
Example 1:
Figure below shows a crank loaded by a force F = 300 Ibf that causes twisting and bending of a in
diameter round bar fixed to a support at the origin of the reference system. In actuality, the support may
be an inertia that we wish to rotate, but for the purpose of a stress analysis we can consider this is a
static problem.
a) Draw separate FBD of the shaft AB
and the arm BC, and compute the
values of all forces, moment, and
torques that act. Label the directions
of the coordinate axes on these
diagram.
b) Compute the maxima of the torsional
stress and the bending stress in the
arm BC.
c) Locate a stress element on the top
surface of the shaft at A, and
calculate all the stress components
that act upon this element.
d) Determine the maximum normal and
shear stresses at A.
Solution :
(a) The results are:-
At C ; F = -300j Ibf, T = -450k Ibf.in
At end B of arm BC ; F = 300j Ibf, M = 1200i Ibf.in, T = 450k Ibf.in
At end B of shaft AB ; F = -300j Ibf, T = -1200i Ibf.in, M = -450k Ibf.in
At A ; F = 300j Ibf, T = 1200i Ibf.in, M = 1950k Ibf.in
(300 Ibf)
(450 Ibf.in)
(300 Ibf)
(1200 Ibf.in)
(450 Ibf.in)
Solution :
400 , 19
25 . 0 / 25 . 1
8 . 1
3
) 25 . 0 ( 25 . 1
450
2
=
+ =
2 3
6
12
) 2 / (
bh
M
bh
h M
I
Mc
= = =
+ =
c b bc
T
/
8 . 1
3
2

(b) Maximum torsional and bending stress at arm BC
The bending moment will reach a maximum near
the shaft at B which is 1200 Ibf.in
psi
For rectangular section having torsional stress
psi
400 , 18
) 25 . 1 ( 25 . 0
) 1200 ( 6
2
= =
Solution :
500 , 14
) 75 . 0 (
) 1200 ( 16
3
= =
3 4
32
64
) 2 / (
d
M
d
d M
I
Mc

= = =
3 4
16
32 /
) 2 / (
d
T
d
d T
J
Tr

= = =
(c) Stress element on the top surface of the shaft at A
The bending is tensile and is
psi
The torsional stress is
psi
100 , 47
) 75 . 0 (
) 1950 ( 32
3
= =
(300 Ibf)
(450 Ibf.in)
(300 Ibf)
(1200 Ibf.in)
(1950 Ibf.in)
(1200 Ibf.in)
A
z
x
xz
xz
Solution :
2
2
5 . 14
2
0 1 . 47
+

=
2
2
1
2 2
xz
z x z x

+
+
=
2
2
1
2
xz
z x

=
(d) Maximum normal and shear stresses at A.
The maximum normal stress is given by
kpsi
The maximum shear stress is
kpsi
2
2
5 . 14
2
0 1 . 47
2
0 1 . 47
+

+
+
=
2 . 51 = 7 . 27 =
Example 2:
The 1.5-in diameter solid steel shaft shown in figure below is simply supported at the ends. Two pulleys
are keyed to the shaft where pulley B is of diameter 4.0 in and pulley C is of diameter 8.0 in. Considering
bending and torsional stress only, determine the locations and magnitudes of the greatest tensile,
compressive, and shear stresses in the shaft.
Solution :
(a) Figure below shows the FBD of the net forces, reactions and torsional moments on the shaft.-
Although this is a 3D problem, the components of the moment vector is perform in a two plane analysis.
Solution :
2 2
z y
M M M + =
5657 4000 4000
2 2
= + =
C
M
Thus the moment are label as M
y
versus x for xy plane and M
z
versus x for xz plane:-
The net moment on a section is the vector sum of the components. That is
8246 8000 2000
2 2
= + =
B
M Ibf.in
Ibf.in
Solution :
890 , 24
) 5 . 1 (
) 8246 ( 32 32
64 /
) 2 / (
3 3 4
= = = = =

d
M
d
d M
I
Mc
2414
) 5 . 1 (
) 1600 ( 16 16
32 /
) 2 / (
3 3 4
= = = = =

d
T
d
d T
J
Tr
120 , 25 2414
2
890 , 24
2
890 , 24
2 2
2
2
2
2
1
= +
+ = +

+
+
=
xz
z x z x

In this case where the shaft diameter is same along the axis, maximum bending stress
occurs at location where the bending moment is maximum which is at point B.
psi
The maximum torsional shear stress occurs between B and C and is:
psi
Maximum tensile stress
1
is given by:
680 , 12 2414
2
890 , 24
2
2
2
2
2
1
= +
= +

=
xz
z x
psi
The extreme shear stress
1
is given by:
psi
Chapter 3
Static Design Failure of Theories
Week 2
2
Learning Outcomes
explain and apply the various static failure theories,
including the use of safety factors and reliability in
mechanical engineering design.
CHAPTER 3 Static Design Failure of Theories
3.1 - Introduction
3.2 - Why needs Failure Theories?
3.3 - Static Failure Theories
3.4 - Maximum Shear Stress (MSS) Theory
3.5 - Distortion Energy (DE) Theory
3.6 - Colomb-Mohr Theory
3.7 - Maximum Normal Stress (MSN) Theory
3.8 - Modification of Mohr Theory
3.1 Introduction
Tacoma Bridge Failure 1940
It was built with shallow plate girders for the aesthetics purposes.
This vibration motion lasted 3 hours and the bridge collapsed. The failure
caused millions fund loss.
In 1950, the bridge was rebuilt and truss-girders were used to increase the
stiffness of the bridge.
3.1 Introduction cont
Static Load:-
is a stationary force or couple applied to a member
the force or couple must be unchanging in magnitude, point or points of
application, and direction.
can produce axial tension or compression, a shear load, a bending load,
a torsional load or any combination of these.
Safety and Failure:-
Failure can mean a part has separated into two or more pieces and
become permanently deformed
Why parts fail stresses exceed its strength.
Can be categories : under static loading
under dynamic loading
3.2 Why needs failure theories?
To design parts or components that meet it
requirements and functions as it suppose to be.
It suppose to test the real components exactly the
same loading conditions to obtain precise
information =>increase cost
3.3 Static Failure Theories
Actually, there is no universal theory of failure for the general
case of material properties and stress state.
Over the years, several hypotheses have been formulated and
tested, leading todays engineering practice.
Being accepted worldwide, these practices are used as theories
as most designers do.
3.3 Static Failure Theories cont
Static Failure
Theories
Ductile Materials
-
-
05 . 0
f
y yc yt
S S S = =
Brittle Materials
-
-
uc ut
S S &
05 . 0 <
f
Yield Criteria
-Maximum Shear Stress
-Distortion Energy
-Ductile Coulomb-Mohr
Fracture Criteria
-Maximum Normal Stress
-Brittle-Coulomb-Mohr
( example 1 , example 2 , example 3 )
3.4 Maximum Shear Stress (MSS) Theory
predicts that yielding begins whenever the maximum shear stress in any
element equals or exceeds the maximum shear stress in a tension-test
of the same material.
also known as Tresca or Guest Theory.
for a simple tensile stress , max. shear stress occurs on a surface 45
0
from the tensile surface with a magnitude of:
or at yield,
2
max
y
S
=
2
max

=
3.4 Maximum Shear Stress (MSS) Theory cont
2 2
3 1
y
S
=

2
max
y
S
=
Therefore, taking N as safety factor;
y sy
S S 50 . 0 =
) ( 2 / ) (
2 / 50 . 0
3 1 3 1 max max

=
= = =
y y y sy
S S S S
N
Stress or Load Applied
Stress or Load Allowable Maximum
Usually safety factor, N is defined by;
The maximum-shear
stress (MSS) theory for
plane stress, where
A
and
B
are the two nonzero
principal stresses
Case 1 :
A

B
0.
For this case,
1
=
A
,
3
=0.
Case 2 :
A
0
B
.
Here, 1 =
A
,
3
=
B
.
Case 3 : 0
A

B
.
For this case,
1
=0 ,
3
=
B
.
3.5 Distortion Energy (DE) Theory
Predicts that yielding begins when the distortion strain energy
per unit volume reaches or exceeds the distortion strain energy
per unit volume for yield in simple tension for the same material.
U
d
at element in specimen U
d
for yield in simple tension.
Also known as von Mises or von Mises-Hencky Theory
Developed by studying a unit volume in a three-dimensional
stress state
3.5 Distortion Energy (DE) Theory cont
(a) Element with triaxial stresses; this element undergoes both volume change and
angular distortion.
(b) Element under hydrostatic tension undergoes only volume change.
(c) Element has angular distortion without volume change.
U = U
v
+ U
d
1
U =
2
( )
1 1 2 2 3 3
+ +
1
U =
2
( )
1 2 3
1
v v
E
=
1
( )
2 1 3
1
v v
E
=
2
( )
3 1 2
1
v v
E
=
3
( )
2 2 2
1 2 3 1 2 2 3 1 3
2v + + + +

1
U =
2E
strain energy =
for 3-D analysis;
where
------- (1)
3
3 2 1

+ +
=
av
( ) v
E
U
av
v
2 1
2
3
2
=

The strain energy for producing only
volume change U
v
can be obtained by
substituting
av
for
1
,
2
, and
3
in Eq. (1).
The result is:-
------- (2)
( )
2 2 2
1 2 3 1 2 2 3 1 3
2v

= + + + +

1
2E
2 2 2
1 2 3 1 2 2 3 1 3
1
3
d
v
U
E

+
= + +

( )
2
1
3
d y
v
U S
E
+
=
v d
U U U =
( )
E
v
2
2 1
3
3
2
3 2 1
+ +

--- for element
in speciment
--- for yield in simple tension where
1
= S
y
,
2
=
3
= 0
Von Mises Effective Stress
' 2 2 2
1 2 3 1 2 2 3 1 3
= + +
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2
2 2 2
'
6
2
x y y z z x xy yz zx

+ + + + +
=
' 2 2
1 1 3 3
= +
' 2 2 2
3
x y x y xy
= + +
(for 2D principal stress)
(for 2D plane stress)
2
'
y
S
[ ]
2
3 1 3 2 2 1
2
3
2
2
2
1
3
1
3
1
y
S
E E

+
+ +
+
U
d
at element in specimen U
d
for yield in simple tension.
y
S + +
3 1 3 2 2 1
2
3
2
2
2
1

Therefore, safety factor N is:
'
y
S
N
=
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 max
3 3
y
S = + + = =
1 max
0.577
3
y
y
S
S = = =
For Pure Shear:
max
average
average
y sy
S S 577 . 0 =
max
sy
S
n =
The distortion-
energy (DE) theory
for plane stress
states. This is plot
of points with
=S
y
.
y sy
S S 577 . 0 =
3.6 Coulomb-Mohr Theory
- used when S
yt
S
yc
- based on Mohrs theory, whereby the failure line is assumed to be
straight
Three Mohr circle, one for the
unaxial compression test, one
for the test in pure shear, and
one for the unaxial tension test,
are used to define failure by the
Mohr hypothesis. The strengths
S
c
and S
t
are the compressive
and tensile strengths,
respectively, they can be used
for yield or ultimate strength.
3.6 Coulomb-Mohr Theory cont
1
3 1
=
c t
S S

n S S
c t
1
3 1
=

yc yt
yc yt
sy
S S
S S
S
+
=
From the diagram, equation developed can be simplified to:
Incorporating the safety factor;
For pure torsional shear strength;
max
sy
S
n =
3.7 Maximum Normal Stress (MNS) Theory
- states that failure occurs whenever one of the three
principal stresses equals or exceeds the strength
1
> S
ut
or
3
< - S
uc
- where S
ut
and S
uc
are the ultimate tensile and
compressive strength respectively
3.7 Maximum Normal Stress (MNS) Theory cont
Graph of maximum-normal
stress (MNS) theory of
failure for plane stress
states. Stress states that
plot inside the failure locus
are safe.
3.8 Modification of Mohr Theory
a) Brittle Coulomb Mohr Theory
b) Modified I-Mohr
c) Modified II-Mohr
- 3 modifications of the existing Mohr theory are applicable
in analyzing brittle materials.
- by limiting the discussion to plane stresses, those theories
are as follows:
3.8 Modification of Mohr Theory cont
Theories
Equations
Brittle Coulomb-
Mohr
Modified I-Mohr
Modified II-Mohr
0
B A

B A
0
B A
0
n
S
ut
A

n S S
uc
B
ut
A
1
=

n
S
uc
B

n
S
ut
A

n S S S
S S
uc
B
ut uc
A ut uc
1 ) (
=

n
S
uc
B

n
S
ut
A

1
2
=
+
+
uc ut
ut B
ut
A
S S
S n
S
n
n
S
uc
B

3.8 Modification of Mohr Theory cont
Conclusion
Exercise 1:

Problem

Certain stresses are applied at one object which 1 =200 MPa and 2 = -50 MPa.
This object is made by steel that it has a yield strength of 500 MPa. Find the factor of
safety of this object by using DE and MSS theory. Solve FOS by using graph method.

Answer

500
500
- 500
- 500
[MPa]
[MPa]
200
- 50
A
B
C
X
Y

FOS
200
x
n MSS =
200
y
n DE =
Exercise 2:

Problem

Determine the safety factors for the bracket rod shown in figure above based on both
the distortion-energy theory and the maximum shear theory and compare them.

Given:
The material is 2024-T4 aluminum with a yield strength of 47 000 psi. The rod length
l =6 in and arm a =8 in. The rod outside diameter d =1.5 in. Load F=1 000 lb.

Assumptions:
The load is static and the assembly is at room temperature. Consider shear due to
transverse loading as well as other stresses.

Answer

Element at point A

1.
( ) ( )( ) 1 000 6 0.75
18 108
0.249
x
Fl c
MC
psi
I I
= = = =

( ) ( )( ) 1 000 8 0.75
12 072
0.497
xz
Fa r
Tr
psi
J J
= = = =

2. psi xy
z x
15090 12072
2
0 18108
2
2
2
2
2
max
= +

= +

=

psi
z x
24144 090 15
2
18108
2
max 1
= + = +
+
=

0
2
=

psi
z x
6036 15090
2
18108
2
max 3
= =
+
=

3.
2
3 3 1
2
1
' + =

psi 661 27 ) 6036 ( ) 6036 ( 24144 24144 '
2 2
= + =

4. 7 . 1
27661
47000
'
= = =
y
S
N ------------- DE theory

5. 6 . 1
15090
) 47000 ( 50 . 0
50 . 0
max
= = =
y
S
N --------------- MSS theory

Element at point B

6. psi
A
V
bending
755
) 767 . 1 ( 3
) 1000 ( 4
3
4
= = =

psi
bending torsion
12827 755 12072
max
= + = + =

7. 1 . 2
12827
) 47000 ( 577 . 0
577 . 0
max
= = =
y
S
N --------- DE theory

8 . 1
12827
) 47000 ( 50 . 0
50 . 0
max
= = =
y
S
N -------- MSS theory
Exercise 3:

Problem

A 25-mm diameter shaft is statically torqued to 230 Nm. It is made of cast 195-T6
aluminium, with a yield strength in tension of 160 MPa and a yield strength in
compression of 170 MPa. It is machined to final diameter. Estimate the factor of
safety of the shaft.

Answer

MPa
d
T
J
Tr
75
5 . 2
) 230 ( 16 16
3 3
= = = =

The two nonzero principal stresses are 75 and -75 MPa, making the ordered principal
stresses 1 =75, 2 =0, and 3 =-75 MPa.

10 . 1
170 / ) 75 ( 160 / 75
1 1
3 1
=

=
=
yc yt
S S
n

Alternatively;

yc yt
yc yt
sy
S S
S S
S
+
=
10 . 1
75
4 . 82
max
= = =
sy
S
n

Chapter 4
Fatigue Design Failure of Theories
Week 3 & 4
2
Learning Outcomes
explain and apply the fatigue failure of theories,
including the use of safety factors and reliability in
mechanical engineering design.
confidently apply this technique in the selection and
analysis of machine components, and make decision on
material selection.
CHAPTER 4 Fatigue Design Failure of Theories
4.1 - Introduction to Fatigue
4.2 - Fatigue load and failure
4.3 - Life and fatigue strength
4.4 - Stress Life Method
4.5 - Endurance limits, S
e
4.6 - Endurance Limit Modifying Factors (Marin Factor)
4.7 - Stress Concentration and Notch Sensitivity
4.8 - Fatigue Strength
4.9 - Characterizing Fluctuating Stresses
4.10 - Combination of Loading Modes
4.11 - Safety Factor
4.1 Introduction
Cause by the action of static load or load that acts only once until a component
destruct such as in tensile test. However this phenomena is rarely occur.
Cause by the action of variable, repeated, alternating or fluctuating load and
this load are often found in many failure cases that occurs.
4.2 Fatigue Load and Failure
Often, machine members are found to have failed under the action of
repeated or fluctuating stresses; yet the most careful analysis reveals
that the actual maximum stresses were well below the ultimate
strength of the material, and quite frequently even below the yield
strength. The most distinguishing characteristic of these failures is
that the stresses have been repeated a very large number of times.
Hence the failure is called a fatigue failure.
4.2 Fatigue Load and Failure cont
1
st
Case Bending a steel wire repeatedly 2
nd
Case Impact and Vibration on vehicle axle
3
rd
Case Steel Bridge 4
th
Case - Vehicle Suspension
NG
NG
Too much repeatedly
Bending that beyond the
limit will break the steel wire
Too much repeatedly
Impact and Vibration
will break the axle
Example of repeated load
1
st
Case Continuously bending the steel wire
Stress : Bending stress;
Tension
Compression
Wire is bend from the top
Top of the wire is suffered to

Tension (+)
Meanwhile the bottom is suffered to

Compression (-)
Graph plotting for overall wire bending
process:
This type of stress is known as Completely
Reverse Stress
Wire is bend from the top
Top of the wire is suffered to

Tension (+)
Meanwhile the bottom is suffered to

Compression (-)
Graph plotting for overall wire bending
process:
This type of stress is known as Completely
Reverse Stress
m
=0
r
t
2
nd
Case Vehicle Axle
Stress : Bending Stress and Shear Stress
Torsion shear stress: is cause when power
from the engine is transmit to the tire.
Torque are required to overcome tire
friction and vehicle weight and this stress is
always assume as constant.
Shaft axle is suffered to bending
and shear stress while running.
Shear Stress cause by torsion

Fatigue failure of a bolt due to repeated
unidirectional bending. Fatigue failure start with
small crack that unseen with naked eyes and
also difficult to detect with X-ray at the thread
root at A, propagated across most of the cross
section shown by the beach marks at B, before
final fast fracture at C.
Fatigue failure of a bolt due to repeated
unidirectional bending. Fatigue failure start with
small crack that unseen with naked eyes and
also difficult to detect with X-ray at the thread
root at A, propagated across most of the cross
section shown by the beach marks at B, before
final fast fracture at C.
Crack often start at weak part geometries
which have discontinuity in material such as
at holes, keyways, notch, fillet and others (at
this location, the stress is high because of
high stress concentration)
Crack often start at weak part geometries
which have discontinuity in material such as
at holes, keyways, notch, fillet and others (at
this location, the stress is high because of
high stress concentration)
4.3 Life and Fatigue Strength
Three major fatigue life models
Methods predict life in number of cycles to failure, N, for a specific level
of loading
i. Stress-life method
9 Least accurate, particularly for low cycle applications
9 Most traditional, easiest to implement
ii. Strain-life method
9 Detailed analysis of plastic deformation at localized regions
9 Several idealizations are compounded, leading to
uncertainties in results
iii. Linear-elastic fracture mechanics method
9 Assumes crack exists
9 Predicts crack growth with respect to stress intensity
4.3 Life and Fatigue Strength cont
Fatigue strength also have its maximum limits.
Fatigue strength also have its maximum limits.
R. R Moore Test
Procedure of rotating beam test
Procedure of rotating beam test
Constant bending load is applied on test sample and
rotate it at high rpm.
Stress that have been applied on first test is an
ultimate strength value S
ut
compression
tension
motor
Sample ujian
Test samples are rotate until failure and the failure
number of cycle is then be record.
The tests are repeat with new stress that lower than
before.
Then S-N diagram graph which indicate number of
cycle (N) and Fatigue Strength (S
f
) is plotted.
motor
specimen
F
Rotating Beam Test
4.4 Stress Life Method
An S-N diagram plotted from the results of completely reversed axial fatigue test. Material
UNS G4100 steel, normalized. S : strength, N : cycle
An S-N diagram plotted from the results of completely reversed axial fatigue test. Material
UNS G4100 steel, normalized. S : strength, N : cycle
S-N Diagram
Low-cycle fatigue
High-cycle fatigue
Endurance limit , Se or known as fatigue limit
4.5 Endurance Limit, S
e
Basically, the fatigue endurance limits S
e
are determine through the test. Yet the data are also available
on these standard:
i. American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM)
ii. American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)
iii. Society of Automotive Engineer (SAE)
Basically, the fatigue endurance limits S
e
are determine through the test. Yet the data are also available
on these standard:
i. American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM)
ii. American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)
iii. Society of Automotive Engineer (SAE)
It is unrealistic to expect the endurance limit of a mechanical or structural member to match the values
obtained in the laboratory
It is unrealistic to expect the endurance limit of a mechanical or structural member to match the values
obtained in the laboratory
So, the values obtain from lab test are known as Rotary beam test specimen endurance limit, S
e
. However there
is a relation exist between S
e
and S
ut .
So, the values obtain from lab test are known as Rotary beam test specimen endurance limit, S
e
. However there
is a relation exist between S
e
and S
ut .
Value of a mechanical or structural member to match the values obtained in the laboratory after considering
other factors that influence the fatigue life is known as endurance limits, S
e
.
Value of a mechanical or structural member to match the values obtained in the laboratory after considering
other factors that influence the fatigue life is known as endurance limits, S
e
.
S
e
refer to the endurance limit of the controlled laboratory specimen
S
e
refer to the endurance limit of an actual machine element subjected to any kind of loading
e
cont
Graph of endurance limits versus tensile strengths fromactual test results for a large number of wrought irons and steels.
Ratios of S
e
/S
ut
of 0.60, 0.50, and 0.40 are shown by the solid and dashed lines.
e
cont
Assumption of S
e
value for steel
Assumption of S
e
value for steel
For student application:
S
e
= 0.5 S
ut
S
ut
1400 MPa [ 200 kpsi ]
S
e
= 700 MPa [ 100 kpsi ] S
ut
> 1400 MPa
For student application:
S
e
= 0.5 S
ut
S
ut
1400 MPa [ 200 kpsi ]
S
e
= 700 MPa [ 100 kpsi ] S
ut
> 1400 MPa
For real engineering practice:
S
e
= 0.4 S
ut
S
ut
1400 MPa
S
e
= 550 MPa [ 84.1 kpsi ] S
ut
> 1400 MPa
For real engineering practice:
S
e
= 0.4 S
ut
S
ut
1400 MPa
S
e
= 550 MPa [ 84.1 kpsi ] S
ut
> 1400 MPa
4.6 Endurance Limit Modifying Factors
Factors that influence the fatigue life and endurance limits.
Factors that influence the fatigue life and endurance limits.
4.6 Endurance Limit Modifying Factors cont
A Marin Equation is therefore written the endurance limit S
e
as:
A Marin Equation is therefore written the endurance limit S
e
as:
S
e
= k
a
k
b
k
c
k
d
k
e
k
f
S
e
Where,
S
e
= rotary beam test endurance limit
k
a
= surface condition modification factor
k
b
= size modification factor
k
c
= load modification factor
k
d
= temperature modification factor
k
e
= reliability factor
k
f
= miscellaneous effect modification factor
Where,
S
e
= rotary beam test endurance limit
k
a
= surface condition modification factor
k
b
= size modification factor
k
c
= load modification factor
k
d
= temperature modification factor
k
e
= reliability factor
k
f
= miscellaneous effect modification factor
Surface Condition Modification Factor, k
a
a
The surface modification factor depends on the quality of the finish of the actual part surface
and on the tensile strength of the part material. The data can be represented by:
k
a
= a S
b
ut
where S
ut
is the ultimate strength and a and b value are to be found using belowtable
TABLE 4-1: Parameters for Marin surface modification factor.
Surface Finish
Factor a
Exponent
b
S
ut
, kpsi S
ut
, MPa
Ground 1.34 1.58 -0.085
Machine or cold drawn 2.70 4.51 -0.265
Hot-rolled 14.4 57.7 -0.718
As-forged 39.9 272 -0.995
a
a
EXAMPLE 1
A steel has a minimum ultimate strength of 520 MPa and a machined
surface. Estimate k
a
.
Solution
From Table 41, a = 4.51 and b =0.265. Then,
Answer k
a
= 4.51(520)
0.265
= 0.860
Size Factor, k
b
Size Factor, k
b
~ there is no size effect, so size factor k
b
= 1.0
~ there is no size effect, so size factor k
b
= 1.0
Size factor for ROTATING ROUND bar is given by below equation :
where
d effective dimension
( )
<
=
<
=
=

mm d d
mm d d d
in d d
in d d d
k
b
254 51 51 . 1
51 79 . 2 24 . 1 ) 62 . 7 / (
10 2 91 . 0
2 11 . 0 879 . 0 3 . 0 /
157 . 0
107 . 0 107 . 0
157 . 0
107 . 0 107 . 0
For NONCIRCULAR CROSS SECTION , or NONROTATING ROUND BAR, the effective dimension d
e
is:
D
h
b
d
e
= 0.370d d
e
= 0.808 (hb)
1/ 2
- depends by the types of the load
EXAMPLE 2
A steel shaft loaded in bending is 32 mm in diameter, abutting a filleted shoulder 38 mm in
diameter. The shaft material has a mean ultimate tensile strength of 690 MPa.
Estimate the Marin size factor k
b
if the shaft is used in
(a) A rotating mode.
(b) A nonrotating mode.
Solution
(a)
(b) d
e
= 0.37d = 0.37(32) = 11.84 mm
858 . 0
62 . 7
32
62 . 7
107 . 0 107 . 0
=
=

d
k
b
Size Factor, k
b
Size Factor, k
b
954 . 0
62 . 7
84 . 11
107 . 0
=
=

b
k
Loading Factor, k
c
Loading Factor, k
c
When fatigue tests are carried out with rotating bending, axial
(push-pull), and torsional loading, the endurance limits differ
with S
ut
. Here are the values of the load factor as
When fatigue tests are carried out with rotating bending, axial
(push-pull), and torsional loading, the endurance limits differ
with S
ut
. Here are the values of the load factor as
=
59 . 0
85 . 0
1
c
k
Bending
Axial
Torsion
** If there is a combination of loads, use the higher value of loading factor
Temperature Factor, k
d
d
If S
e
is known at room temperature, then use k
d
= S
T
/ S
RT
.If not, compute the ultimate strength at the
elevated temperature obtained by using the factor from below table, then use k
d
= 1
Effect of Operating
Temperature on the Tensile
Strength of Steel.*
(S
T
= tensile strength at
operating temperature;
S
RT
= tensile strength at
room temperature; 0.099
0.110)
d
d
EXAMPLE 3
A 1035 steel has a tensile strength of 70 kpsi and is to be used for a part that sees 450F in service.
Estimate the Marin temperature modification factor and (S
e
)
450
if
(a) The room-temperature endurance limit by test is (S
e
)
70
= 39.0 kpsi
(b) Only the tensile strength at room temperature is known.
Solution
(a) Interpolating from previous Table gives :
( ) 007 . 1
400 500
400 450
) 018 . 1 995 . 0 ( 018 . 1 /
450
=
+ = = o
RT T d
S S k
Thus, (S
e
)
450
= k
d
(S
e
)
70
=1.007(39.0) = 39.3 kpsi
(b) Since the rotating-beam specimen endurance limit is not known at room temperature, we determine the
ultimate strength at the elevated temperature first, which the ultimate strength at 450 is
(S
ut
)
450
= (S
T
/S
RT
)
450
(S
ut
)
70
= 1.007(70) = 70.5 kpsi
Then, (S
e
)
450
= 0.5 (S
ut
)
450
= 0.5(70.5) = 35.2 kpsi
Reliability Factor, k
e
Reliability Factor, k
e
the reliability modification, k
e
factor is written as
the reliability modification, k
e
factor is written as
Reliability Factors k
e
Corresponding to 8%Standard Deviation of the Endurance Limit
k
e
= 1 0.08 z
where z
values can be determined from Table A10 in Appendix A. Table below gives
reliability factors for some standard specified reliabilities.
Miscellaneous-Effects Factor, k
f
Miscellaneous-Effects Factor, k
f
k
f
factor is intended to account for the reduction in endurance limit due to all other
effects such as, Corrosion, Electrolytic Plating, Metal Spraying, Cyclic Frequency, and
other more.
k
f
factor is intended to account for the reduction in endurance limit due to all other
effects such as, Corrosion, Electrolytic Plating, Metal Spraying, Cyclic Frequency, and
other more.
However the actual values of k
f
are not always available. If this factor is not important,
assume ;
k
f
= 1.0
It is really intended as a reminder that this factor must be accounted in real engineering
practice.
However the actual values of k
f
are not always available. If this factor is not important,
assume ;
k
f
= 1.0
It is really intended as a reminder that this factor must be accounted in real engineering
practice.
4.7 Stress Concentration and Notch Sensitivity
w
B B
A A
max
d
Stress
trajectories
Stress
distribution
= F/A
0
= F/A
0
A = wt
A
0
= (w-d )t
max
>
0
>
Any discontinuity in a machine part alter a stress
distribution in the neighbourhood of the
discontinuity
Such discontinuities are called stress raisers, and
the regions in which they occur are called areas of
stress concentration.
Existence of irregularities or discontinuities,
such as holes, grooves, or notches, in a part
increases the theoretical stresses significantly in
the immediate at nearby region of the discontinuity.
F F F F
F F F F
Regular feature Changes in cross section
notch hole
Load lines at several types of bar that
has been suffered by axial force
4.7 Stress Concentration and Notch Sensitivity cont
A theoritical or geometric stress concentration factor K
t
is
used to relate the actual maximum stress at the discontinity to
the nominal stress.
A theoritical or geometric stress concentration factor K
t
is
used to relate the actual maximum stress at the discontinity to
the nominal stress.
where
K
t
: is used for normal stresses
K
ts
: is used for shear stresses
o
t
K
max
=
o
ts
K
max
=
or
K
t
or K
ts
depends on geometry of the part
The analysis of geometric shapes is a difficult problem and not many solutions can be found
K
t
or K
ts
for a variety of geometries may be found in Appendix A Tables A-15 and A-16
where
K
f
is a reduced value of K
t
and also known as
fatigue stress-concentration factor.
0
is the nominal stress.
For variable loading cases that cause fatigue, some materials are not fully
sensitive to the presence of notches and hence, for these, a reduced value
of K
t
can be used. For these materials, the maximum stress is, in fact,
For variable loading cases that cause fatigue, some materials are not fully
sensitive to the presence of notches and hence, for these, a reduced value
of K
t
can be used. For these materials, the maximum stress is, in fact,
o f
K =
max
o fs
K =
max or
Notch sensitivity q is defined by the equation :
where q is usually between 0 ~ 1.
I f q = 0, then K
f
= 1 material has no sensitivity to notches at all.
I f q = 1, then K
f
=K
t
material has full notch sensitivity.
If q = 0, then K
f
= 1 material has no sensitivity to notches at all.
If q = 1, then K
f
=K
t
material has full notch sensitivity.
In analysis or design work :
Find K
t
from geometry of the part Specify the material Find q Solve for K
f
or
1
1
=
t
f
K
K
q
1
1
=
ts
fs
shear
K
K
q
or ( ) 1 1 + =
t f
K q K ( ) 1 1 + =
ts shear fs
K q K
Figure 41
Notch-sensitivity charts for steels and UNS A92024-T wrought aluminum alloys subjected to reversed bending or
reversed axial loads. For larger notch radii, use the values of q corresponding to the r = 0.16-in (4-mm) ordinate.
Notch sensitivity q
for bending and axial load
Figure 42
Notch-sensitivity curves for materials in reversed torsion. For larger notch radii, use the values of q shear
corresponding to r = 0.16 in (4 mm).
Notch sensitivity qfor torsion load
If there is any doubt about the true value of q, it is always safe to use K
f
= K
t
.
The notch sensitivity of the cast irons is very low, varying from 0 to about 0.20,
depending upon the tensile strength. To be on the conservative side, it is
recommended that the value q = 0.20 be used for all grades of cast iron.
Figure 41 has as its basis the Neuber equation, which is given by
where is defined as the Neuber constant and is a material constant.
Then notch sensitivity equation become
For steel, with S
ut
in kpsi, the Neuber constant can be approximated by a third-order
polynomial fit of data as
9Bending or Axial:
9Torsion:
r a
K
K
t
f
/ 1
1
1
+

+ =
r
a
q
+
=
1
1
3
ut
-8 2
ut
-5
ut
-3
)S 2.67(10 - )S 1.51(10 )S 3.08(10 - 0.246 + = a
a
3
ut
-8 2
ut
-5
ut
-3
)S 2.67(10 - )S 1.35(10 )S 2.51(10 - 0.190 + = a
EXAMPLE 4
A steel shaft in bending has an ultimate strength of 690 MPa and a shoulder with a fillet radius of 3 mm
connecting a 32-mm diameter with a 38-mm diameter. Estimate K
f
using:
(a) Figure 4-1.
(b) Equations (633) and (635).
Solution
From Fig. A159, using D/d = 38/32 = 1.1875, r/d = 3/32 = 0.09375, we read the graph to find K
t
= 1.65.
(a) From Fig. 41, for S
ut
= 690 MPa and r = 3 mm, q = 0.84. Thus, from Eq.
K
f
= 1 + q (K
t
1)
= 1 + 0.84(1.65 1)
= 1.55
(b) From below Eq. with S
ut
= 690 MPa = 100 kpsi,
= 0.0622 = 0.313
Substituting this into next Eq. with r = 3 mm gives
in
3 -8 2 -5 -3
)100 2.67(10 - )100 1.51(10 )100 3.08(10 - 0.246 + = a
mm
55 . 1
3
313 . 0
1
1 65 . 1
1
/ 1
1
1 =
+

+ =
+

+ =
r a
K
K
t
f
4.8 Fatigue Strength
3 / ) (logf
ut f
N S S =
fS
ut
S
e
10
3
10
6
Number of stress cycle (N)
Fatigue stress S
f
High cycle,
Finite life
S-NDiagram
=
e
ut
S
S f
b log
3
1
e
ut
S
S f
a
2
) (
=
b
f
aN S =
S
ut
High Cycle,
Infinite Life
Low cycle,
Finite life
10
0
36
490 560 630 700 770 840 910 980 1050 1120 1190 1260 1330 1400
S
ut
, MPa
4.8 Fatigue Strength cont
Figure 43
Fatigue strength fraction, f,
of S
ut
at 10
3
cycles for
S
e
= S
e
= 0.5S
ut
.
If S
ut
< 70 kpsi (490 MPa),
let f = 0.9
EXAMPLE 5
Given a 1050 HR steel, estimate
(a) the rotating-beam endurance limit at 10
6
cycles.
(b) the endurance strength of a polished rotating-beam specimen corresponding to 10
4
cycles to failure
(c) the expected life of a polished rotating-beam specimen under a completely reversed stress of 385 MPa.
fS
ut
S
e
10
3
10
6
Number of stress cycle (N)
F
a
t
i
g
u
e

s
t
r
e
s
s

S
f
S
ut
10
0
10
4
S
f
Solution
(a) From Table A20, S
ut
= 620 MPa.
S
e
= 0.5(630) = 310 MPa
( ) [ ]
917
310
620 86 . 0
2
= = a
( ) [ ]
0785 . 0
310
620 86 . 0
log
3
1
= = b
445 ) 10 ( 917 917 '
0785 . 0 4 0785 . 0
= = =

N S
f
(b) From Fig. 43, for S
ut
= 620 MPa, f .= 0.86.
0785 . 0 / 1 / 1
917
385 '

=
b
f
a
S
N
(c) With S
f
= 385 MPa,
) 10 ( 3 . 63
3
=
MPa
cycles
4.9 Characterizing Fluctuating Stresses
Fluctuating stresses in machinery often take the form of sinusoidal pattern
because of the nature of the nature of some rotating machinery.
Other patterns some quite irregular do occur.
where F
m
is the midrange steady component of force, and F
a
is the amplitude of the
alternating component of force.
4.9 Characterizing Fluctuating Stresses
2
min max
F F
F
m
+
=
2
min max
F F
F
a
=
In periodic patterns exhibiting a single maximum and single minimum of force,
the shape of the wave is not important.
The peaks on both sides (maximum, minimum) are important.
F
max
and F
min
in a cycle can be used to characterize the force pattern.
A steady component and an alternating component can be constructed as
follows:
4.9 Characterizing Fluctuating Stresses cont
Some stress-time relations:
Some stress-time relations:
(a) fluctuating stress with highfrequency ripple
S
t
r
e
s
s
Time
(b) nonsinusoidal fluctuating stress
S
t
r
e
s
s
Time
(c) nonsinusoidal fluctuating stress
S
t
r
e
s
s
Time
(d) sinusoidal fluctuating stress
S
t
r
e
s
s
Time
min
max
(e) repeated stress
S
t
r
e
s
s
Time
min
= 0
max
a
(f) Completely reversed sinusoidal stress
S
t
r
e
s
s
Time
m
= 0
min
max
a
9 9 Stress Range Stress Range
9 9 Mean (Midrange Stress) Mean (Midrange Stress)
9 9 Stress Amplitude Stress Amplitude
(Alternating Stress) (Alternating Stress)
9 9 Stress Ratio Stress Ratio
9 9 Amplitude Ratio Amplitude Ratio
(R =-1)
(R =0)
(R>0 )
mo fs m
K =
For a case that involved fluctuating bending stress or fluctuating shear
stress in the present of a notch, the equation for amplitude and mean stress
have become:
For a case that involved fluctuating bending stress or fluctuating shear
stress in the present of a notch, the equation for amplitude and mean stress
have become:
mo f m
K =
ao f a
K = and
and
ao fs a
K =
4.10 Combination of Loading Modes
[ ] [ ]
2 2
'
) ( ) ( 3 ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
torsion m torsion f axial m axial f bending m bending f
m K K K + + =
For a case that involved combinations of different types of loading, such as
combined bending, torsion, and axial.
For a case that involved combinations of different types of loading, such as
combined bending, torsion, and axial.
[ ]
2
2
'
) ( ) ( 3
85 . 0
) (
) ( ) ( ) (
torsion a torsion fs
axial a
axial f bending a bending f
a K K K
+ =
4.11 Factor of Safety
n S S
y
m
e
a
1
= +

n S S
ut
m
e
a
1
= +

1
2
=
+
ut
m
e
a
S
n
S
n
1
2
2
=
y
m
e
a
S
n
S
n
n
S
y
m a
= +
Soderberg
Modified-Goodman
Gerber
Asme-elliptic
Larger static yield
5 theories of fatigue failure
For torsion (shear) load only.
Use the same equations as apply for
m
0,
except replace
m
and
a
with
m
and
m
, use
k
c
= 0.59 for S
e
, replace S
ut
with S
su
= 0.67S
ut
and replace S
y
wih S
sy
= 0.577S
y
.
For torsion (shear) load only.
Use the same equations as apply for
m
0,
except replace
m
and
a
with
m
and
m
, use
k
c
= 0.59 for S
e
, replace S
ut
with S
su
= 0.67S
ut
and replace S
y
wih S
sy
= 0.577S
y
.
4.11 Factor of Safety cont
Figure 44
Load line which
intersection with fatigue
criterion
Load line which
intersection with static
Larger criterion
Intersection of static
and fatigue criterion
Table 41 Amplitude and Steady Coordinates of Strength and Important Intersections in
First Quadrant for Modified Goodman and Langer Failure Criteria
Load line which
criterion
Load line which
Larger criterion
First Quadrant for Gerber and Langer Failure Criteria
Load line which
criterion
Load line which
Larger criterion
First Quadrant for ASME-Elliptic and Langer Failure Criteria
Other Examples of Relevant Fatigue Exercise
Example 6-8 page 298
Fatigue additional notes
From Engineering Design text book (Shigley-Ninth Edition)
Chapter 5
Gears Part I
Week 5
2
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this topic, the students would be able to apply and
appreciate the knowledge to:
9 recognize types of gear that available and know the function
9 identify nomenclature of spur gear
9 construct a gear
9 perform load and power calculations analytically as applied to
a gears components.
CHAPTER 5 Gears
3
In this chapter (part 1), generally we will learn: In this chapter (part 1), generally we will learn:- -
5.1 - Introduction
5.2 - Types of Gears
5.3 - Nomenclature of Spur Gear
5.4 - Construction of Gear
5.5 - Forming of Gear Teeth
5.6 - Tooth Systems
5.7 - Gear Ratio
5.8 - Gear Train
5.9 - Contact Ratio
5.10 - Interference
5.11 - Force Analysis (Spur Gear)
5.12 - Force Analysis (Bevel Gear)
5.13 - Force Analysis (Helical Gear)
CHAPTER 5 Gears
Gear manufacturing video
4
5.1 Introduction
CHAPTER 5 Gears
To transmit power, torque and speed ideally, power is constant
To reduce and increase speed and torque
To increase efficiency and reliability of a system (no slip) compare
using other mechanism such as belt and pulley or chain and
sprocket.
Advantages:
Exact velocity ratio
May transfer large power
High efficiency
Reliable
Compact
Disadvantages:
High cost in manufacturing
(requires special tools)
Vibration & noise
Lubricant required
5
5.2 Type of Gears
CHAPTER 5 Gears
Spur Gear
Helical Gear
Bevel Gear
Worm Gear
6
5.2 Type of Gears cont
CHAPTER 5 Gears
SPUR GEAR
have teeth parallel to the axis of
rotation.
used to transmit rotary motion
between parallel shafts.
the simplest gear.
7
CHAPTER 5 Gears
HELICAL GEAR
have teeth inclined to the axis of
rotation.
Not make much noise during
meshing.
Inclined tooth also develops thrust
loads and bending couples.
Sometimes used to transmit motion
between nonparallel shafts.
8
CHAPTER 5 Gears
BEVEL GEAR
are essentially conically shaped.
Used to transmit rotary motion between
intersecting shafts. The angle between the
shafts can be anything except zero or 180
degrees eg. Differential
Bevel gear may be classified as follow:-
9 Straight bevel gears
9 Spiral bevel gears
9 Zerol bevel gears
9 Hypoid gears
9 Spiroid gears
9
CHAPTER 5 Gears
DIFFERENTIAL
10
Usually used for pitch line velocities up
to 1000 ft/min (5 m/s) when noise level
is not an important consideration.
Available in many stock sizes and less
expensive to produce than other bevel
gears.
CHAPTER 5 Gears
STRAIGHT BEVEL GEAR
11
have teeth that are both curved
along their (the tooth's) length; and
set at an angle, analogously to the
way helical gear teeth are set at an
angle compared to spur gear teeth.
Recommended for higher speeds
and where the noise level is an
important consideration.
CHAPTER 5 Gears
SPIRAL BEVEL GEAR
12
Have teeth which are curved along
their length, but not angled.
Permissible axial thrust load are not
large as those for the spiral bevel
gear
CHAPTER 5 Gears
ZEROL BEVEL GEAR
13
Hypoid gear - Similar to bevel
gears but with the relatively
small shafts offset.
Spiroid gear larger shaft
offset, the pinion begins to
resemble a tapered worm
CHAPTER 5 Gears
HYPOID AND SPIROID GEARS
Spiral gear
Hypoid
Spiroid
Ring gear
14
CHAPTER 5 Gears
WORM GEARS
Used to transmit rotary motion between
nonparallel and not intersecting shafts.
Worm is a gear that resembles a screw. It is
a species of helical gear, but its helix angle
is usually somewhat large and its body is
usually fairly long in the axial direction.
The worm can always drive the gear.
However, if the gear attempts to drive the
worm, it may or may not succeed.
15
CHAPTER 5 Gears
RACK & PINION
A rack is a toothed bar or rod that can be thought
of as a sector gear with an infinitely large radius of
curvature.
Torque can be converted to linear force by
meshing a rack with a pinion: the pinion turns; the
rack moves in a straight line.
Such a mechanism is used in automobiles to
convert the rotation of the steering wheel into the
left-to-right motion of the tie rod(s).
16
5.3 Nomenclature of Spur Gear
CHAPTER 5 Gears
5 3 Nomenclature of Spur Gear cont
CHAPTER 5 Gears
5.3 Nomenclature of Spur Gear cont
Pitch circle is a theoretical circle
upon which all calculations are
usually based.
Pitch diameter (D
p
) is a diameter Pitch diameter (D
p
) is a diameter
of pitch circle
Circular pitch (p
c
) is the distance,
froma point on one tooth to a from a point on one tooth to a
corresponding point on an adjacent
tooth (measured on the pitch circle).
D

d
p
c
P N
D
p

; =
(mm or inch)
Diametral pitch (P
d
) is the ratio of
the number of teeth on the gear to
the pitch diameter.
d
D
N
P = (Teeth per inch)
p
D
CHAPTER 5 Gears
Module (m) is the ratio of the
pitch diameter to the number of
teeth.
D
m
p
=
(mm)
Addendum (a) is a radial distance
N
Addendum (a) is a radial distance
between the top land and the pitch
circle.
P
m a
1
; = (mm or inch)
Dedendum (b) is the radial
distance fromthe bottomland to the
d
P
distance from the bottom land to the
pitch circle.
d
P
m b
25 . 1
; 25 . 1 =
(mm or
inch) This is a commonly used sizes for spur gear
tooth Refer tooth s stem for more info
d
tooth. Refer tooth system for more info.
CHAPTER 5 Gears
Whole Depth (h
t
) is the radial
distance from the bottom land to the
pitch circle.
b a h
t
+ = (mm or inch)
Clearance circle is a circle that is
tangent to the addendum circle of
the mating gear
t
the mating gear.
Clearance (c) is the amount by
which the dedendum in a given gear
exceeds the dum of its mating gear.
a b c =
(mm or inch)
Backlash is the amount by which
the width of a tooth space exceeds
the thickness of the engaging tooth
measured on the pitch circles
19
measured on the pitch circles.
5 4 Construction of Gear
CHAPTER 5 Gears
5.4 Construction of Gear
It is necessary that you actually be able to draw the teeth on a pair of meshing gear to obtain an understanding of the
probleminvolvedin the meshingof the matingteeth
First Draw the circle of gear layout
i) Calculate each pitch circle
problem involved in the meshing of the mating teeth.
1
1
1
mN
P
N
d
d
= =
2
2
2
mN
P
N
d
d
= =
2
2 1
d d
CD
+
= Where center distance of the gear is,
ii) Draw the pitch circle, d
1
& d
2
iii) Draw line ab
iv) Draw line cd through point P at an angle to the
common tangent ab. This line is also known as co o ta ge t ab s e s aso o as
pressure line, generating line or line of action.
v) Next, on each gear, draw a circle tangent to the
pressure line which known as base circle
cos r r = or radius of base gear is
vi) Then, draw the addendum and dedendum circle
cos r r
b
= or radius of base gear is,
a d d
a
2 + =
b d d 2
for addendum diameter,
f d d d di t
b d d
b
2 = for dedendum diameter,
21
t
5.4 Construction of Gear cont
CHAPTER 5 Gears
Second - Construct an involute curve
i) Divide the base circle into a number of equal
parts and construct radial lines OA
0
, OA
1
, OA
2
,
OA
3
, OA
4
, etc.
ii) Beginning at A
1
, construct perpendicular line
A
1
B
1
, A
2
B
2
, A
3
B
3
etc.
where distance A
1
B
1
=A
1
A
0
, A
2
B
2
=2A
1
B
1
,
A
3
B
3
=3A
1
B
1
etc.
iii) Then draw a curve at each end point of the
perpendicular line to construct the involute
curve. Make sure the involute curve has exceed
the addendum circle.
iv) To draw a tooth, we must know the thickness.
Therefore the tooth thickness is half the
distance of the circular pitch which measured on
pitch circle.
v) From tooth thickness we can determine the
angle needed, to make a mirror line between
it.
vi) Then the involute is mirror to another
halve at previous mirror line.
d
c
P
m p
t
2 2 2

= = = (mm or inch)
o
d
t

=
180
(
o
)
22
5.4 Construction of Gear cont
CHAPTER 5 Gears
vii) Trim the involute line at the needed range
between addendum and dedendum.
viii) Finally, array the complete tooth according to
the required number.
ix) Repeat the step (i) to the step (viii) to draw
the other tooth at the other mating gear.
23
5.5 Forming of Gear Teeth
CHAPTER 5 Gears
Milling
Gear teeth may be cut with a milling cutter shaped to conform to
the tooth space.
Shaping
May be generated with either a pinion cutter or rack cutter.
Pinion cutter reciprocates along the vertical axis and slowly fed
into the gear blank to the required depth.
Rack cutter reciprocates into the gear blank and roll slightly on
their pitch circle.
Hobbing
Is simply a cutting tool that is shaped like a worm.
Both the hob and the blank must be rotated when the hob fed
slowly across the face of the blank.
Finishing
Shaving or burnishing is needed to diminish error after cutting
until the surface become smooth.
Grinding and lapping are used for hardened gear teeth after heat
treatment.
Shaping Pinion cutter
Shaping Rack cutter
Hobbing
24
5.6 Tooth Systems
CHAPTER 5 Gears
Is a standard that specifies the relationships involving addendum, dedendum, working
depth, tooth thickness and pressure angle.
Planned to attain interchangeability.
Tooth Sysem Pressure Angle
, deg
Addendum
a
Dedendum
b
Full Depth 20 1/P
d
or 1m 1.25/P
d
or 1.25m
1.35/P
d
or 1.35m
22 1/P
d
or 1m 1.25/P
d
or 1.25m
1.35/P
d
or 1.35m
25 1/P
d
or 1m 1.25/P
d
or 1.25m
1.35/P
d
or 1.35m
Stub 20 0.8/P
d
or 0.8m 1/P
d
or 1m
Table 5-1 Standard and Commonly Used Tooth Systems for Spur Gears
25
5.6 Tooth Systems
CHAPTER 5 Gears
Diametral Pitch
Coarse 2, 2, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16
Fine 20, 24, 32, 40, 48, 64, 80, 96, 120, 150, 200
Table 5-2 Tooth Sizes in General Uses
Modules
Preffered 1, 1.25, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 32, 40, 50
Next Choice 1.125, 1.375, 1.75, 2.25, 2.75, 3.5, 4.5, 5.5, 7, 9, 11, 14, 18,
22, 28, 36, 45
26
5.7 Gear Ratio
CHAPTER 5 Gears
The gear ratio is a number, usually expressed as a decimal,
representing how many turns of the input gear cause one revolution of
the output gear. Gear ratio is suggested max. 1:10.
Also known as a Speed ratio.
It can be a relationship between the numbers of teeth on two gears that
are meshed or two sprockets connected with a common roller chain, or
the circumferences of two pulleys connected with a drive belt.
Consider a pinion (input) driving gear (output), speed ratio is given by:
i
o
i
o
i
o
o
i
T
T
d
d
N
N
n
n
= = =
where N =number of teeth
n =gear speed (rev/min)
d =pitch diameter (mm or in)
T =torque (Nm or Ib-in)
27
5.8 Gear Train
CHAPTER 5 Gears
Consist of multiple gears in the train, as shown in the two figures below :
2
6
5
4
3
3
2
6
n
N
N
N
N
N
N
n =
numbers tooth driven of product
numbers tooth driving of product
e =
F
L
n
n
e =
Train value,
where
n
L
=speed of the last gear
n
F
=speed of the first gear
where N =number of teeth
n =gear speed (rev/min)
28
5.8 Gear Train cont
CHAPTER 5 Gears
To calculate overall gear or speed ratio from multiple gearing system
e n
n
T
T
m
o
i
i
o
1
Ratio; Gear Overall
O - G
= = =
where T
F
=Torque at the first gear
T
L
=Torque at the final gear
n
F
=speed of the first gear (rev/min)
n
L
=speed of the last gear (rev/min)
e =train value
First
gear
Final
gear
29
5.8 Gear Train cont
CHAPTER 5 Gears
Motor
5 Hp
2000 rpm
Fill the table below:-
Component
Pitch
Diameter (in)
Speed
(rpm)
Torque
(ib-in)
motor -
2 (Pulley) -
3 (Pulley) -
4 (Bevel Gear)
5 (Bevel Gear)
6 (Spur Gear)
7 (Spur Gear)
8 (Worm Gear)
9 (Spur Gear)
P
d
=4 teeth/in
P
d
=4 teeth/in
P
d
=6 teeth/in
Example 5-1
Train value, e = ?
30
5.8 Gear Train cont
CHAPTER 5 Gears
Motor
5 Hp
2000 rpm
Fill the table below:-
Component
Pitch
Diameter (in)
Speed
(rpm)
Torque
(ib-in)
motor - 2000 157.5
2 (Pulley) - 2000 157.5
3 (Pulley) - 1200 262.5
4 (Bevel Gear) 4.5 1200 262.5
5 (Bevel Gear) 9.5 568.4 554.2
6 (Spur Gear) 5 568.4 554.2
7 (Spur Gear) 12 236.8 1330.1
8 (Worm Gear) 0.5 236.8 1330.1
9 (Spur Gear) 6 19.7 15961.2
P
d
=4 teeth/in
P
d
=4 teeth/in
P
d
=6 teeth/in
Example 5-1
Train value, 00985 . 0
2000
7 . 19
= = =
F
L
n
n
e
31
5.9 Contact Ratio
CHAPTER 5 Gears
On an involute profile gear tooth, the contact point starts closer to one gear, and as the gear
spins, the contact point moves away from that gear and toward the other.
If you were to follow the contact point, it would describe a straight line that starts near one
gear and ends up near the other.
This means that the radius of the contact point gets larger as the teeth engage.
32
5.9 Contact Ratio cont
CHAPTER 5 Gears
L ab
L
in
e
o
f C
o
n
ta
c
t
Addendum circle (pinion)
Pitch circle (pinion)
Clearance circle (pinion)
Dedendum circle (pinion)
Base circle (pinion)
Addendum circle (gear)
Pitch circle (gear)
Clearance circle (gear)
Dedendum circle (gear)
Base circle (gear)
P
re
s
s
u
re
L
in
e
r
a (pinion) r
b (pinion)
r
a (gear)
r
b (gear)
motion
33
5.9 Contact Ratio cont
cos
c
ab
p
L
CR =
CHAPTER 5 Gears
contact ratio (CR) is a number that indicates the average number of pairs of
teeth in contact.
In general gear arrangement, the number of teeth in contact (CR) determine the
smooth transmission CR must be 1.2 or more to reduce teeth impact as well
as noise level.
where
L
ab
=length of the line of action
p
c
=circular pitch
=pressure angle

cos
sin
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
c
b a b a
p
CD r r r r
CR
+
=
where
r
a
=addendum circle radius
r
b
=base circle radius
CD =center distance of the gear
34
5.10 Interference
CHAPTER 5 Gears
Interference the contact of portions
of tooth profiles that are not conjugate
Occur when first gear contact at the tip
of the driven tooth touch the flank of
the driving tooth before the involute
portion of the driving tooth comes
within the range (below the base circle
of gear 2).
Causing the involute tip or face of the
driven gear tends to dig out the
noninvolute flank of the driver.
Base circle
35
5.10 Interference cont
CHAPTER 5 Gears
To avoid interference ones has to calculate smallest number of pinion teeth can
exist without interference is N
P
where N
P
is:-
+ + +
+
=
2 2
2
sin ) 2 1 (
sin ) 2 1 (
2
G G G
G
P
m m m
m
k
N
2
sin
2k
N
P
=
+ + +
+
=
t G G G
t G
P
m m m
m
k
N
2 2
2
sin ) 2 1 (
sin ) 2 1 (
cos 2
t
P
k
N
2
sin
cos 2
=
For spur pinion
For spur pinion that operate with a rack
For helical pinion
For helical pinion that operate with a rack
Where:
k =1 (for full depth teeth)
k =0.8 (for stub teeth)
m
G
= mating gear ratio
=pressure angle
Where:
= helix angle
t
=tangential pressure angle
(refer slide 44)
36
5.11 Force Analysis (Spur Gear)
CHAPTER 5 Gears
37
5.11 Force Analysis (Spur Gear) cont
CHAPTER 5 Gears
kos
W
F W
t
= =
32
r
2 /
32
d
T
F W
t
t
= =
tan
32 t
r
r
W F W = = Free body diagrams of the forces and moments
acting upon two gears of a simple gear train.
F
32
F
23
F
a2
F
b3
T
b3
T
a2
3
2
a
b

(b)
Shows a pinion mounted
on a shaft a rotating
clockwise at n
2
rev/min
and driving a gear on a
shaft b at n
3
rev/min
n
3
n
2
3
2
a
b
(a)
Gear
Pinion
Gear force have been resolved into
tangential and radial components.
F
32
F
a2
a
(c)
n
2
T
a2
2
d
2
F
32
t
F
a2
t
F
a2
r
F
32
r
38
English unit SI unit
V =pitch-line velocity, ft/min
W
t
=transmitted load, Ibf
d =gear diameter, in
n =gear speed, rev/min
H =power, hp
V =pitch-line velocity, mm/s
W
t
=transmitted load, kN
d =gear diameter, mm
n =gear speed, rev/min
H =power, kW
12
dn
V

=
60
dn
V

=
CHAPTER 5 Gears
V
H
W
t
33000 =
dn
H
W
t
60000
=
39
CHAPTER 5 Gears
Example 5-2
Pinion 2 in this figure runs at 1750 rev/min
and transmits 2.5 kW to idle gear 3. The
teeth are cut on the 20
o
full-depth system
and have a module of m =2.5 mm. Draw a
free body diagram of gear 3 and show all
the forces that act upon it.
From above statement, it can be
summarizes that below are the info given :
n =1750 rpm
H =2.5 kW
=20
o
m =2.5
40
The pitch diameters for gears 2 and 3 are :
d
2
=mN
2
=2.5(20) =50 mm
d
3
=mN
3
=2.5(50) =125 mm
The transmitted load to be :
CHAPTER 5 Gears
Solution 5-2
FREE BODY
DIAGRAM
546 . 0
) 1750 )( 50 (
) 5 . 2 ( 60000 60000
2
= = =
n d
H
W
t
kN
546 . 0
23
=
t
F kN
199 . 0 20 tan 546 . 0 20 tan
23 23
= = =
o o r r
F F kN
581 . 0
20 cos
546 . 0
20 cos
23
23
= = =
o o
t
F
F kN
Thus, the tangential force , as
shown in free body diagram figure, Therefore
and so
41
Since gear 3 is idler, it transmits no power (torque) to its shaft, and so the tangential reaction of
gear 4 on gear 3 is also equal to W
t
. Therefore
CHAPTER 5 Gears
Solution 5-2 cont
347 . 0 ) 199 . 0 546 . 0 ( ) (
43 23 3
= + = + =
r t x
b
F F F kN
546 . 0
43
=
t
F kN
491 . 0 347 . 0 347 . 0
3
= + =
b
F kN
The shaft reactions in the x and y directions are
The resultant shaft reaction is
199 . 0
43
=
r
F kN 581 . 0
43
= F kN
347 . 0 ) 546 . 0 199 . 0 ( ) (
43 23 3
= = + =
t r y
b
F F F kN
42
5.12 Force Analysis (Bevel Gear)
P
G
N
N
= tan
CHAPTER 5 Gears
Terminology of bevel gears
G
P
N
N
= tan
Pinion pitch angle :
Gear pitch angle :
43
5.12 Force Analysis (Bevel Gear) cont
CHAPTER 5 Gears
r
av
x
y
z
W
t
W
W
a W
r
av
t
r
T
W =
Transmitted load :
where
T is the torque
r
av
is the pitch radius at the midpoint
W
t
is also known as tangential force
Radial Force :
cos tan
t r
W W =
Axial Force :
sin tan
t a
W W =
44
5.13 Force Analysis (Helical Gear)
CHAPTER 5 Gears
Normal circular pitch cos
t n
p p =
tan
t
x
p
p =
cos
t
n
P
P =
t
n
tan
tan
cos =
Axial pitch
Since p
n
P
n
=, the normal
diametral pitch is
Since
n
is a pressure angle in the normal
direction,
t
pressure angle in the direction of
rotation (transverse pressure angle) and is
the helix angle, these angle are related by the
equation:
Represent a
portion of top
view of a helical
rack
Lines ab and cd are the centerlines of two adjacent
helical teeth taken on the same pitch plane. The angle
is the helix angle. The distance ac is the transverse
circular pitch p
t
in the plane of rotation (usually called
the circular pitch).
45
5.13 Force Analysis (Helical Gear) cont
CHAPTER 5 Gears
Example 5-3
A stock helical gear has a normal pressure angle of 20
o
, a helix angle of 25
o
and a
transverse module of 5.0 mm and has 18 teeth. Find:
(a) The pitch diameter
(b) The transverse, the normal and the axial pitch
(c) The normal module
(d) The transverse pressure angle
Solution 5-3
(a) 90 ) 5 ( 18 = = =
t
Nm d mm
(b) 71 . 15 ) 5 ( = = =
t t
m p
mm
mm
46
CHAPTER 5 Gears
Solution 5-3 cont
or (c)
o
o
o
n
t
88 . 21
25 cos
20 tan
tan
cos
tan
tan
1 1
=
24 . 14 25 cos 71 . 15 cos = = =
o
t n
p p mm
69 . 33
25 tan
71 . 15
tan
= = =
o
t
x
p
p
mm
53 . 4
24 . 14
= = =

n
n
p
m mm 53 . 4 25 cos 5 cos = = =
o
t n
m m mm
(d)
47
CHAPTER 5 Gears
3 components of total (normal) tooth force W are :
n r
W W sin =
cos cos
n t
W W =
sin cos
n a
W W =
where
W=total force
W
v
=radial component
W
t
=tangential component, also called
transmitted load
W
a
=axial component, also called thrust load

n
=normal pressure angle
=helix angle
Chapter 5
Gears Part II
Week 6 & 7
2
Learning Outcomes
9analyses and design of spur and helical gears to resist
bending failure of the teeth as well as pitting failure of
tooth surfaces.
CHAPTER 5 Gears (Part II)
3
In this chapter, generally we will learn: In this chapter, generally we will learn:- -
5.14 - Introduction
5.15 - Lewis Bending Equation
5.16 - Surface Durability
5.17 - AGMA Stress Equations
5.18 - AGMA Strength Equations
5.19 - Safety Factors S
F
and S
H
4
5.14 Introduction
Occur when significant tooth stress
equals or exceeds either the yield
strength or bending endurance strength.
GEAR FAILURE
Teeth Bending
Failure
Tooth Surface
Pitting Failure
Occur when significant contact
stress equals or exceeds the
surface endurance strength.
Gear Standard and Quality
AGMA (American Gear Manufacturers Association)
BGA (British Gear Association)
JGMA (Japanese Gear Manufacturers Association)
EUROTRANS (European Committee of Associations of Manufacturers of Gears and Transmission Parts)
5
Example of Gear Catalog
Source: KHK Stock Gears Website: http://www.qtcgears.com/RFQ/SpurGears.htm
In gear selection, Allowable
torque is important criteria you
need to know. Why? How to
calculate it?
6
5.15 Lewis Bending Equation
FY
P W
d
t
=
If power is transmitted between mating gears,
there are transmitted force W
t
and radial force W
r
.
Maximum stress in a gear tooth is assume occurs
at point a as shown in the figure.
Bending stress in gear tooth according to Lewis
(1892):
Where;
W
t
= transmitted force (Ibf or N)
P
d
= diametral pitch (teeth per inch)
m = module (mm)
F = width of gear tooth (inch or mm)
Y = Lewis form factor (dimensionless)
(refer Table 5-3)
FmY
W
t
=
(U.S. customary units)
(SI units)
7
5.15 Lewis Bending Equation cont
Number of
Teeth
Y
Number
of Teeth
Y
12 0.245 28 0.353
13 0.261 30 0.359
14 0.277 34 0.371
15 0.290 38 0.384
16 0.296 43 0.397
17 0.303 50 0.409
18 0.309 60 0.422
19 0.314 75 0.435
20 0.322 100 0.447
21 0.328 150 0.460
22 0.331 300 0.472
24 0.337 400 0.480
26 0.346 Rack 0.485
Table 5-3: Values of the Lewis Form Factor Y
(These Values are for a Normal Pressure Angle
of 20
o
, Full Depth Teeth, and a Diametral Pitch
of Unity in the Plane of Rotation)
Lewis Form Factor, Y also can be calculate by
using this formula:-
3
2xP
Y =
Where;
x = distance refer figure slide 6
P = diametral pitch (teeth per inch)
Interpolation for Y value is needed if number of
teeth is not in the table.
8
US customary units
(Velocity in feet per
minute)
SI units
(Velocity in meters
per second)
Cast iron, cast
profile
Cut or milled
profile
Hobbed or
shaped profile
Shaved or
ground profile
Dynamic Effects, K
v
Present when a pair of
gears is driven at
moderate or high speed
and noise is generated.
Gear under dynamic
loading;
FY
P W K
d
t
v
=
FmY
W K
t
v
=
78
78 V
K
v
+
=
600
600 V
K
v
+
=
1 . 6
1 . 6 V
K
v
+
=
05 . 3
05 . 3 V
K
v
+
=
56 . 3
56 . 3 V
K
v
+
=
56 . 5
56 . 5 V
K
v
+
=
1200
1200 V
K
v
+
=
50
50 V
K
v
+
=
** Where V is the pitch line velocity
(U.S. customary
units)
(SI units)
9
A stock spur gear is available having a module of 3mm, a 38-mm face, 16 teeth, and a
pressure angle of 20
o
with full-depth teeth. The material is AISI 1020 steel in as-rolled
condition. Use a design factor of n
d
= 3 to rate the power output of the gear
corresponding to a speed of 20 rev/s and moderate applications.
Example 5-4
Example 5-4
Solution 5-4
Solution 5-4
The term moderate applications seems to imply that the gear can be rated by using the
yield strength as a criterion of failure. From table A-20 in appendix, we find S
ut
= 380 MPa
and S
y
= 210 MPa. A design factor of 3 means that the allowable bending stress is
MPa 0 . 70
3
210
= = =
d
y
allowable
n
S
10
48 ) 16 ( 3 = = = mN D
p
02 . 3 ) 20 )( 048 . 0 ( = = = dn V
5 . 1
1 . 6
02 . 3 1 . 6
1 . 6
1 . 6
=
+
=
+
=
V
K
v
Solution 5-4 - cont
Solution 5-4 - cont
The pitch diameter is, mm
So the pitch velocity is, m/s
Velocity factor is found to be,
So the transmitted force is,
v
allow t
K
mFY
W

=
5 . 1545
5 . 1
10 ) 7 . 68 ( 296 . 0 ) 038 . 0 ( 003 . 0
6
= =
t
W
The power that can be transmitted is,
4667 ) 02 . 3 ( 5 . 1545 = = = V W H
t
W
where Y = 0.296 for 16 teeth
N
This is a rough estimation, and that this approach must not be used for important application
11
Because a gear tooth experiences into and out engagement causes contact
stress wear and pitting
9 Wear depends on surface hardness
Pitting small particles are removed due to high contact stress in gear
Prolong operation after pitting
roughen (deteriorate) the teeth surface and
causing failure
To prevent pitting computed contact stress in the gear must not exceed the
allowable contact stress given by manufacturer.
Other factors can also be included in the contact stress calculation, namely:
reliability factor, velocity factor, size factor, etc.
5.16 Surface Durability
12
Surface Compressive stress (Hertzian stress),
C
5.16 Surface Durability cont
2 / 1
2 1
1 1
cos

+ =
r r F
W K
C
t
p c

Where;
C
p
= elastic coefficient
K
= dynamic or velocity factor

W
t
= transmitted force (Ibf or N)
F = width of gear tooth (inch or mm)
= Pressure angle
r
1
= radii of curvature on the pinion profile
r
2
= radii of curvature on the gear tooth profile
2
sin
1

P
d
r =
2
sin
2

G
d
r =
Sign is negative because
C
is a compressive stress.
13
AGMA defines an elastic coefficient ,C
p
by the equation
Value of C
p
may be computed directly from above equation or obtained from Table 5-4
2 / 1
2 2
1 1
1
=
G
G
P
P
p
E E
C

Where;
P
&
G
= Poissons ratio for pinion and gear
E
P
& E
G
= Modulus of Elasticity for pinion and gear
( ) MPa psi
14
Gear Material and Modulus of Elasticity E
G,
Ibf/in
2
(MPa)*
Pinion
Material
Pinion
Modulus of
Elasticity E
P
psi (MPa)*
Steel
30 x 10
6
(2 x 10
5
)
Malleable
Iron
25 x 10
6
(1.7 x 10
5
)
Nodular
Iron
24 x 10
6
(1.7 x 10
5
)
Cast Iron
22 x 10
6
(1.5 x 10
5
)
Aluminum
Bronze
17.5 x 10
6
(1.2 x 10
5
)
Tin Bronze
16 x 10
6
(1.1 x 10
5
)
Steel 30 x 10
6
(2 x 10
5
)
2300
(191)
2180
(181)
2160
(179)
2100
(174)
1950
(162)
1900
(158)
Malleable
iron
25 x 10
6
(1.7 x 10
5
)
2180
(181)
2090
(174)
2070
(172)
2020
(168)
1900
(158)
1850
(154)
Nodular
iron
24 x 10
6
(1.7 x 10
5
)
2160
(179)
2070
(172)
2050
(170)
2000
(166)
1880
(156)
1830
(152)
Cast iron 22 x 10
6
(1.5 x 10
5
)
2100
(174)
2020
(168)
2000
(166)
1960
(163)
1850
(154)
1800
(149)
Aluminum
bronze
17.5 x 10
6
(1.2 x 10
5
)
1950
(162)
1900
(158)
1880
(156)
1850
(154)
1750
(145)
1700
(141)
Tin bronze 16 x 10
6
(1.1 x 10
5
)
1900
(158)
1850
(154)
1830
(152)
1800
(149)
1700
(141)
1650
(137)
Table 5-4: Elastic Coefficient C
p
, ( ) MPa psi
Poissons ratio = 0.30
* When more exact values for modulus of elasticity are obtained from roller contact test, they may be used.
15
The pinion of Examples 5-4 is to be mated with a 50-tooth gear manufactured of ASTM
No. 50 cast iron. Using the tangential load of 1700N, estimate the factor of safety of the
drive based on the possibility of a surface fatigue failure.
Example 5-5
Example 5-5
Solution 5-5
Solution 5-5
From Table A-5
E
P
= 207 GPa
E
G
= 100 GPa
P
= 0.292
G
= 0.211
16
Solution 5-5 - cont
Solution 5-5 - cont
From Example 5-4, the pinion pitch diameter is d
P
= 48 mm.
Calculated the elastic coefficient as 3 . 150927
) 10 ( 100
) 211 . 0 ( 1
) 10 ( 207
) 292 . 0 ( 1
1
2 / 1
9
2
9
2
=
p
C
The gear pitch diameter is, mm 150 ) 50 ( 3 = = =
G G
mN d
Then the radii curvature of the tooth profiles at the pitch point.
2 . 8
2
20 sin 48
= =
P
r 7 . 25
2
20 sin 150
= =
G
r mm mm
5 16 Surface Durability cont
Solution 5-5 - cont
The face width is given as F =38 mm. Use K
= 1.5 from example 5-4. Substituting all

th l t l l t t t t these values to calculate contact stress as:
5 . 511
1 1 ) 1700 ( 5 . 1
3 . 150927
2 / 1
=
+ = MPa 5 . 511
0257 . 0 0082 . 0 20 cos 038 . 0
3 . 150927

+
o c
The surface endurance strength of cast iron can be estimated from

B c
H S 206 . 2 = MPa
g
B c
From table A24, ASTM No. 50 cast iron H
B
=262 578 ) 262 ( 206 . 2 = =
c
S MPa
28 . 1
5 . 511
578
_
_ _ _
2
2
2
=
= = =
C
C
S
load imposed
load function of loss
n

5 17 AGMA Stress Equation
5.17 AGMA Stress Equation
2 fundamental stress equations q
Bending stress
K K P
K K K W
B m d t
Where ;
W
t
=tangential transmitted load (ibf or N)
K
o
=overload factor
(U.S.
t
=
K K
K K K W
J F
K K K W
B m
s v o
t
s v o
1
o
K
v
=dynamic factor
K
s
=size factor
P
d
=transverse diameteral pitch
F =face width (in or mm)
customary
units)
(SI units)
J Fm
t
s v o F =face width (in or mm)
K
m
=load distribution factor
K
B
=rim thickness factor
J =geometry factor for bending strength
( )
Pitting resistance (contact stress)
m
t
=transverse metric module
C
K
K K K W C
f
m t
(U.S.
Where ;
C
p
=elastic coefficient ( ibf/in
2
or N/mm
2
)
I F d
K K K W C
f
p
m
s v o p c
= customary or
SI units)
p
( )
C
f
=surface condition factor (still not been
establish) used C
f
=1
d
p
=pitch diameter of the pinion (in or mm)
I =geometry factor for pitting resistance
g y p g
5 17 AGMA Stress Equation cont
5.17 AGMA Stress Equation cont
Overload Factor, K
o
,
o
Is intended to make allowance for all externally applied loads in excess of the
nominal tangential load, W
t
in a particular application.
Table 5-5: Overload Factors, K
o
Similar factors such as application factor or service factor
Driven Machine
Power Source Uniform Moderate shock Heavy shock
Generator,
C t if l
Machine tool main drive,
lti li d
Ore crusher, rolling mill, power
h l i l li d Centrifugal
compressor, pure
liquid mixer
multi-cylinder compressor
or pump, liquid +solid
mixer
shovel, single cylinder
compressor or pump, punch
press
Uniform
Electric motor, steamturbine, gas
turbine 1.00 1.25 1.75
Light shock
Multi cylinder internal combustion
engine with many cylinder 1.25 1.50 2.00
Medium shock
Single cylinder internal combustion
engine 1.50 1.75 2.25
5 17 AGMA Stress Equation cont
Dynamic Factor, K
v
Used to account for inaccuracies in the manufacture and meshing of gear teeth in action.
AGMA has define a set of quality numbers (Q
v
) to specify the tolerances for gears of
i i f t d t ifi d
y ,
v
various sizes manufactured to a specified accuracy.
Q
v
=3 to 7 for most commercial-quality gears
Q
v
=8 to 12 for precision quality Q
v
8 to 12 for precision quality
Dynamic factor equation :
+
B
V A
where ;
+
B
v
V A
A
V A
K
200
V in ft/min
V i /
) 1 ( 56 50 B A + =
3 / 2
) 12 ( 25 . 0
v
Q B =
Maximum velocity, (at the end point of the Q
v
curve) ;
+
A
V A 200
( )
[ ]
[ ]
+
=
3 (
3 (
2
2
v
t
Q A
Q A
V
V in m/s
ft/min
20
y, ( p Q
v
) ;
( )
[ ]
+
200
3 (
2
max
v
t
Q A
V
m/s
21
Figure 5-1: Dynamic factor K
v
22
The size factor reflects nonuniformity of material properties due to size. It depends upon
Tooth size
Diameter of part
Ratio of tooth size to diameter of part
Face width
Area of stress pattern
Ratio of case depth to tooth size
Hardenability and heat treatment
AGMA size factor equation :
If K
s
is less than 1, use K
s
= 1
Size Factor, K
s
0535 . 0
192 . 1

=
d
s
P
Y F
K
(U.S.
customary
units)
( )
0535 . 0
904 . 0 Y Fm K
s
=
(SI units)
23
The load modification factor modified the stress equations to reflect nonuniform
distribution of load across the line of contact.
The ideal is to locate the gear midspan between two bearings at the zero slope place
when the load is applied.
However this is not always possible. The following procedure is applicable to:
Net face width to pinion pitch diameter ratio F / d 2
Gear elements mounted between the bearings
Face widths up to 40 in
Contact, when loaded, across the full width of the narrowest member
Face load distribution factor :
Load Distribution Factor, K
m
) ( 1
e ma pm pf mc mf m
C C C C C C K + + = =
24
where
8 . 0
1
mc
C
+
+
=
2
000228 . 0 0207 . 0 1109 . 0
10
0125 . 0 0375 . 0
10
025 . 0
10
F F
d
F
F
d
F
d
F
C
pf
m
(cont)
for uncrowned teeth
for crowned teeth
F 1 in
1< F 17 in
17 < F 40 in
Examples of crowned teeth
for values of , is used. 05 . 0
10
<
d
F
05 . 0
10
=
d
F
d and F must
be in US
customary
units (in)
25
m
(cont)
for straddle-mounted pinion with S
1
/S < 0.175
1 . 1
1
pm
C
for straddle-mounted pinion with S
1
/S 0.175
Figure 5-2: Definition of distances S and S
1
used in evaluating C
pm
26
2
CF BF A C
ma
+ + =
m
(cont)
Table 5-6: Empirical Constants A, B, and C for Face Width F in Inches
Condition A B C
Open Gearing 0.247 0.0167 -0.765(10
-4
)
Commercial, enclosed units 0.127 0.0158 -0.930(10
-4
)
Precision, enclosed units 0.0675 0.0128 -0.926(10
-4
)
Extra precision enclosed gear units 0.00360 0.0102 -0.822(10
-4
)
27
m
(cont)
Figure 5-3: Mesh alignment factor C
ma
28
m
(cont)
for gearing adjusted at assembly, or compatibility
is improved by lapping, or both
for all other conditions
=
8 . 0
1
e
C
29
Rim thickness factor adjusts the estimate bending stress for the thin-rimmed gear.
If the rim thickness is not sufficient to provide full support for the tooth root, the location of
bending fatigue failure may be through the gear rim rather than at the tooth fillet.
Rim thickness factor :
Rim-Thickness Factor, K
B
=
1
242 . 2
ln 6 . 1
B B
m K
m
B
< 1.2
m
B
1.2
where m
B
is a function of the backup ratio
t
R
B
h
t
m =
30
Rim-Thickness Factor, K
B
(cont)
Figure 5-4: Rim thickness factor K
B
31
Bending-Strength Geometry Factor, J
Figure 5-5: Spur-gear geometry factors J.
Used Fig. 5-5 to obtain
the geometry factor J
for spur gears having a
20
o
pressure angle and
full-depth teeth. Use
Fig. 5-6 and 5-7 for
helical gears having a
20
o
normal pressure
angle and face contact
ratios of m
F
= 2 or
greater. For other
gears, consult the
AGMA standard.
32
Bending-Strength Geometry Factor, J cont
Figure 5-6: Helical-gear geometry factors J.
33
Bending-Strength Geometry Factor, J cont
Figure 5-7: J factor multipliers for use with
Fig. 10-6 to find J.
34
Surface-Strength Geometry Factor, I
Also known as pitting-resistance geometry factor by AGMA
For both spur and helical gears:-
external gears
+
=
1 2
sin cos
1 2
sin cos
G
G
N
t t
G
G
N
t t
m
m
m
m
m
m
I

internal gears
m
N
= Load sharing ratio ( = 1 for spur gear)
m
G
= Gear ratio (never less than 1)
t
= Transverse pressure angle
where:
Z
p
m
N
N
95 . 0
= n n N
p p cos =
P
N
= Normal base pitch
P
n
= Normal circular pitch
n
= Normal pressure angle
Z = Length line of action in transverse plane.
(distance L
ab
in slide chapter 9 page 35)
and
where
For helical gear
( ) [ ] ( ) [ ] ( )
t G P G b G P b P
r r r a r r a r Z sin
2 / 1
2 2
2 / 1
2 2
+ + + + =
r
P,G
= pitch radius (pinion or gear)
a = addendum
r
b P,G
= base circle radius
(pinion or gear)
t b
r r cos =
35
5.18 AGMA Strength Equation
AGMA introduced 2 types of strength:
1) S
t
- Gear bending strength (Allowable bending stress number)
(refer Figs. 5-8, 5-9, 5-10 and Tables 5-7, 5,8)
2) S
c
- Contact fatigue strength (Allowable contact stress number)
(refer Fig. 5-11 and Tables 5-9, 5,10, 5-11)
Both allowable stress numbers (strength) are for:
9 Unidirectional loading
9 10 million stress cycles
9 99 % reliability
36
5.18 AGMA Strength Equation cont
Equation for allowable bending stress:
Z
N
F
t
R T
N
F
t
all
Y Y
Y
S
S
K K
Y
S
S

(SI units)
S
t
= Gear bending strength, Ibf/in
2
(MPa)
Y
N
= Stress cycle factor for bending stress
K
t
(Y
) = Temperature factor
K
R
(Y
Z
) = Reliability factor
S
F
= AGMA factor of safety, stress ratio
where
(refer Figs. 5-8, 5-9, 5-10 and Tables 5-7, 5,8)
(refer Tables 5-12)
(refer Figs. 5-12)
37
Equation for contact bending stress:
Z
W N
H
c
R T
H N
H
c
all c
Y Y
Z Z
S
S
K K
C Z
S
S
,
(SI units)
S
c
= Contact fatigue strength, Ibf/in
2
(MPa)
Z
N
= Stress cycle life factor
C
H
(Z
W
) = Hardness ratio factors for pitting resistance (used for gear only)
K
t
(Y
) = Temperature factor
K
R
(Y
Z
) = Reliability factor
S
H
= AGMA factor of safety, stress ratio
where
(refer Fig. 5-11 and Tables 5-9, 5,10, 5-11)
(refer Figs. 5-14 & 5-15)
(refer Tables 5-12)
(refer Figs. 5-13)
38
Figure 5-8: Allowable bending stress number for through-hardened steels. The SI equations are
S
t
= 0.533H
B
+ 88.3 MPa, grade 1, and S
t
= 0.703 H
B
+ 113 MPa, grade 2.
(Source: ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04 and 2101-D04.)
39
Figure 5-9: Allowable bending stress number for nitrided through-hardened steels gears (i.e., AISI 4140, 4340) S
t
.
The SI equations are S
t
= 0.568H
B
+ 83.8 MPa, grade 1, and S
t
= 0.749 H
B
+ 110 MPa, grade 2.
(Source: ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04 and 2101-D04.)
40
Figure 5-10: Allowable bending
stress number for nitriding steels
gears S
t
. The SI equations are :
S
t
= 0.594H
B
+ 87.76 MPa,
Nitralloy grade 1,
S
t
= 0.784H
B
+ 114.81 MPa,
Nitralloy grade 2,
S
t
= 0.7255H
B
+ 63.89 MPa,
2.5% chrome grade 1,
S
t
= 0.7255H
B
+ 153.63 MPa,
2.5% chrome grade 2
S
t
= 0.7255H
B
+ 201.91 MPa,
2.5% chrome grade 3.
(Source: ANSI/AGMA
2001-D04 and 2101-D04.)
41
Material
Designation Heat Treatment
Minimum
Surface
Hardness
Allowable Bending Stress Number, S
t
2
psi (MPa)
Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3
Steel Through-hardened See Fig. 5-8 See Fig. 5-8 See Fig. 5-8 -
Flame or induction
hardened with type
A pattern
45 000 (310) 55 000 (380) -
Flame or induction
hardened with type
B pattern
22 000 (151) 22 000 (151) -
Carburized and
hardened
55 000 (380) 65 000 or (448 or
70 000
6
482)
75 000 (517)
Nitrided (through-
hardened steels)
83.5 HR15N See Fig. 5-9 See Fig. 5-9 -
Nitralloy 135M,
Nitralloy N, and
2.5% chrome
(no aluminum)
Nitrided 87.5 HR15N See Fig. 5-10 See Fig. 5-10 See Fig. 5-10
Table 5-7: Repeatedly Applied Bending Strength S
t
at 10
7
Cycles and 0.99 Reliability for Steel Gears
Source: ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04
42
Material Material
Designation
Heat Treatment Typical Minimum
Surface Hardness
Allowable Bending
Stress Number, S
t
psi (MPa)
ASTM A48
gray cast
iron
Class 20 As cast - 5000 (35)
Class 30 As cast 174 HB 8500 (58)
Class 40 As cast 201 HB 13 000 (90)
ASTM A536
ductile
(nodular)
Iron
Grade 60-40-18 Annealed 140 HB 22 000 - 33 000 (151 - 227)
Grade 80-55-06 Quenched and tempered 179 HB 22 000 - 33 000 (151 - 227)
Bronze Sand cast Minimum tensile
strength 40 000 psi
5700 (39)
ASTM B-148
Alloy 954
Heat treated Minimum tensile
strength 90 000 psi
23 600 (163)
Table 5-8: Repeatedly Applied Bending Strength S
t
for Iron and Bronze Gears at 10
7
Cycles and 0.99 Reliability
43
Figure 5-11: Contact-fatigue
strength S
c
at 10
7
cycles and 0.99
reliability for through-hardened steel
gears. The SI equations are :
S
c
= 2.22H
B
+ 200 MPa, grade 1,
and
S
c
= 2.41H
B
+ 237 MPa, grade 2.
(Source: ANSI/AGMA
2001-D04 and 2101-D04.)
44
Steel
Temperature
Before
Nitriding,
o
F
Nitriding,
o
F
Hardness, Rockwell
C Scale
Case Core
Nitralloy 135 1150 975 62 - 65 30 - 35
Nitralloy 135M 1150 975 62 - 65 32 - 36
Nitralloy N 1000 975 62 - 65 40 - 44
AISI 4340 1100 975 48 - 53 27 - 35
AISI 4140 1100 975 49 - 54 27 - 35
31 Cr Mo V 9 1100 975 58 - 62 27 - 33
Table 5-9: Nominal Temperature Used in Nitriding and Hardnesses Obtained
Source: Darle W. Dudley, Handbook of Practical Gear Design, rev. ed., McGraw-Hill. New York, 1984
45
Material
Designation Heat Treatment
Minimum
Surface
Hardness
Allowable Contact Stress Number, S
c
2
psi (MPa)
Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3
Steel Through-hardened See Fig. 5-11 See Fig. 5-11 See Fig. 5-11
Flame or induction
hardened
50 HRC
54 HRC
170 000 (1172)
175 000 (1206)
190 000 (1310)
195 000 (1344)

Carburized and
hardened
180 000 (1240) 225 000 (1551) 275 000 (1896)
Nitrided (through-
hardened steels)
83.5 HR15N
84.5 HR15N
150 000 (1035)
155 000 (1068)
163 000 (1123)
168 000 (1158)
175 000 (1206)
180 000 (1240)
2.5% chrome
(no aluminum)
Nitrided 87.5 HR15N 155 000 (1068) 172 000 (1186) 189 000 (1303)
Nitralloy 135M Nitrided 90.0 HR15N 170 000 (1172) 183 000 (1261) 195 000 (1344)
Nitralloy N Nitrided 90.0 HR15N 172 000 (1186) 188 000 (1296) 205 000 (1413)
2.5% chrome
(no aluminum)
Nitrided 90.0 HR15N 176 000 (1213) 196 000 (1351) 216 000 (1490)
Table 5-10: Repeatedly Applied Contact Strength S
c
at 10
7
Cycles and 0.99 Reliability for Steel Gears
46
Material Material
Designation
Heat Treatment Typical Minimum
Surface Hardness
Allowable Contact
Stress Number, S
c
psi (MPa)
ASTM A48
gray cast
iron
Class 20 As cast - 50 000 60 000 (344 415)
Class 30 As cast 174 HB 65 000 75 000 (448 517)
Class 40 As cast 201 HB 75 000 85 000 (517 586)
ASTM A536
ductile
(nodular)
Iron
Grade 60-40-18 Annealed 140 HB 77 000 92 000 (530 634)
Grade 80-55-06 Quenched and tempered 179 HB 77 000 92 000 (530 634)
Bronze Sand cast Minimum tensile
strength 40 000 psi
30 000 (206)
ASTM B-148
Alloy 954
Heat treated Minimum tensile
strength 90 000 psi
65 000 (448)
Table 5-11: Repeatedly Applied Contact Strength S
c
for Iron and Bronze Gears at 10
7
Cycles and 0.99 Reliability
47
Figure 5-12:
Repeatedly applied bending
strength stress-cycle factor Y
N
.
(Source: ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04)
Stress Cycle Factor for Bending Stress, Y
N
48
Figure 5-13:
Pitting resistance stress-cycle
factor Z
N
.
Stress Cycle Life Factor, Z
N
49
Hardness Ratio Factor, C
H
Pinion is subjected to more cycles of contact stress (due to smaller size)
The hardness-ratio factor is used only for gear to adjust the gear surface strength due to different
condition of pinion and gear hardness and size;
) 1 ( ' 1 + =
G H
m A C
7 . 1 2 . 1
(G)
(P)

B
B
H
H
Hardness Ratio Factor,
C
H
Hardness
Ratio
Both pinion and gear are
through hardened
Surface hardened pinion is
mated with through hardened
gear
See figure 10-14 (slide 50)
A = 0
A = 0.00698
Surface hardened pinions with
hardnesses of 48 Rockwell C
scale or harder mated with
through hardened gears (180-
400 Brinell)
See figure 10-15 (slide 51)
B = 0.00075 exp [ 0.0112 f
P
]
where f
P
is the surface finish of the pinion expressed
as root-mean-square roughness R
a
in in.
2 . 1
(G)
(P)
<
B
B
H
H
7 . 1
(G)
(P)
>
B
B
H
H
(G)
(P)
B
B
H
H
) 10 ( 29 . 8 ) 10 ( 98 . 8 '
3
(G)
(P) 3

=
B
B
H
H
A
) 450 ( ' 1
BG H
H B C + =
50
Figure 5-14:
Hardness ratio factor C
H
(through-hardened steel).
H
51
Figure 5-15:
Hardness ratio factor C
H
(surface-hardened steel pinion).
H
52
Reliability Factor, K
R
(Y
Z
)
Reliability K
R
(Y
Z
)
0.9999 1.50
0.999 1.25
0.99 1.00
0.90 0.85
0.50 0.70
Table 5-12: Realibility Factor K
R
(Y
Z
)
Temperature Factor, K
T
(Y
)
) 120 ( 250 C F e temperatur
o o
1 = =

Y K
T
For higher temperature, heat exchangers may be
used to ensure that operating temperatures are
considerably below this value.
53
5.19 Safety Factors S
F
and S
H
Safety factor S
F
guarding against bending failure:
) /(
R T N t
F
K K Y S
S = =
stress bending
strength bending corrected fully
Safety factor S
H
guarding against pitting failure:
c
R T H N c
H
K K C Z S
S
) /(
*
= =
stress contact
strength contact corrected fully
* Important:
When deciding whether bending or wear is the threat to function, compare S
F
with S
2
H
. For
crowned gears compare S
F
with S
3
H
.
54
Roadmap of Gear Analysis
Refer also roadmap given in the Shigleys Mechanical Engineering Design book (9
th
edition):
Roadmap of spur gear bending equations based on AGMA standards in U.S. customary units. (ANSI/AGMA 2001-
D04) Figure 14-17 page 766
Roadmap of spur gear wear equations based on AGMA standards in U.S. customary units. (ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04)
Figure 14-17 page 767
Roadmap of spur gear bending equations based on AGMA standards in SI units. (ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04) Figure
B-1 page 1061
Roadmap of spur gear wear equations based on AGMA standards in SI units. (ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04) Figure B-2
page 1062
Roadmap summary of principal straight-bevel gear wear equations and their parameters in U.S. customary units.
(ANSI/AGMA 2003-B97). Figure 15-14 page 801
Roadmap summary of principal straight-bevel gear bending equations and their parameters in U.S. customary units.
(ANSI/AGMA 2003-B97). . Figure 15-15 page 802
Roadmap summary of principal straight-bevel gear wear equations and their parameters based on AGMA standards
in SI units. Figure B-3 page 1063
Roadmap summary of principal straight-bevel gear bending equations and their parameters based on AGMA
standards in SI units. Figure B-4 page 1064
55
Roadmap of Gear Analysis (Spur Gear Bending)
Gear
bending
stress
equation
AGMA standards in U.S. customary units. (ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04)
d
P
P
P
N
d =
12
dn
V

=
V
H
W
t
33000
=
J
K K
F
P
K K K W
B m d
s v o
t
=
) /(
R T N t
F
K K Y S
S =
R T
N
F
t
all
K K
Y
S
S
=
Gear
bending
endurance
strength
equation
Bending
factor of
safety
Remember when deciding whether bending or wear is the threat to function, compare S
F
with S
2
H
.
For crowned gears compare S
F
with S
3
H
.
Slide 19
Slide 20, 21
Slide 22
Slide 23
Slide 29, 30
Slide 31 (Spur Gear)
Slide 32, 33 (Helix gear)
Slide 38 ~42
Slide 47
1 if T <250
o
F
Slide 52
(slide 18)
(slide 36)
(slide 53)
56
Roadmap of Gear Analysis (Spur Gear Wear)
Gear
contact
stress
equation
AGMA standards in U.S. customary units. (ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04)
d
P
P
P
N
d =
12
dn
V

=
V
H
W
t
33000
=
=
I
C
F d
K
K K K W C
f
P
m
s v o
t
p c
c
R T H N c
H
K K C Z S
S
) /(
=
R T
H N
H
c
all c
K K
C Z
S
S
=
,
Gear
contact
endurance
strength
equation
Wear
factor
of
safety
Remember when deciding whether bending or wear is the threat to function, compare S
F
with S
2
H
.
For crowned gears compare S
F
with S
3
H
.
Slide 19
Slide 20, 21
Slide 22
Slide 23
1
Slide 34
Slide 43 ~46
Slide 48
1 if T <250
o
F
Slide 52
(slide 18)
(slide 37)
(slide 53)
Slide 13, 14
Slide 49
(Gear only)
Gear only
57
Examples
A 17-tooth 20
o
pressure angle spur pinion rotates at 1800 rev/min and transmits 4 hp to a 52-tooth
disk gear. The diametral pitch is 10 teeth/in, the face width 1.5 in, and the quality standard is No. 6.
The gears are straddle-mounted with bearings immediately adjacent. The pinion is grade 1 steel with
a hardness of 240 Brinell tooth surface through-hardened core. The gear is steel, through-hardened
also, grade 1 material, with a Brinell hardness of 200, tooth surface and core. Poissons ratio is 0.30,
J
P
=0.30, J
G
=0.40, and Youngs modulus is 30(10
6
) psi. The loading is smooth because of motor and
load. Assume a pinion life of 10
8
cycles and a reliability of 0.90, and use Y
N
=1.3558N
-0.0178
,
Z
N
=1.4488N
-0.023
. The tooth profile is uncrowned. This is a commercial enclosed gear unit.
a) Find the factor of safety of the gears in bending.
b) Find the factor of safety of the gears in wear.
c) By examining the factors of safety, identify the threat to each gear and to the mesh.
Example 5-6
Example 5-6
58
Examples cont
Solution 5-6
Solution 5-6
in 7 . 1 10 / 17 / = = =
d P P
P N d
in 2 . 5 10 / 52 = =
G
d
ft/min 801.1
12
1800 ) 7 . 1 (
12
= = =

P P
n d
V
ibf 8 . 64 1
1 . 801
) 4 ( 33000 33000
= = =
V
H
W
t
Assuming uniform loading, K
o
= 1. To evaluate K
v
,
with a quality number Q
v
= 6,
There will be many term to obtain, so use roadmap in slide 54 & 55 as guides to what is needed:
8255 . 0 ) 6 12 ( 25 . 0
3 / 2
= = B
77 . 59 ) 8255 . 0 1 ( 56 50 = + = A
377 . 1
77 . 59
1 . 801 77 . 59
8255 . 0
=
+
=
v
K
To determine the size factor, K
s
, the Lewis form
factor is needed. From table 5-3, with N
P
= 17 teeth,
Y
P
= 0.303. Interpolation for the gear with N
G
= 52
teeth yields Y
G
= 0.412. Thus, with F = 1.5 in ,
( ) 043 . 1
10
303 . 0 5 . 1
192 . 1
0535 . 0
=
+
=
P s
K
( ) 052 . 1
10
412 . 0 5 . 1
192 . 1
0535 . 0
=
+
=
G s
K
59
Examples cont
Solution 5-6 cont
Solution 5-6 cont
( ) 0695 . 0 ) 5 . 1 ( 0125 . 0 0375 . 0 )] 7 . 1 ( 10 /[ 5 . 1 = + =
P
pf
C
The load distribution factor Km is determined where 5
terms are needed: They are
) (uncrowned 1 =
mc
C
adjacent) y immediatel (Bearing 1 =
pm
C
unit) gear enclosed l (Commercia 15 . 0 =
ma
C
1 =
e
C
( )
( ) 18 . 1
22 . 1
)] 1 ( 15 . 0 ) 1 ( 0695 . 0 [ 1 1
) ( 1
=
=
+ + =
+ + =
G m
e ma pm pf mc P m
K
C C C C C K
Assuming constant thickness gears, the rim
thickness factor K
B
= 1. The speed ratio is
m
G
= N
G
/ N
P
= 52 / 17 = 3.059.
The load cycle factors given in the problem
statement, with N
(pinion)
= 10
8
cycles and
N
(gear)
= 10
8
/ m
G
= 10
8
/ 3.059 cycles are:
996 . 0 ) 059 . 3 / 10 ( 3558 . 1 ) (
977 . 0 ) 10 ( 3558 . 1 ) (
0178 . 0 8
0178 . 0 8
= =
= =
G N
P N
Y
Y
From table 5-12 (slide 52), with a reliability of 0.9,
K
R
= 0.85, From slide 56, the temperature and
surface condition factor; K
T
= 1 & C
f
= 1. From slide
34, with m
N
= 1 for spur gears;
121 . 0
1 059 . 3
059 . 3
2
20 sin 20 cos
=
+
=
o o
I
( ) 0313 . 0 ) 5 . 1 ( 0125 . 0 0375 . 0 05 . 0 = + =
G
pf
C
60
Examples cont
Solution 5-6 cont
Solution 5-6 cont
From table 5-4 (slide 14), C
P
= 2300 .
Next, the terms of gear endurance strength need to
be calculate. From table 5-7 (slide 41) for grade 1
through-hardened steel with H
B(P)
= 240 and
H
B(G)
= 200 select figure 5-8 (slide 38) ;
( )
( ) psi 260 , 28 800 , 12 ) 200 ( 3 . 77
psi 350 , 31 800 , 12 ) 240 ( 3 . 77
= + =
= + =
G t
P t
S
S
psi
Similarly, from table 5-10 (slide 45), use figure 10-11
(slide 43)
( )
( ) psi 500 , 93 100 , 29 ) 200 ( 322
psi 400 , 106 100 , 29 ) 240 ( 322
= + =
= + =
G c
P c
S
S
Form figure 5-13 (slide 48) ;
( )
( ) 973 . 0 ) 059 . 3 / 10 ( 4488 . 1
948 . 0 ) 10 ( 4488 . 1
023 . 0 8
023 . 0 8
= =
= =
G N
P N
Z
Z
For the hardness ratio factor C
H
, the hardness
ratio is H
B(P)
/ H
B(G)
= 240/200 = 1.2. Then, from
slide 49
00249 . 0 ) 10 ( 29 . 8 ) 2 . 1 )( 10 ( 98 . 8 '
3 3
= =

A
005 . 1 ) 1 059 . 3 ( 00249 . 0 1 = + =
H
C
61
Examples cont
Solution 5-6 cont
Solution 5-6 cont
(a) Pinion tooth bending
psi 6417
30 . 0
) 1 ( 22 . 1
5 . 1
10
) 043 . 1 )( 377 . 1 )( 1 ( 8 . 164
) (
=
=
P
B m d
s v o
t
P
J
K K
F
P
K K K W
5.62
6417
) 85 . 0 ( 1 / ) 977 . 0 ( 350 , 31

/
) (
=
=
P
R T N t
P F
K K Y S
S
Gear tooth bending

psi 4695
40 . 0
) 1 ( 18 . 1
5 . 1
10
) 052 . 1 )( 377 . 1 )( 1 ( 8 . 164 ) (
=
=
G
7.05
4695
) 85 . 0 ( 1 / ) 996 . 0 ( 260 , 28
) (
=
=
G F
S
(b) Pinion tooth wear
psi 360 , 70
121 . 0
1
) 5 . 1 ( 7 . 1
22 . 1
) 043 . 1 ( 377 . 1 ) 1 ( 8 . 164 2300
) (
2 / 1
2 / 1
=
=
P
f
P
m
s v o
t
P c
I
C
F d
K
K K K W
62
Examples cont
Solution 5-6 cont
Solution 5-6 cont
1.69
360 , 70
) 85 . 0 ( 1 / ) 948 . 0 ( 400 , 106

/
) (
=

=
P
c
R T N c
P H
K K Z S
S
Gear tooth wear

psi 496 , 69
121 . 0
1
) 5 . 1 ( 7 . 1
18 . 1
) 052 . 1 ( 377 . 1 ) 1 ( 8 . 164 2300 ) (
2 / 1
=
=
G c
1.55
69496
) 85 . 0 ( 1 / ) 005 . 1 )( 973 . 0 ( 500 , 93

/
) (
=
=
G
c
R T H N c
G H
K K C Z S
S
(c) Threat Comparison (tooth bending or wear)

Bending
FOS
( S
F
)
Wear
FOS
( S
H
)
2
Threat
Pinion 5.62
1.69
2
=
2.86
wear
Gear 7.05
1.55
2
=
2.39
wear
63
Examples cont
A 17-tooth 20
o
normal pitch-angle helical pinion with a right hand helix angle of 30
o
rotates at 1800
rev/min and transmits 4 hp to a 52-tooth helical gear. The normal diametral pitch is 10 teeth/in, the
face width 1.5 in, and the set has a quality number of 6. The gears are straddle-mounted with
bearings immediately adjacent. The pinion and gear are made from a through-hardened steel with
surface and core hardnesses of 240 Brinell on the pinion and surface and core hardnessess of 200
Brinell on the gear. The transmission is smooth, connecting an electric motor and a centrifugal
pump. Assume a pinion life of 10
8
cycles and a reliability of 0.90, and use the upper curve in Figs.
10-12 and 10-13.
a) Find the factor of safety of the gears in bending.
b) Find the factor of safety of the gears in wear.
c) By examining the factors of safety, identify the threat to each gear and to the mesh.
Example 5-7
Example 5-7
64
Examples cont
Solution 5-7
Solution 5-7
All of the parameters in this example are the same as in example 5-6 with the exception that we are
using helical gears. Thus, several terms will be the same as example 5-6. The reader should verify that
the following terms remain unchanged: K
o
= 1, Y
P
= 0.303, Y
G
= 0.412, m
G
= 3.059, (K
s
)
P
= 1.043,
(K
s
)
G
= 1.052, (Y
N
)
P
= 0.977, (Y
N
)
G
= 0.996, K
R
= 0.85, K
T
= 1, C
f
= 1, C
P
= 2300 psi, (S
t
)
P
= 31,350 psi,
(S
t
)
G
= 28,260 psi, (S
c
)
P
= 106,380 psi, (S
c
)
G
= 93,500 psi, (Z
N
)
P
= 0.948, (Z
N
)
G
= 0.973 and C
H
= 1.005
ft/min 25 9
12
1800 ) 963 . 1 (
12
= = =

P P
n d
V
ibf 7 . 2 4 1
925
) 4 ( 33000 33000
= = =
V
H
W
t
404 . 1
77 . 59
925 77 . 59
8255 . 0
=
+
=
v
K
For helical gears, the transverse diametral pitch;
teeth/in 660 . 8 ) 30 (cos 10 cos = = =
o
n t
P P
Thus the pitch diameters are d
P
= N
P
/ P
t
=
17 / 8.660 =1.963 in and d
G
= 52 / 0.8660 =
6.005 in. The pitch line velocity and
transmitted force are:
As in previous example; for the dynamic factor,
B = 0.8255 and A = 59.77. Thus
65
Examples cont
Solution 5-7 cont
Solution 5-7 cont
The geometry factor I for helical gears requires a
little work. First, the transverse pressure angle is
given by :
o
o
o
n
t
80 . 22
30 cos
20 tan
tan
cos
tan
tan
1 1
=
The radii of the pinion and gear are r

P
= 1.963 / 2 =
0.9815 in and r
G
= 6.004 / 2 = 3.002 in. The
addendum is a = 1 / P
n
= 1 / 10 = 0.1, and the base
circle radii of the pinion and gear are given by:
in 767 . 2 ) 80 . 22 (cos 002 . 3 cos ) (
in 9048 . 0 ) 80 . 22 (cos 9815 . 0 cos ) (
= = =
= = =
o
t G G b
o
t P P b
r r
r r
Then the surface strength geometry factor

in 0.4507 1.544.4 - 1.4027 0.5924
80 . 22 sin ) 004 . 3 9815 . 0 (
769 . 2 ) 1 . 0 004 . 3 (
9048 . 0 ) 1 . 0 9815 . 0 (
2 2
2 2
= + =
+
+
+ + =
o
Z
Since the first two terms are less than 1.5444, the
equation for Z stands. The normal base pitch p
N
is
in 2952 . 0 20 cos
10

cos cos ) (
= =
= =
o
n
N
n n N
P
p p
66
Examples cont
Solution 5-7 cont
Solution 5-7 cont
The load sharing ratio :
6895 . 0
) 4507 . 0 ( 95 . 0
2952 . 0
95 . 0
=
=
Z
p
m
N
N
The surface strength geometry factor :
195 . 0
1 06 . 3
06 . 3
) 6895 . 0 ( 2
80 . 22 cos 80 . 22 sin
=
=
o o
I
From slide 32, The geometry factors J
P
= 0.45 and
J
G
= 0.54. Also from slide 33, the J-factor multipliers
are 0.94 and 0.98, correcting J
P
and J
G
to:
529 . 0 ) 98 . 0 ( 54 . 0
423 . 0 ) 94 . 0 ( 45 . 0
= =
= =
G
P
J
J
The load-distribution factor K
m
is estimated :
( ) 0577 . 0 ) 5 . 1 ( 0125 . 0 0375 . 0
) 963 . 1 ( 10
5 . 1
= + =
P
pf
C
) (uncrowned 1 =
mc
C
adjacent) y immediatel (Bearing 1 =
pm
C
unit) gear enclosed l (Commercia 15 . 0 =
ma
C
1 =
e
C
( )
( ) 181 . 1
208 . 1
)] 1 ( 15 . 0 ) 1 ( 0577 . 0 [ 1 1
) ( 1
=
=
+ + =
+ + =
G m
e ma pm pf mc P m
K
C C C C C K
( ) 0313 . 0 ) 5 . 1 ( 0125 . 0 0375 . 0 05 . 0 = + =
G
pf
C
67
Examples cont
Solution 5-7 cont
Solution 5-7 cont
(a) Pinion tooth bending
psi 3445
423 . 0
) 1 ( 208 . 1
5 . 1
66 . 8
) 043 . 1 )( 404 . 1 )( 1 ( 7 . 142
) (
=
=
P
B m d
s v o
t
P
J
K K
F
P
K K K W
5 . 0 1
3445
) 85 . 0 ( 1 / ) 977 . 0 ( 350 , 31

/
) (
=
=
P
R T N t
P F
K K Y S
S
Gear tooth bending

psi 2717
529 . 0
) 1 ( 181 . 1
5 . 1
66 . 8
) 052 . 1 )( 404 . 1 )( 1 ( 7 . 142 ) (
=
=
G
2 . 2 1
2717
) 85 . 0 ( 1 / ) 996 . 0 ( 260 , 28
) (
=
=
G F
S
(b) Pinion tooth wear
psi 230 , 48
195 . 0
1
) 5 . 1 ( 963 . 1
208 . 1
) 043 . 1 ( 404 . 1 ) 1 ( 7 . 142 2300
) (
2 / 1
2 / 1
=
=
P
f
P
m
s v o
t
P c
I
C
F d
K
K K K W
68
Examples cont
Solution 5-7 cont
Solution 5-7 cont
2.46
230 , 48
) 85 . 0 ( 1 / ) 948 . 0 ( 400 , 106

/
) (
=

=
P
c
R T N c
P H
K K Z S
S
Gear tooth wear

psi 888 , 47
195 . 0
1
) 5 . 1 ( 963 . 1
181 . 1
) 052 . 1 ( 404 . 1 ) 1 ( 7 . 142 2300 ) (
2 / 1
=
=
G c
5 2 . 2
888 , 47
) 85 . 0 ( 1 / ) 005 . 1 )( 973 . 0 ( 500 , 93

/
) (
=
=
G
c
R T H N c
G H
K K C Z S
S
(c) Threat Comparison (tooth bending or wear)

Bending
FOS
( S
F
)
Wear
FOS
( S
H
)
2
Threat
Pinion 10.5
2.46
2
=
6.05
wear
Gear 12.2
2.25
2
=
5.05
wear
Chapter 6
Shaft Design
Week 8
2
Learning Outcomes
select suitable material for shaft design
perform load, stress, and power calculations analytically as applied to
a shaft components.
design a shaft with some consideration on static and fatigue failure.
do tolerance analysis and specify appropriate tolerances for shaft
design applications
CHAPTER 6 Shaft Design
6.1 - Introduction
6.2 - Shaft Materials
6.3 - Shaft Layout
6.4 - Shaft Design for Stress
6.5 - Deflection Considerations
6.6 - Limits and Fits
6.1 Introduction
What is shaft?!
~a rotating member,
usually of circular cross
section
What it is used for?!
~to transmit power or
motion
~It provides the axis of
rotation, or oscillation, of
elements such as gears,
pulleys, flywheels, cranks
and the like, and controls
the geometry of their
motion.
Train wheels are affixed to a straight
axle, such that both wheels rotate in
unison.
An axle is a nonrotating member
that carries no torque and
What is axle?!
What it is used for?!
is used to support rotating
wheels, pulleys and etc.
Tapered roller bearings used in a
mowing-machine spindle. This design
represents good practice for situations
where one or more torque-transfer
elements must be mounted outboard.
A spindle is a short shaft. Terms
such as lineshaft, headshaft,
stub shaft, transmission shaft,
countershaft, and flexible shaft
are names associated with
special usage.
What is spindle?!
Considerations for Shaft Design Considerations for Shaft Design
Material Selection
Geometric Layout
Stress and strength
Static strength
Fatigue strength
Deflection and rigidity
Bending deflection
Torsional deflection
Slope at bearings and shaft-supported elements
Shear deflection due to transverse loading of short shafts
Vibration due to natural frequency
6.2 Shaft Materials
Many shafts are made from low carbon, cold-drawn or hot-rolled steel, such as ANSI
1020-1050 steels.
A good practice is to start with an inexpensive, low or medium carbon steel for the first
time through the design calculations.
Deflection primarily controlled by geometry, not material.
Stress controlled by geometry, not material.
Strength controlled by material property.
Shafts usually dont need to be surface hardened unless they serve as the actual journal
of a bearing surface.
Cold drawn steel typical for d < 3 in.
Hot rolled steel common for larger sizes. Should be machined all over.
6.2 Shaft Materials cont
For low production - turning is the suitable process (minimum material removal may be
design goal).
For High production - Forming or casting is common where minimum material may be
design goal. Cast iron may be specified if the production quantity is high, and the gears
are to be integrally cast with the shaft.
Stainless steel may be appropriate for some environments e.g. Involved in food
processing.
6.3 Shaft Layout
Issues to consider for
shaft layout
Axial layout of
components
Supporting axial
loads
Providing for torque
transmission
Assembly and
Disassembly
6.3 Shaft Layout cont
Axial Layout of Components
Axial Layout of Components Axial Layout of Components
y Axial loads must be
supported through a
bearing to the
frame.
y Generally best for
only one bearing to
carry axial load to
shoulder
y Allows greater
tolerances and
prevents binding
Various method to attach element on shaft.
Various method to attach element on shaft.
Assembly/Disassembly progressively smaller diameter toward the ends
Axial clearance to allow machinery vibration
Keys/pins/rings to secure rotating elements ( gear, pulley, etc)
clamp
collar
snap ring
taper pin
key
hub hub
step
step step
step
shaft
gear sprocket
axial
clearance
bearing
bearing
press
fit
press
fit
frame frame
sheave
Significant detail is required
to completely specify the
geometry needed to
fabricate a shaft.
The geometry of a shaft is
generally that of a stepped
cylinder.
The use of shaft shoulders is
an excellent means of axially
locating the shaft elements
and to carry any thrust
loads.
Common shaft
loading mechanism:
Common shaft
loading mechanism:
Common torque transfer elements:
Common torque transfer elements:
Keys
Splines
Setscrews
Pins
Press or shrink fits
Tapered fits
Pins:
Pins:
Round pins Taper pins Split tubular
spring pins
- Pins are used for axial positioning and for the transfer of torque or thrust or both.
- Some pins should not be used to transmit very much torque
- Weakness will generate stress concentration to the shaft
Keys and keyseats:
Keys and keyseats:
Keys are used to transmit torque from a component to the shaft.
- Used when large amounts of torque are to be transferred
- Stress concentration is generally quite moderate
Spline shaft and Hub:
Spline shaft and Hub:
Locational device:
Locational device:
Nut and washer
Sleeve
Shaft shoulder
Ring and groove
Setscrew
Split hub or tapered two-pieces hub
Collar and screw
Pins
Nut and Washer:
Nut and Washer:
Sleeve:
Sleeve:
is a tube or enclosure used to couple two mechanical components together, or
to retain two components together; this permits two equally-sized appendages
to be connected together via insertion and fixing within the construction.
Shaft shoulder :
Shaft shoulder :
The use of shaft shoulders is an excellent
means of axially locating the shaft
elements and to carry any thrust loads.
(a) Choose a shaft configuration to support and locate the two gears and two bearings.
(b) Solution uses an integral pinion, three shaft shoulders, key and keyway, and sleeve.
Example:
Spring loaded Retaining Ring :
Spring loaded Retaining Ring :
Most popular used because give an economical
solution to some problem.
Bowed retaining rings provide restoring forces to
the components being held.
Flat retaining rings allow small amounts of axial
motion of the held component.
Set Screw :
Set Screw :
is a type of screw generally used
to secure an object within another
object. The set screw passes
through a threaded hole in the
outer object and is tightened
against the inner object to prevent
it from moving relative to the outer
object.
Split Hub :
Split Hub :
Collar and Screw :
Collar and Screw :
is a simple, short ring fastened over a rod or shaft
found in many power transmission applications -
most notably motors and gearboxes.
used as mechanical stops, locating components,
and bearing faces. The simple design lends itself to
easy installation - no shaft damage.
Since the screws compress the collar, a uniform
distribution of force is imposed on the shaft, leading
to a holding power that is nearly twice that of set
screw collars.
6.4 Shaft Design for Stress
It is not necessary to evaluate the stresses in a shaft at every point; a few
potentially critical locations will be adequate.
Critical locations will usually be on the outer surface, at axial locations where the
bending moment is large, where the torque is present, and where stress
concentrations exist.
Most shafts will transmit torque through a portion of the shaft. Typically the torque
comes into the shaft at one gear and leaves the shaft at another gear. The torque
is often relatively constant at steady state operation.
The bending moments on a shaft can be determined by shear and bending
moment diagrams. Since most shaft problems incorporate gears or pulleys that
introduce forces in two planes, the shear and bending moment diagrams will
generally be needed in two planes.
Critical Location :
Critical Location :
6.4 Shaft Design for Stress cont
Resultant moments are obtained by summing moments as vectors at points of
interest along the shaft. In situations where a bearing is located at the end of the
shaft, stresses near the bearing are often not critical since the bending moment is
small.
Axial stresses on shafts due to the axial components transmitted through helical
gears or tapered roller bearings will almost always be negligibly small compared
to the bending moment stress. They are often also constant, so they contribute
little to fatigue.
Consequently, it is usually acceptable to neglect the axial stresses induced by the
gears and bearings when bending is present in a shaft. If an axial load is applied
to the shaft in some other way, it is not safe to assume it is negligible without
checking magnitudes.
Critical Location :
Critical Location :
;
; ;
I
c M
K
a
f a
=
I
c M
K
m
f m
=
J
c T
K
a
fs a
=
The fluctuating stresses due to bending and torsion are given by: -
Shaft Stresses :
Shaft Stresses :
Under many conditions, the axial components F is either zero or so small that it can be neglected.
J
c T
K
m
fs m
=
Assuming a solid shaft with round cross section, appropriate geometry terms
can be introduced for c, I, and J resulting in
3
32
d
M
K
a
f a
=
3
32
d
M
K
m
f m
=
;
3
16
d
T
K
a
fs a
=
3
16
d
T
K
m
fs m
=
2 / 1
2
3
2
3
2 / 1 2 2
16
3
32
) 3 ( '
= + =
d
T K
d
M K
a fs a f
a a a

Combining bending and shear stresses accordance to the von Misses stress
at two stress element are given by: -
Shaft Stresses :
Shaft Stresses :
2 / 1
2
3
2
3
2 / 1 2 2
16
3
32
) 3 ( '
= + =
d
T K
d
M K
m fs m f
m m m

Shaft Stresses :
Shaft Stresses :
[ ] [ ]

+ + + =
2 / 1 2 2 2 / 1 2 2
3
) ( 3 ) ( 4
1
) ( 3 ) ( 4
1 16 1
m fs m f
ut
a fs a f
e
T K M K
S
T K M K
S d n
DE-Goodman :
DE-Goodman :
[ ] [ ]
3 / 1
2 / 1 2 2 2 / 1 2 2
) ( 3 ) ( 4
1
) ( 3 ) ( 4
1 16
+ + + =
m fs m f
ut
a fs a f
e
T K M K
S
T K M K
S
n
d
Fatigue failure curve on the modified Goodman diagram

Equation for the minimum diameter
This criteria does not guard against yielding, so required separate check for possibility of static
failure (yield occur) in the first load cycle.
+ + =
2 / 1
2
3
2
1 1
8 1
ut
e
e
AS
BS
S d
A
n
3 / 1
2 / 1
2
2
1 1
8
+ + =
ut
e
e
AS
BS
S
nA
d
2 2
) ( 3 ) ( 4
m fs m f
T K M K B + =
DE-Gerber :
DE-Gerber :
Fatigue failure curve on the Gerber diagram
This criteria does not guard against
yielding, so required separate check for
possibility of static failure (yield occur)
in the first load cycle.
2 2
) ( 3 ) ( 4
a fs a f
T K M K A + =
where
2 / 1
2 2
2 2
3
3 4 3 4
16 1
=
y
m fs
y
m f
e
a fs
e
a f
S
T K
S
M K
S
T K
S
M K
d n
DE-ASME Elliptic :
DE-ASME Elliptic :
Fatigue failure curve on the ASME Elliptic diagram
This criteria takes yielding into account, but is not entirely conservative, so also required
separate check for possibility of static failure (yield occur) in the first load cycle.
3 / 1
2 / 1
2 2
2 2
3 4 3 4
16
=
y
m fs
y
m f
e
a fs
e
a f
S
T K
S
M K
S
T K
S
M K
n
d

DE-Soderberg :
DE-Soderberg :
Fatigue failure curve on the Soderberg diagram
This criteria inherently guards against yielding, so it is not required to check for possibility of
static failure (yield occur) in the first load cycle.
[ ] [ ]

+ + + =
2 / 1 2 2 2 / 1 2 2
3
) ( 3 ) ( 4
1
) ( 3 ) ( 4
1 16 1
m fs m f
yt
a fs a f
e
T K M K
S
T K M K
S d n
[ ] [ ]
3 / 1
2 / 1 2 2 2 / 1 2 2
) ( 3 ) ( 4
1
) ( 3 ) ( 4
1 16
+ + + =
m fs m f
yt
a fs a f
e
T K M K
S
T K M K
S
n
d

max
'
y
y
S
n =
( )
2 / 1
2 2
max
' ' '
m a
+ =
Check for yielding :
Check for yielding :
where
2 / 1
2
3
2
3
) ( 16
3
) ( 32
+
+
+
=
d
T T K
d
M M K
m a fs m a f

Factor of safety
Always necessary to consider static failure, even in fatigue situation
Soderberg criteria inherently guards against yielding
ASME-Elliptic criteria takes yielding into account, but is not entirely conservative
Gerber and modified Goodman criteria require specific check for yielding
0 =
m

For a rotating shaft with constant bending and torsion, the bending stress is
completely reversed and the torsion is steady. Therefore
0 =
a
These will simply drops out some of previously terms.

Example 6-1 :
Example 6-1 :
At a machined shaft shoulder the small diameter d is 28 mm, the large diameter
D is 42 mm, and the fillet radius is 2.8 mm. The bending moment is 142.4 Nm
and the steady torsion moment is 124.3 Nm. The heat-treated steel shaft has an
ultimate strength of S
ut
= 735 MPa and a yield strength of S
y
= 574 MPa. The
reliability goal is 0.99.
(a) Determine the fatigue factor of safety of the design using each of the
fatigue failure criteria described in this section.
(b) Determine the yielding factor of safety.
Solution 6-1 :
Solution 6-1 :
a) Determine the fatigue factor of safety of the design:
4 . 142 =
a
M
0 =
a
T
0 =
m
M
3 . 124 =
m
T
Nm
Nm Nm
Nm
10 . 0
28
8 . 2
= =
d
r
50 . 1
28
42
= =
d
D
K
t
= 1.68 (figure A-15-9)
K
ts
= 1.42 (figure A-15-8)
r = 2.8
q = 0.85 (figure 4-1)
S
ut
= 0.735 GPa
q
s
= 0.92 (figure 4-2)
58 . 1 ) 1 68 . 1 ( 85 . 0 1 = + =
f
K
39 . 1 ) 1 42 . 1 ( 92 . 0 1 = + =
fs
K
5 . 367 ) 735 ( 5 . 0 ' = =
e
S
205 ) 5 . 367 )( 814 . 0 )( 87 . 0 )( 787 . 0 ( = =
e
S
Applying Eq. DE-Goodman criteria gives
MPa
[ ] [ ]

+ =
2 / 1 2 2 / 1 2
3
) ( 3
1
) ( 4
1 16 1
m fs
ut
a f
e
T K
S
M K
S d n
[ ] [ ]
+ =
2 / 1
6
2
2 / 1
6
2
3
10 735
)) 3 . 124 ( 39 . 1 ( 3
10 205
)) 4 . 142 ( 58 . 1 ( 4
) 028 . 0 (
16
x x
604 . 0 ) 10 407 . 0 10 195 . 2 ( 232004
6 6
= + =

x x
65 . 1 = n
787 . 0 ) 735 ( 51 . 4
265 . 0
= =

a
k
87 . 0
62 . 7
28
107 . 0
=
=

b
k
0 . 1 = = =
f d c
k k k
814 . 0 =
e
k
MPa
4 . 125
) 028 . 0 (
) 3 . 124 )( 40 . 1 ( 16
) 028 . 0 (
) 4 . 142 )( 58 . 1 ( 32
'
2
3
2
3 max
=

87 . 1 = n DE-Gerber
Similarly, apply same technique for other failure criteria,
88 . 1 = n DE-ASME Elliptic
56 . 1 = n DE-Soderberg
b) Determine the Yield factor of safety :
58 . 4
4 . 125
574
'
max
= = =
y
y
S
n
Estimating Stress Concentrations
Estimating Stress Concentrations
Stress analysis for shafts is highly dependent on stress concentrations.
Stress concentrations depend on size specifications, which are not known
the first time through a design process.
Standard shaft elements such as shoulders and keys have standard
proportions, making it possible to estimate stress concentrations factors
before determining actual sizes.
Table 61
First Iteration Estimates
for Stress-Concentration
Factor K
t
and K
ts
Reducing Stress Concentration at Shoulder Fillet
Reducing Stress Concentration at Shoulder Fillet
Bearings often require relatively sharp fillet radius at shoulder
If such a shoulder is the location of the critical stress, some manufacturing techniques
are available to reduce the stress concentration
(a) Large radius undercut into shoulder
(b) Large radius relief groove into back of shoulder
(c) Large radius relief groove into small diameter of shaft
6.5 Deflection Considerations
Shaft subject to bending produces deflection ( or y)
Deflection analysis at even a single point of interest requires complete
geometry information for the entire shaft.
Deflection of the shaft, both linear and angular should be checked at
gears and bearings.
Table 62
Typical Maximum
Ranges for Slopes and
Transverse Deflections
6.5 Deflection Considerations cont
9Superposition
9The moment-area method
9Singularity functions
9Numerical integration
Refer in text book
chapter 4 page 147
Deflection analysis is straightforward, but lengthy and tedious to carry out
manually.
Each point of interest requires entirely new deflection analysis.
Consequently, shaft deflection analysis is almost always done with the
assistance of software.
Options include specialized shaft software, general beam deflection software,
and finite element analysis software.
Some popular methods to solve the integration problem for beam deflection:-
6.6 Limits and Fits
Clearance Fits.
No interference occur.
3 types of fitting
Interference Fits.
An interference fit is the condition that exist when,
due to the limits of the
dimensions, mating parts
must be pressed together.
Transition Fits.
The fit can have either
clearance or interference.
6.6 Limits and Fits cont
Definitions applied to a cylindrical fit.
Capital letters always refer to the hole;
lowercase letters are used for the shaft.
D = basic size of hole
d = basic size of shaft
u
= upper deviation
l
= lower deviation
F
= fundamental deviation
D = tolerance grade for hole
d = tolerance grade for shaft
Note that these quantities are all deterministic.
Thus, for the hole,
D
max
= D + D D
min
= D
For shafts with clearance fits c, d, f, g, and h,
d
max
= d +
F
d
min
= d +
F
d
For shafts with interference fits k, n, p, s, and u,
d
min
= d +
F
d
max
= d +
F
+ d
Table 63
Descriptions of Preferred
Fits Using the Basic
Hole System
Source: Preferred Metric Limits
and Fits, ANSI B4.2-1978.
See also BS 4500.
Table A11
A Selection of International Tolerance GradesMetric Series
(Size Ranges Are for Over the Lower Limit and Including the
Upper Limit. All Values Are in Millimeters)
Source: Preferred Metric Limits and Fits, ANSI B4.2-1978. See also BSI 4500.
Table A12
Fundamental
Deviations for
ShaftsMetric Series
(Size Ranges Are for
Over the Lower Limit
and Including the
Upper Limit.
All Values Are in
Millimeters)
and Fits , ANSI B4.2-1978. See
also BSI 4500.
Example 6-2 :
Example 6-2 :
Find the shaft and hole dimensions for a loose running fit with a 34-mm basic size.
Solution 6-2 :
Solution 6-2 :
From Table 63, the ISO symbol is 34H11/c11. From Table A11, we find that tolerance
grade IT11 is 0.160 mm. The symbol 34H11/c11 therefore says that D = d = 0.160 mm.
Using Eq. (D
max
= D + D) for the hole, we get
D
max
= 34 + 0.160 = 34.160 mm D
min
= D = 34.000 mm
The shaft is designated as a 34c11 shaft. From Table A12, the fundamental deviation is
F
= 0.120 mm. Using Eq. for shaft with clearance fits, we get the shaft dimensions
d
max
= d +
F
= 34 + (0.120) = 33.880 mm
d
min
= d +
F
d = 34 + (0.120) 0.160 = 33.720 mm
Chapter 7
Bearings
Week 9
2
9 recognize types of available bearings and know the function
9 identify nomenclature of ball bearing
9 select suitable bearing and know how to apply it
9 perform load and bearing life calculations analytically
Learning Outcomes
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
3
7.1 - Introduction
7.2 - Bearing Types
7.3 - Bearing Mounting and Enclosure
7.4 - Bearing Life
7.5 - Bearing Load Life at Rated Reliability
7.6 - Relating Load, Life, and Reliability
7.7 - Combined Radial and Thrust Loading
7.8 - Lubrication
7.9 - Appendix
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
4
7.1 Introduction
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
Bearing acting as a support and allow rotational and sliding motion in mechanism.
2 types of bearing: sliding &rolling
Sliding friction is the resistance that takes place when one object slides against
another. Sliding friction can be reduced by using smooth machined surface and
lubrication.
Another way to eliminate sliding friction is the introduction of rolling elements (ball,
roller), because rolling elements have smallest contact surface that produces low
friction value (0.001 - 0.005)
sliding rolling
5
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
It as been designed to take pure radial load, pure axial load or combination of
these load. Today, all machines use this bearing such as in vehicle engine, shaft,
fan, bicycle and many more.
Among the famous bearing manufacturer are:
SKF (Sweden)
NTN (J epun)
Timken (USA)
For more information, please refer to book and catalogue from the bearing
manufacturer company.
Bearing standard :-
ISO (International Standard Organization)
ABMA (American Bearing Manufacturers Association)
6
7.2 Bearing Types
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
Nomenclature of Ball Bearing
Nomenclature of Ball Bearing
Outer ring
Inner ring
Width
(B)
Outside
diameter
(D)
Bore (d)
Separator
Face
4 essential parts of a bearing:
outer ring
inner ring
balls or rolling element
seperator
7
7.2 Bearing Types cont
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
Various types of ball bearings
Various types of ball bearings
Deep Groove ball bearing
Angular Contact ball bearing
Self-Aligning ball bearing
Shielded ball bearing
Sealed ball bearing
Trust ball bearing
Doublerow
8
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
Various types of roller bearings
Various types of roller bearings
Straight roller bearing
Needle roller bearing
Tapered roller bearing
Tapered roller thrust bearing
Spherical roller thrust bearing
9
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
Bearing Characteristics
Bearing Characteristics
10
7.3 Bearing Mounting & Enclosure
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
A common bearing mounting.
An alternative method of bearing mounting
in which the both inner races are backed up
against the shaft shoulder. Disadvantage
may destroy the bearing if shaft expand
when temperature rise during operation.
Mounting for a washing machine spindle.
11
7.4 Bearing Life
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
Commonly life used term is bearing life and measures are
Number of revolutions of the inner ring (outer ring stationary) until the first tangible
evidence of fatigue
Number of hours of use at a standard angular speed until the first tangible
evidence of fatigue
Fatigue criterion used by the Timken Company Laboratories
Spalling or pitting of an area of 6.45 mm
2
(first evidence of fatigue failure)
useful life may extend considerably beyond this point
Rating life, (L
R
)
Is a term certified by the ABMA and used by most manufacturers
Is defined as the number of revolutions (or hours at constant speed) that 90
percent of a group of bearings will achieve or exceed before the failure criterion
develops
The term minimum life, L
10
life and B
10
life are also used as synonym
12
7.5 Bearing Load Life at Rated Reliability
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
Catalog load rating,
ibf or kN
Rating life, hours
Rating speed, rpm
Desired radial load,
ibf or kN
Desired life, hours
Desired speed, rpm
a
D D D f
a
R R
n L F a n L C
/ 1 / 1
10
) 60 ( ) 60 ( =
where :-
a = 3 for ball bearing
a = 10/3 for roller bearing
a
R R
D D
D f
n L
n L
F a C
/ 1
60
60
10

= Solving for C
10
gives
Application factor (assume a
f
=1 if not given) L
10
life (number of revolution)
Table 7.3 Deep-Groove and Angular-Contact Ball
Bearings Catalog.
Table 7.4 Cylindrical Roller Bearings Catalog.
See
Table 7.2 Equivalent Radial Load Factor.
Table 7.1 Data for Bearing Manufacturer.
13
7.5 Bearing Load Life at Rated Reliability cont
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
Example 7-1
Example 7-1
Consider SKF, which rates its bearings for 1 million revolutions. Timken for example, uses 90(10
6
)
revolutions. If you desire a life of 5000 hour at 1725 rev/min with a load of 2 kN with a reliability of 90
percent, for which catalog rating would you search in a SKF catalog?
Solution 7-1
Solution 7-1
05 . 16
10
60 ) 1725 ( 5000
2
60
60
3
1
6 10
/ 1
=
=
a
R R
D D
D f
n L
n L
F a C kN
14
7.6 Relating Load, Life and Reliability
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
Constant reliability contours. Point A represents the catalog rating C
10
at X =L / L
10
=1. Point B is on the target reliability design line R
D
,
with load of C
10
. Point D is a point on the desired reliability contour
exhibiting the design life X
D
=L
D
/ L
10
at the design load F
D
.
It is always the desired
parameters (load, speed
and reliability) is not the
manufacturers test
parameter or catalog
entry.
To used the catalog data
to comply with the desired
parameters, one needs to
determine equivalent
catalog load rating by
using next formula.
15
7.6 Relating Load, Life and Reliability cont
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
a
b
D
D
D f
R x x
x
F a C
/ 1
/ 1
0 0
10
)) / 1 )(ln( (

+
=
R R
D D
n L
n L
L
L
60
60
10
=
b
x
0
where:-
a
f
= Application factor (assume a
f
=1 if not given)
F
D
= Desired radial load, ibf / kN
x
D
= Dimensionless desired life =
R
D
=Desired reliability
a =3 (for ball bearing)
a =10/3 (for roller bearing)
= Weibull parameters (refer table 6-1).
Bearings Catalog.
See
16
where:-
a
f
= Application factor (assume a
f
=1 if not given)
F
D
= Desired radial load, ibf / kN
x
D
= Dimensionless desired life =
R
D
= Desired reliability
a = 3 (for ball bearing)
a = 10/3 (for roller bearing)
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
=
b
a
D f
D
x
x
C
F a
x
R
0
0
10
exp
Reliability for bearing is given by the equation:

Reliability for bearing is given by the equation:
R R
D D
n L
n L
L
L
60
60
10
=

b
x
0
= Weibull parameters
(refer table 6-1).
Bearings Catalog.
See
Overall Reliability
Shaft generally have 2 bearings. Often
these bearings are different.
If the individual reliability for each
individual bearing is R
A
and R
B
, therefore
overall bearing reliability, R is
B A
R R R =
17
540
10
) 300 )( 30000 ( 60
60
60
6
10
= = = =
R R
D D
D
n L
n L
L
L
x
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
Example 7-2
Example 7-2
The design load on a ball bearing is 1840N and an application factor of 1.2 is appropriate. The speed of
the shaft s to be 300 rev/min, the life to be 30 kh with a reliability of 0.99. What is the C
10
catalog entry
to be sought (or exceeded) when searching for a deep-groove bearing in a SKF catalog?
Solution 7-2
Solution 7-2
Thus, the design life is 540 times the L10 life. For a ball bearing, a =3, thus from previous equation.
7 . 29
) 99 . 0 / 1 )(ln 439 . 4 ( 02 . 0
540
) 84 . 1 )( 2 . 1 (
3 / 1
483 . 1 / 1 10
=
+
= C kN
18
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
Example 7-3
Example 7-3
Based on example 7-2, choose the suitable dimension for Single-Row 02-Series Deep-Groove Ball
Bearings from table 7-3 and calculate the new reliability.
Solution 7-3
Solution 7-3
Calculate result, C
10
=29.7 kN
The closest, C
10
on the Single-Row 02-Series Deep-Groove Ball Bearings catalog that suitable to
hold 29.77 kN load is 30.7 kN.
Therefore, the selected bearing size is:-
OD =80 mm , Bore =40 mm & Width =18 mm
9914 . 0
439 . 4
02 . 0
7 . 30
) 84 . 1 )( 2 . 1 (
540
exp
483 . 1
3
=
= R And the new reliability is

19
7.7 Combined Radial and Thrust Loading
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
Ball bearing is capable to resist radial load, thrust load or
combine of these loading.
However, the capability of ball bearings to withstand the thrust
load had certain limits and not good enough such as thrust
bearing or tapered roller bearing.
While the straight roller bearing is just capable to withstand large
radial load compare than ball bearing.
ABMA has come out guidelines to determine equivalent radial
load for ball bearing that acts with thrust load as follow:
20
7.7 Combined Radial and Thrust Loading cont
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
X and Y value need to be
select from table 7-2
Table 7-2 list X
1
, Y
1
and X
2
, Y
2
as a e function based on the
ratio of the thrust component to
the bearing static load catalog
rating F
a
/ C
0
.
a i r i e
F Y VF X F + =
where
F
a
- axial thrust
F
r
- radial load
X
i
- radial load factor (table 7-2)
Y
i
- thrust load factor (table 7-2)
V - rotation factor
- Inner ring rotates
- Outer ring rotates
- Self aligning bearing
=
=
=
=
0 . 1
2 . 1
0 . 1
V
Equivalent radial load
Equivalent radial load
21
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
Example 7-4
Example 7-4
An SKF 6210 angular-contact ball bearing has an axial load F
a
of 1780 N and a radial load F
r
of 2225 N
applied with the outer ring stationary. The basic static load rating C
0
is 19,800 N and the basic load
rating C
10
is 35,150 N. Estimate the L
10
life at a speed of 720 rev/min.
Solution 7-4
Solution 7-4
090 . 0
19800
1780
0
= =
C
F
a
V = 1 and .
Interpolate for e in Table 7-2
F
a
/ C
0
e
0.084 0.28
0.090 e from which e =0.285
0.110 0.30
285 . 0 8 . 0
) 2225 ( 1
1780
) (
> = =
r
a
VF
F
.
Thus, interpolate for Y
2
:
F
a
/ C
0
Y
2
0.084 1.55
0.090 Y
2
from which Y
2
=1.527
0.110 1.45
22
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
Solution 7-4 cont
Solution 7-4 cont
N
With L
D
=L
10
and F
D
=F
e
, solving for L
10
gives:
3964 ) 1780 ( 527 . 1 2225 ) 1 ( 56 . 0
2 2
= + = + =
a r e
F Y VF X F
h 5 . 16139
3964
35150
) 720 ( 60
10
60
60
3
6
10
10
=
=
a
r D
R R
F
C
n
n L
L
** See more example on bearing analysis example 7-5 & 7-6
23
7.8 Lubrication
Purpose of Lubrication
To provide a film of lubricant between the sliding and rolling surfaces
To help distribute and dissipate heat
To prevent corrosion of the bearing surfaces
To protect the parts from the entrance of foreign matter
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
Rules of selecting grease and oil as a lubricant
Use Grease When Use Oil When
1. The temperature is not over 200
O
F. 1. Speed are high.
2. The speed is low. 2. Temperatures are high.
3. Unusual protection is required from the entrance
of foreign matter.
3. Oil tight seals are readily employed.
4. Simple bearing enclosures are desired. 4. Bearing type is not suitable for grease
lubrication.
5. Operation for long periods without attention is
desired
5. The bearing is lubricated from a central
supply which is also used for other machine
parts.
24
7.9 Appendix
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
Manufacturer
Rating life,
revolution
Rating life, Weibull Parameter
X
0
b
1. Timken 90(10)
6
0 4.48 1.5
2. SKF and most
bearing
manufacturer
(10)
6
0.02 4.459 1.483
Table 7-1 : Data for Bearing Manufacturer
25
7.9 Appendix cont
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
* use 0.014 if F
a
/ C
0
< 0.014
Table 7-2 : Equivalent Radial Load Factors for Ball Bearings
26
7.9 Appendix cont
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
Shaft and housing shoulder
diameter, d
S
and d
H
, should be
adequate to ensure good
bearing support.
Table 7-3 : Dimensions and Load Ratings for Single-Row 02-Series Deep-Groove and Angular-Contact Ball Bearings.
d
S
d
H
27
7.9 Appendix cont
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
Table 7-4 : Dimensions and Basic Load Ratings for Cylindrical Roller Bearings.
28
7.9 Appendix cont
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
Table 7-5 : Bearing-Life Recommendations for Various Classes of Machinery
Types of Application Life, k hour
Instruments and apparatus for infrequent use Up to 0.5
Aircraft engines 0.5 2
Machines for short or intermittent operation where service interruption is of
minor importance
4 8
Machine for intermittent service where reliable operation is of great importance 8 14
Machines for 8-h service that are not always fully utilized 14 20
Machines for 8-h service that are fully utilized 20 30
Machines for continuous 24-h service 50 60
Machines for continuous 24-h service where reliability is of extreme importance 100 - 200
29
7.9 Appendix cont
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
Table 7-6 : Load Application Factor
Types of Application Load Factor
Precision gearing 1.0 1.1
Commercial gearing 1.1 1.3
Application with poor bearing seals 1.2
Machinery with no impact 1.0 1.2
Machinery with light impact 1.2 1.5
Machinery with moderate impact 1.5 3.0
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
1
More Examples on Bearing Analysis

Example 7-5

The second shaft on a parallel-shaft 18.7 kW foundry crane speed reducer contains a helical gear with a
pitch diameter of 206 mm. Helical gear transmit components of force in the tangential, radial and axial
direction. The components of the gear force transmitted to the second shaft are shown in figure below, at
point A. The bearing reactions at C and D, assuming simple-support, are also shown. A ball bearing is to
be selected for location C to accept the thrust, and a cylindrical roller bearing is to be utilized at location D.
The life goal of the speed reducer is 10 kh, with a reliability factor for the ensemble of all four bearings
(both shaft) to equal or exceed 0.96. The application factor is to be 1.2.

i) Select the roller bearing for location D.

ii) Select the ball bearing (angular contact) for location C, assuming the inner ring rotates.

Solution

The torque transmitted is T =2.648 (0.103) =0.2727 kNm. The speed at the rated power is

rpm

The radial load at D is (1324
2
+474
2
)
0.5
=1406 N,
60
2 n
T T P

= =
655
2727 . 0
) 7 . 18 ( 55 . 9 55 . 9
2
60
= = = =
T
P
T
P
n
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
2
( )
1 . 53
99 . 0
1
ln ) 439 . 4 ( 02 . 0
393
) 3650 ( 2 . 1
3
1
483 . 1 / 1 10
=
+
= C

and the radial load at C is (1587
2
+1324
2
)
0.5
=2067 N.

The individual bearing reliabilities, if equal, must be at least 99 . 0 98985 . 0 96 . 0
4
= = .

The dimensionless design life for both bearings is :

393
10
655 ) 10000 ( 60
60
60
6
10
= = = =
R R
D D
D
n L
n L
L
L
x

(a) Selection of roller bearing at D. (Info obtained a
f
=1.2 and a =10/3)

( )
0 . 16
99 . 0
1
ln ) 439 . 4 ( 02 . 0
393
) 1406 ( 2 . 1
1
ln ) (
10
3
483 . 1 / 1
1
/ 1
0 0
10
=
+
=
+
=
a
b
D
D
D f
R
x x
x
F a C
kN

The absence of a thrust component makes the selection procedure simple. Choose a 02-25 mm series, or a
03-25 mm series cylindrical roller bearing from Table 7-4.

(b) Selection of angular contact ball bearing at C. (Info obtained a
f
=1.2 and a =3). The ball bearing at C
involves a thrust component. This selection procedure requires an iterative procedure. Assuming
F
a
/ (V F
r
) >e.

i) Choose Y
2
from table 7-2
ii) Find C
10

iii) Tentatively identify a suitable bearing from Table 7-3, note C
0

iv) Using F
a
/ C
0
enter Table 7-2 to obtain a new value of Y
2
.
v) Find C
10

vi) If the same bearing obtained, stop.
vii) If not, take next bearing and go to step iv.

As a first approximation, take the middle entry from Table 7-2:

X
2
=0.56 Y
2
=1.63

With V =1 and kN

kN

From Table 7-3, angular contact bearing 02-60 mm has C
10
=55.9 kN. C
0
is 35.5 kN. Step 4 becomes,
with F
a
in kN,

0431 . 0
5 . 35
531 . 1
0
= =
C
F
a
65 . 3 ) 1531 ( 63 . 1 ) 2067 )( 0 . 1 ( 56 . 0
2 2
= + = + =
a r e
F Y VF X F
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
3
Which makes e from Table 7-2 approximately 0.24. Now , which is greater
than 0.24, so we find Y
2
by interpolation:

Therefore kN

The prior calculation for C
10
changes only in F
e
, so

kN

From Table 7-3, angular contact bearing 02-65 mm has C
10
=63.7 kN and C
0
is 41.5 kN. Again,

Making e approximately 0.23. Now from before , which is greater than 0.23,
so we find Y
2
again by interpolation:

Therefore kN

The prior calculation for C
10
changes only in F
e
, so

kN

From Table 7-3, angular contact bearing 02-65 mm is still selected, so the iteration is complete.
0.26
e

0.24
e

0.056
from which e 0.24 0.043
0.042
F
a
/ C
0
74 . 0
) 2067 ( 0 . 1
1531
= =
r
a
VF
F
97 . 3 ) 1531 ( 84 . 1 ) 2067 )( 0 . 1 ( 56 . 0
2 2
= + = + =
a r e
F Y VF X F
8 . 57 ) 1 . 53 (
65 . 3
97 . 3
10
= = C
0369 . 0
5 . 41
531 . 1
0
= =
C
F
a
1.85
Y
2
1.99
Y
2
0.042
from which Y
2
=1.90 0.0369
0.028
F
a
/ C
0
74 . 0
) 2067 ( 0 . 1
1531
= =
r
a
VF
F
1.71
Y
2
1.85
Y
2
0.056
from which Y
2
=1.84 0.043
0.042
F
a
/ C
0
0.24
e

0.22
e

0.042
from which e 0.23 0.0369
0.028
F
a
/ C
0
2 . 59 ) 1 . 53 (
65 . 3
07 . 4
10
= = C
065 . 4 ) 1531 ( 90 . 1 ) 2067 )( 0 . 1 ( 56 . 0
2 2
= + = + =
a r e
F Y VF X F
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
4
Example 7-6

The figure shown is a geared countershaft with an overhanging pinion at C. Select an angular contact ball
bearing from table 7-3 for mounting at O and a 02-series cylindrical roller bearing for mounting at B. The
force on gear A is F
A
=2700 N, and the shaft is to run at a speed of 480 rev/min. Specify the bearings
required, using an application factor of 1.4, a desired life of 50,000 hour, and a combined reliability goal of
0.90. All dimension stated are in millimeter.

Solution

FBD

Solution of the static problem gives force of bearings against the shaft at O as R
O
=-1740j +2100k N, and
at B as R
B
=1420j 7270k. N.

60L
R
n
R
=10
6

L
D
=50 khours
n
D
=480 rpm
F
D
at O =[(-1740)
2
+(2100)
2
]
1/2
=2727.2 N
F
D
at B =[(1420)
2
+(-7270)
2
]
1/2
=7407.4 N

500
400
250
20
o
20
o
2
O
B
Gear 3
600 D

Gear 4
250 D

z

x
y
F
A

F
C
O
z

B
z

O
y

B
y

F
C
sin 20
o
F
C
cos 20
o
F
A
sin 20
o
F
A
cos 20
o
T
A
=(F
A
cos 20
o
)(0.3)

T
C
=(F
C
cos 20
o
) (0.125)
CHAPTER 7 Bearings
5
For a combined reliability goal of 0.90, use 95 . 0 90 . 0 = for the individual bearings.

At O (angular contact ball bearing)

1440
10
) 480 )( 50000 ( 60
60
60
6
= = =
R R
D D
D
n L
n L
x

6 . 50
) 95 . 0 / 1 )(ln 439 . 4 ( 02 . 0
1440
) 2 . 2727 )( 4 . 1 (
3 / 1
483 . 1 / 1
10
=
+
= C kN

Suitable size; bore =60 mm, OD =110 mm, width =22 mm

At B (cylindrical roller bearing)

1440
10
) 480 )( 50000 ( 60
60
60
6
= = =
R R
D D
D
n L
n L
x

1 . 106
) 95 . 0 / 1 )(ln 439 . 4 ( 02 . 0
1440
) 4 . 7407 )( 4 . 1 (
10 / 3
483 . 1 / 1
10
=
+
= C kN

Suitable size; bore =85 mm, OD =150 mm, width =28 mm

Chapter 8
Nonpermanent J oints
Prepared by: Mohd Azwir bin Azlan
Department of Material and Design Engineering,
Week 10, 11 & 12
2
9 recognize types of available bolt and screw
9 know bolt / screw thread standards and definition
9 perform load and stress calculations that acting on bolt / screw
9 select suitable application of bolt / screw
Learning Outcomes
CHAPTER 8 Nonpermanent Joints
3
8.1 - Introduction
8.2 - Thread Standards and Definitions
8.3 - The Mechanics of Power Screws
8.4 - Threaded Fasteners
8.5 - J oints : Fastener Stiffness
8.6 - J oints : Member Stiffness
8.7 - Bolt Strength
8.8 - Tension J oints : The External Load
8.9 - Relating Bolt Torque to Bolt Tension
8.10 - Statically Loaded Tension J oint with Preload
8.11 - Gasketed J oints
8.12 - Fatigue Loading of Tension J oints
8.13 - Bolted and Riveted J oints Loaded in Shear
4
8.1 Introduction
The fundamental operation in manufacture is the creation of shape - this includes
assembly, where a number of components are fastened or joined together either
permanently by welding (Chapter 9) or detachably (nonpermanent) by screws, nuts and
bolts and so on.
Since there is such a variety of shapes in engineering to be assembled, it is hardly
surprising that there is more variety in demountable fasteners than in any other machine
element.
Fasteners based upon screw threads are the most common, so it is important that their
performance is understood, and the limitations of the fastened assemblies are
appreciated.
Bolts, screws and nuts are common fastener used to join between one part to another.
This type of joining is a temporary connection in which it is easy to open again.
5
Although the bolts and screws have very similar functions, but there are differences in the
application.
Bolt used where it thread is designed to get through and past the hole in the part to be
connected and then tied with a nut at the end of the bolt.
While the screws are used where it thread is designed to bind the connection with the
internal threaded screw. Figure 8-1 shows the difference in application of bolts and screws.
Figure 8-1: Several types of fastener
6
There are many types of bolts are available in the market. Figure 8-2 below shows the
types of bolts that are commonly used.
Then, screws also can be further categorized into several types according to it use i.e.,
machine screws, sheet metal & lag screw and set screw. Figure 8-3, 8-4 and 8-5 shows the
types of screws have been categorized according to it application.
Figure 8-2: Several types of bolt (a)Carriage,(b)Elevator,(c)Countersunk,(d)Plow,(e)Track,(f)Stud,(g)Stove,(h)Stove.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)
Figure 8-3: Type of machine screw: (a) Flat, (b) Button, (c) Fillister, (d) Flat Fillister, (e) Round, (f) Socket.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
7
Figure 8-4: Several types of metal & lag screw; (a) Round head, (b) Elliptical
head, (c) Countersunk head, (d) Phillips head, (e) Lag screw.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
Figure 8-5: Several types of set screw; (a) Headless flat point, (b) Square head cup point,
(c) Hex socket head, cone point, (d) Fluted socket head, dual point,
(e) Full-dog point, (f) Half-dog point.
8
8.2 Thread Standards and Definitions
Pitch distance between adjacent thread
forms measured parallel to the thread axis.
Major diameter (d) largest diameter of
screw thread.
Minor or root diameter smallest diameter of
screw thread.
Lead distance parallel to the screw axis
when the nut moves one turn. A double-
threaded screw has a lead equal a twice the
pitch (figure 8-7b), a triple-threaded screw
has a lead equal to 3 times pitch (figure 8-7c),
and so on.
Figure 8-6: Terminology of screw threads. Sharp vee
threads shown for clarity; the crests and roots are actually
flattened or rounded during the forming operation.
Figure 8-7: Single, double & triple threaded screw
9
8.2 Thread Standards and Definitions cont
For threaded that have been produced
according to metric standard is known
as M series.
Metric bolt designation determined by:
M12 x 1.75
pitch
Nominal diameter (mm)
All threads are made according to the right-hand rule unless otherwise noted.
All threads size on bolt and screw were followed according to the inch series or
metric series standard.
Inch series referred to the American standard where it has been approved by Great
Britain, Canada and United States. Threaded that have been produced according to
this standard is also known as Unified threads. Two major series are: UN and UNR
Figure 8-8: Basic profile for metric M and MJ threads.
10
1) 1) Metric thread Metric thread ( (Table 8-1) Major diameter (mm),
2 =60 Standard thread is RH (Right Handed)
Specifications: e.g.: M12 x 1.75 or MJ 12 x 1.75
M =Basic Metric, J =greater root radius for fatigue applications; 12 =nominal major diameter (mm); 1.75 =pitch (mm)
2) 2) The American National (Unified) thread The American National (Unified) thread (Table 8-2)
Thread standards is used mainly in the US and GB.
Series designation used UN or UNR
UN (regular thread), UNR (greater root radius for fatigue applications)
Specifications: e.g.: 5/8-18 UN, UNC, UNF, UNR, UNRC, UNRF
5/8=nominal major diameter (inch) ; 18 =Number of threads per inch (N)
UN =Unified, F =fine, C =Coarse, R =Round Root
3) 3) Square Square and The ACME Threads The ACME Threads
Square and Acme threads are used when the threads are intended to transmit power.
Used mainly in power screws Table 8-3 gives preferred pitches for ACME threads.
Figure 8-9: Regular or Flat Thread
Figure 8-10: Rounded Thread
11
Coarse series UNC
General assembly
Frequent disassembly
Not good for vibrations
The normalthread to specify
Fine series UNF
Good for vibrations
Good for adjustments
Automotive and aircraft
Extra Fine series UNEF
Good for shock and large vibrations
High grade alloy
Instrumentation
Aircraft
12
Nominal diameter
-20 x in UNC-2 Grade 5 Hex head bolt
Threads per inch
length
Thread series
Class fit
Material grade
Head type
M12 x 1.75 ISO 4.8 Hex head bolt
Metric
Nominal diameter
Pitch
Material class
Head type
13
Nominal
Major
Diameter
d (mm)
Coarse Pitch Series Fine Pitch Series
Pitch p (mm)
Tensile Stress
Area A
t
(mm
2
)
Minor Diameter
Area A
r
(mm
2
)
Pitch p (mm)
Tensile Stress
Area A
t
(mm
2
)
Minor Diameter
Area A
r
(mm
2
)
1.6 0.35 1.27 1.07
2 0.40 2.07 1.79
2.5 0.45 3.39 2.98
3 0.5 5.03 4.47
3.5 0.6 6.78 6.00
4 0.7 8.78 7.75
5 0.8 14.2 12.7
6 1 20.1 17.9
8 1.25 36.6 32.8 1 39.2 36.0
10 1.5 58.0 52.3 1.25 61.2 56.3
12 1.75 84.3 76.3 1.25 92.1 86.0
14 2 115 104 1.5 125 116
16 2 157 144 1.5 167 157
20 2.5 245 225 1.5 272 259
24 3 353 324 2 384 365
30 3.5 561 519 2 621 596
36 4 817 759 2 915 884
42 4.5 1120 1050 2 1260 1230
48 5 1470 1380 2 1670 1630
56 5.5 2030 1910 2 2300 2250
64 6 2680 2520 2 3030 2980
72 6 3460 3280 2 3860 3800
80 6 4340 4140 1.5 4850 4800
90 6 5590 5360 2 6100 6020
100 6 6990 6740 2 7560 7470
110 2 9180 9080
Table 8-1
Diameter and
Areas of Coarse-
Pitch and Fine-
Pitch Metric
Threads.
14
Size
Designation
Nominal
Major
Diameter in
Coarse Series UNC Fine Series - UNF
Threads per
Inch N
Tensile Stress
Area A
t
in
2
Minor
Diamater
Area A
r
in
2
Threads per
Inch N
Tensile Stress
Area A
t
in
2
Minor
Diameter
Area A
r
in
2
0 0.0600 80 0.00180 0.00151
1 0.0730 64 0.00263 0.00218 72 0.00278 0.00237
2 0.0860 56 0.00370 0.00310 64 0.00394 0.00339
3 0.0990 48 0.00487 0.00406 56 0.00523 0.00451
4 0.1120 40 0.00604 0.00496 48 0.00661 0.00566
5 0.1250 40 0.00796 0.00672 44 0.00880 0.00716
6 0.1380 32 0.00909 0.00745 40 0.01015 0.00874
8 0.1640 32 0.0140 0.01196 36 0.01474 0.01285
10 0.1900 24 0.0175 0.01450 32 0.0200 0.0175
12 0.2160 24 0.0242 0.0206 28 0.0258 0.0226
0.2500 20 0.0318 0.0269 28 0.0364 0.0326
0.3125 18 0.0524 0.0454 24 0.0580 0.0524
0.3750 16 0.0775 0.0678 24 0.0878 0.0809
0.4375 14 0.1063 0.0933 20 0.1187 0.1090
0.5000 13 0.1419 0.1257 20 0.1599 0.1486
0.5625 12 0.182 0.162 18 0.203 0.189
0.6250 11 0.226 0.202 18 0.256 0.240
0.7500 10 0.334 0.302 16 0.373 0.351
0.8750 9 0.462 0.419 14 0.509 0.480
1 1.0000 8 0.606 0.551 12 0.663 0.625
1 1.2500 7 0.969 0.890 12 1.073 1.024
1 1.5000 6 1.405 1.294 12 1.581 1.521
16
5
16
7
16
9
Table 8-2
Diameter and
Areas of Unified
Screw Threads
UNC and UNF*.
15
16
5
16
7
16
9
The tensile stress area, A
t
, is the area of an unthreaded rod with the same
tensile strength as a threaded rod.
It is the effective area of a threaded rod to be used for stress calculations.
The diameter of this unthreaded rod is the average of the pitch diameter
and the minor diameter of the threaded rod.
Tensile Stress Area
16
16
5
16
7
16
9
Figure 8-11
(a) Square thread
(b) Acme thread
d, in 1\4 5\16 3\8 1\2 5\8 3\4 7\8 1 11\4 13\4 2 21\2 3
p, in 1\16 1\14 1\12 1\10 1\8 1\6 1\6 1\5 1\5 1\4 1\4 1\3 1\2
Table 8-3: Preferred Pitches for Acme Threads
17
8.3 The Mechanics of Power Screw
A power screw is a device in machinery to change angular
motion into linear motion and usually to transmit power.
Thread usually of square or ACME profile
More specifically, power screw are used:
9 to lift weight jack for cars
9 to exert large forces home compactor or a press
Figure 8-12a: The J oyce worm-
gear screw jack.
Figure 8-12b: Some applications of power screw
18
8.3 The Mechanics of Power Screw cont
Figure 8-13: Portion of Power Screw
Figure 8-14: Force diagrams; (a) lifting the load; (b) lowering the load
Imagine a single thread of the screw is unrolled
Then one edge of the thread will form of a right
triangle with the base is the circumference of the
mean thread diameter circle with a high is a lead.
Angle is the lead angle of the thread.
19
To raise a load, a force P
R
acts to the right, and to lower the load, P
L
acts to the left.
The friction force is the product of the coefficient of friction f with the normal force N,
and act oppose the motion.
The system is equilibriumunder the action of these forces and hence, for raising the
load:
= + =
= =
0 cos sin
0 cos sin

N fN F F
fN N P F
y
R x
In a similar manner, for lowering the load;
= + + =
= + =
0 cos sin
0 cos sin

N fN F F
fN N P F
y
L x
20
=
fl d
l fd Fd
T
m
m m
L
2
Since the normal force N, is not interested, eliminate it from the equation.
Then, divide the numerator and the denominator of these equations by cos and use
the relation tan =l / d
m
.
Finally, noting that the torque is the product of the force P and the mean radius d
m
/2,
where,
F =force
d
m
=mean screw diameter
l =lead distance
f =coefficient of friction
+
=
fl d
fd l Fd
T
m
m m
R

2
Torque required for raising the load
to overcome thread friction and to
raise the load R
T
Torque required for lowering the load
to overcome part of the thread
friction in lowering the load
L
T
21
If the lead is large or the friction is low, the load will lower itself by causing the screw to
spin without any external effort. In such cases the torque will be negative or zero.
When a positive torque is obtained from this equation, the screw is said to be self
locking
L
T
Condition for Self Locking:
m
fd l >
Dividing both sides of the above inequality by and recognizing that ,
we get
The critical coefficient of friction for the lead concerned,
If f = f
cr
the nut is on the point of moving down the thread without any torque applied.
m
d tan
m
l d =
tan f >
22
If f > f
cr
then the thread is self-locking in that the nut cannot undo by itself, it needs to
be unscrewed by a definite negative torque; Clearly self-locking behavior is essential
for threaded fasteners.
Car lifting jacks would not be of much use if the load fell as soon as the operating
handle was released.
If f < f
cr
then the thread is overhauling in that the nut will unscrew by itself under the
action of the load unless prevented by a positive tightening torque.
If we let , we obtain which is the torque,
required to raise the load.
0
2
Fl
T
=
The efficiency is therefore
R R
T
Fl
T
T
e
2
0
= =
0 f =
23
Figure 8-15: Normal thread force
is increased because of angle
For ACME or other threads, the normal thread load is inclined to
the axis because of the thread angle 2 and the lead angle .
Since lead angle is small, this inclination can be neglected.
J ust consider angle , which increase the frictional force.
For raising the load:
An additional component of torque is often needed to
account for the friction between a collar and the load.
If f
c
is the coefficient of collar friction, assuming the load is
concentrated at the mean collar diameter d
c
+
=

sec
sec
2 fl d
fd l Fd
T
m
m m
R
Figure 8-16: Thrust collar
has frictional diameter, d
c
2
c c
C
d Ff
T =
3. Thread bearing stress
Figure 8-17:
Geometry of square thread useful in finding bending
and transverse shear stresses at the thread root
2
/ 2
B
m t m t
F F
d n p d n p
= =
where n
t
is the number of engaged threads.
24
The following stresses should be checked on both the
nut and the screw:
1. Shearing stress in screw body.
2. Axial stress in screw body
2
4
r
F F
A d
= =
3
16
r
T
d
=
25
4. Bending stress at root of thread.
5. Transverse shear stress at center of root of thread (due to bending)
p n d
F
p n d
p Fp
I
Mc
t r t r
b

6
12
) 2 / )( (
) 4 / (
4
3
=
= =
p n d
F
p n d
F
A
V
t r t r

3
) 2 / ( 2
3
2
3
= = =
26
Stresses in Threads of Power Screws
Transform to von Mises stress
Consider stress element at the top of the root plane
27
Thread Deformation in Screw-Nut Combination
Power screw thread is in compression, causing elastic shortening of screw
thread pitch.
Engaging nut is in tension, causing elastic lengthening of the nut thread pitch.
Consequently, the engaged threads cannot share the load equally. Some
experiment shows that:
To find the largest stress in the first thread of a screw-nut combination, use
0.38F in place of F, and set n
t
=1.
9 the first engaged thread carries 0.38 of the load
9 the second engaged thread carries 0.25 of the load
9 the third engaged thread carries 0.18 of the load
9 the seventh engaged thread is free of load
28
Screw
Material
Nut
Material
Safe p
b
, MPa Notes
Steel Bronze 17.2 24.1 Low speed
Steel Bronze 11.0 17.2 50 mm/s
Cast iron 6.9 17.2 40 mm/s
Steel Bronze 5.5 9.7 100-200 mm/s
Cast iron 4.1 6.9 100-200 mm/s
Steel Bronze 1.0 1.7 250 mm/s
Table 8-4: Screw bearing Pressure p
b
.
Screw
Material
Nut Material
Steel Bronze Brass Cast Iron
Steel, dry 0.15 - 0.25 0.15 - 0.23 0.15 - 0.19 0.15 - 0.25
Steel, machine oil 0.11 - 0.17 0.10 - 0.16 0.10 - 0.15 0.11 - 0.17
Bronze 0.08 - 0.12 0.04 - 0.06 - 0.06 - 0.09
Table 8-5: Coefficients of friction f for Threaded Pairs.
29
Coefficients of friction around 0.1 to 0.2 may be expected for common materials under
conditions of ordinary service and lubrication.
Combination Running Starting
Soft steel on cast iron 0.12 0.17
Hard steel on cast iron 0.09 0.15
Soft steel on bronze 0.08 0.10
Hard steel on bronze 0.06 0.08
Table 8-6: Thrust Collar friction coefficient, f
c
.
30
Example 8-1
Example 8-1
A square thread power screw has a major diameter of 32 mm and a pitch of 4 mm with
double threads. The load of 6.4 kN used in this application. If f =f
c
=0.08, d
c
=40mm,
determine;
a) thread depth, thread width, pitch diameter, minor diameter and lead.
b) the torque required to raise and lower the load.
c) the efficiency during lifting the load.
d) the body stresses, torsional and compressive.
e) the bearing stress.
f) the thread bending stress at the root of the thread.
g) the Von Misses stress at the root of the thread.
h) the maximum shear stress at the root of the thread.
31
Solution 8-1
Solution 8-1
a) thread depth, thread width, pitch diameter, minor diameter and lead.
mm 30 2 / 4 32 2 / diameter; pitch = = = p d d
m
mm 28 4 32 diameter; minor = = = p d d
r
mm 2 2 4 2 width thread depth thread / p/ = = = =
mm 8 ) 4 ( 2 thread, double for lead = = = np l
b) the torque required to raise and lower the load.
2
40 ) 08 . 0 )( 4 . 6 (
) 8 )( 08 . 0 ( ) 30 (
) 30 )( 08 . 0 ( 8
2
) 30 ( 4 . 6
2 2
+
+
= +
+
=

c c
m
m m
R
d Ff
fl d
fd l Fd
T
m N T
R
. 18 . 26 =
32
2
) 40 )( 08 . 0 ( 4 . 6
) 8 ( 08 . 0 ) 30 (
8 30 ) 08 . 0 (
2
) 30 ( 4 . 6
2 2
+
+

= +
c c
m
m m
L
d Ff
fl d
l fd Fd
T
Nm 77 . 9 =
L
T
c) the efficiency during lifting the load.
311 . 0
) 18 . 26 ( 2
) 8 ( 4 . 6
2
= = =

R
T
Fl
e
d) the body stresses, torsional and compressive.
( )
( )
MPa 07 . 6
028 . 0
18 . 26 16 16
32
2
3 3 4
= = = = =

r r
d
T
d
d
T
J
Tr
The body shear stress due to
torsional moment T
R
The axial nominal stress is
( )
MPa 39 . 10
4 / 028 . 0
6400
4 /
6400
2 2
=
= =

r
d A
F
33
e) the bearing stress,
B
is, with one thread carrying 0.38F.
( )
MPa 9 . 12
4 ) 1 ( 30
) 6400 )( 38 . 0 ( 2
) 1 (
) 38 . 0 ( 2
= = =

p d
F
m
B
f) the thread-root bending stress,
b
with one thread carrying 0.38F is
( )
MPa 5 . 41
4 ) 1 ( 28
) 6400 )( 38 . 0 ( 6
) 1 (
) 38 . 0 ( 6
= = =

p d
F
r
b
g) the transverse shear at the extreme of the root cross section due to bending is zero.
However, there is a circumferential shear stress at the extreme of the root cross section
of the thread as shown in part (d) of 6.07 MPa. The three-dimensional stresses are:
0 0
MPa 07 . 6 MPa 39 . 10
0 MPa 5 . 41
z
= =
= =
= =
zx
yz y
xy x

x
y
z
34
For the von Misses stress,
[ ]
MPa 7 . 48
) 07 . 6 ( 6 ) 5 . 41 39 . 10 ( )) 39 . 10 ( 0 ( ) 0 5 . 41 (
2
1
'
2 / 1
2 2 2 2
=
+ + + =
h) the maximum shear stress
MPa 3 . 27
2
) 18 . 13 ( 5 . 41
2
3 1
max
=

=
Note that, there are no shear stresses on the x face. This means that
x
is a principal
stress. The remaining stress can be transformed by using the plane stress equation.
MPa 13.18 - & MPa 79 . 2 07 . 6
2
39 . 10
2
39 . 10

2 2
2
2
2
2
3 , 2
= +
=
+
+
=
yz
z y z y
35
8.4 Threaded Fastener
Hexagon-head bolts are one of the most common for engineering applications
Standard dimensions are included in Table A29
W is usually about 1.5 times nominal diameter
Bolt length L is measured from below the head
A A- - BOLTS BOLTS:
Purpose: Purpose:
to clamp two or more members
together.
Parts: Parts:
(1) Head (Square or Hexagonal)
(2) Washer (d
w
=1.5d)
(3) Threaded part
(4) Unthreaded part
Hexagon-Head Bolt
Figure 8-18: Hexagon-head bolt
36
8.4 Threaded Fastener cont
Metric
English
Threaded Lengths
Where d is the nominal diameter
B B- - NUTS NUTS: Same material as that of a screw
Table A Table A- -31 gives dimensions of Hexagonal nuts 31 gives dimensions of Hexagonal nuts
Good Practice: Good Practice:
1.First three threads of nut carry majority of load
2.Localized plastic strain in the first thread is likely, so nuts should not be re-used in critical
applications.
3.Tightening should be done such that 1 or 2 threads come out of the nut;
4.Washers should always be used under bolt head to prevent burr stress concentration.
37
End view
Washer-faced,
regular
Chamfered both
sides, regular
Washer-faced,
jam nut
Chamfered both
sides, jam nut
Figure 8-19: Types of hexagon-head nut
38
Head Type of Bolts
Hexagon head bolt
Usually uses nut
Heavy duty
Hexagon head cap screw
Thinner head
Often used as screw (in threaded
hole, without nut)
Socket head cap screw
Usually more precision
applications
Access from the top
Machine screws
Usually smaller sizes
Slot or philips head common
Threaded all the way
39
Machine Screws
40
8.5 J oints : Fastener Stiffness
When a connection is desired that can be disassembled without destructive methods
and that is strong enough to resist external tensile loads, moment loads, and shear
loads, or a combination of these, then the simple bolted joint using hardened steel
washers is a good solution.
Twisting the nut stretches the bolt to produce
the clamping force. This clamping force is
called the pretention or bolt preload.
This force exists in the connection after the nut
has been properly tightened.
Grip length l, includes everything being
compressed by bolt preload, including washers.
Washer under head prevents burrs at the hole
from gouging into the fillet under the bolt head. Figure 8-20:
A bolted connection loaded in tension by the
force P. Note the use of two washers. Note
how the threads extend into the body of the
connection. This is usual and is desired. l is
the grip of the connection.
41
8.5 J oints : Fastener Stiffness
Hex-head cap screw in tapped hole used to fasten
cylinder head to cylinder body.
Only part of the threaded length of the bolt contributes
to the effective grip l.
Figure 8-21:
Section of cylindrical pressure
vessel. Hexagon-head caps crews
are used to fasten the cylinder
head to the body. Note the use of
an O-ring seal. L
G
is the effective
length of the connection.
Figure 8-21 shows another tension-loaded connection. This
joint uses cap screws threaded into one of the members.
An alternative approach to this problem (of
not using a nut) would be to use studs.
A stud is a rod threaded on both ends. The
stud is screwed into the lower member
first; then the top member is positioned
and fastened down with hardened washers
and nuts
Studs are regarded as permanent, and so
the joint can be disassembled merely by
removing the nut and washer.
42
8.5 J oints : Fastener Stiffness cont
Spring Rate : The ratio between the
force applied to the member and the
deflection produced by that force.
The grip l of a connection is the total
thickness of the clamped material.
Total distance between the underside of
the nut to the bearing face of the bolt
head; includes washer, gasket thickness
etc.
The grip l here is the sum of
the thicknesses of both
members and both washers.
43
Procedure to find bolt stiffness
Given fastener diameter d and pitch p in mm or number of threads per inch
Washer thickness: t from Table A-32 or A-33
Nut thickness [Fig. (a) only]: H from table A-31
(a) (b)
44
Procedure to find bolt stiffness
(a) (b)
8-1 8-2
45
t
t
t
d
d
d
t d
t d
b
t d b
l
E A
k
l
E A
k
k k
k k
k
k k k
= =
+
=
+ =
;
1 1 1
In joint under tension the members are under compression
and the bolt under tension: k
b
=equivalent spring constant of
bolt composed of threaded (k
t
) and unthreaded (k
d
) parts
acting as springs in series
For short bolts k
b
=k
t
k
m
d t t d
t d
b
l A l A
E A A
k
+
=
46
8.6 J oints : Member Stiffness
Stress distribution spreads from face of bolt head and nut
Model as a cone with top cut off
Called a frustum
Model compressed members as
if they are frusta spreading from
the bolt head and nut to the
midpoint of the grip
Joint pressure distribution theoretical models
Ito used ultrasonic techniques to determine pressure distribution at the member
interface. Results show that pressure stays high out to about 1.5 bolt radii.
Ito suggested the use of Rotschers pressure cone method for stiffness calculations
with a variable cone angle. This method is quite complicated.
We choose a simpler approach using a fixed cone angle.
Each frustum has a half-apex angle of
The contraction of an element of the cone of thickness dx is subjected to a compressive
force P is,
47
8.6 J oints : Member Stiffness
Figure 7-22: Compression of a member with the equivalent elastic properties
represented by frustum of a hollow cone. Here l represents the grip length.
Pdx
d
EA
=
48
8.6 J oints : Member Stiffness cont
Integrating from 0 to t
) )( tan 2 (
) )( tan 2 (
ln
tan d D d D t
d D d D t
Ed
P
+ +
+ +
=
) )( tan 2 (
) )( tan 2 (
ln
tan
d D d D t
d D d D t
Ed P
k
+ +
+ +
= =
The area of element is

Substituting this Eq. and integrating gives a total contraction of
Thus the stiffness of this frustum is
49
For Members made of Aluminum, hardened steel and cast iron 25 < <33
For =30
) )( 155 . 1 (
) )( 155 . 1 (
ln
5774 . 0
d D d D t
d D d D t
Ed
k
+ +
+ +
=

If the grip consists of any number of members all of the
same material, two identical frusta can be added in
series. The entire joint can be handled with one
equation,
d
w
is the washer face diameter
Using standard washer face
diameter of 1.5d, and with =30, ) (
5 . 2 5774 . 0
5 . 0 5774 . 0
5 ln
5774 . 0
2
d l
d l
Ed
k
m
+
+
=

50
From Finite element analysis results,
A and B from table 8.7 for standard
washer Faces and members
of same material
(Bd/l) A
Ed
k
m
exp =
Figure 8-23: The dimensionless plot of stiffness versus aspect ratio
of the members of a bolted joint, showing the relative
accuracy of methods of Rotscher, Mischke, and
Motosh, compared to a finite-element analysis (FEA)
conducted by Wileman, Choudury and Green.
i m
k k k k k
1
....
1 1 1 1
3 2 1
+ + + =
Combine all frusta as springs in
series , k
m
51
Table 8-7:
52
Example 8-2
Example 8-2
a) Determine the member spring rate k
m
if the top plate is steel and the bottom plate is gray
cast iron.
b) Using the method of conical frusta, determine the member spring rate k
m
if both plates
are steel.
c) Using Finite Element Approach to Member Stiffness, determine the member spring rate
k
m
if both plates are steel. Compare the results with part (b)
d) Determine the bolt spring rate k
b
.
As shown in figure below, two plates are clamped by washer-faced in-20 UNF x 1in SAE
grade 5 bolts each with a standard N steel plain washer.
53
Solution 8-2
Solution 8-2
From Table A-32, the thickness of a standard N washer is 0.095 in.
a) As shown in figure below, the frusta extend halfway into the joint the distance
in 6725 . 0 ) 095 . 0 75 . 0 5 . 0 (
2
1
= + +
The distance between the joint line and the
dotted frusta line is
in 0.0775 0.095 - 0.5 - 0.6725 =
Thus, the top frusta consist of the steel
washer, steel plate and 0.0775 in of the cast
iron. Since the washer and top plate are both
steel with E =30(10)6 psi, they can be considered a single frustum of 0.595 in thick.
54
The outer diameter of the frustum of the
steel member at the joint interface is
in 437 . 1 30 tan 595 0 2 75 0 = +
o
) . ( .
The outer diameter at the midpoint of the
entire joint is
in 527 . 1 30 tan 6725 0 2 75 0 = +
o
) . ( .
The spring rate of the steel is
[ ]
[ ]
Ibf/in ) 10 ( 80 . 30
) 5 . 0 75 . 0 ( 5 . 0 75 . 0 ) 595 . 0 ( 155 . 1
) 5 . 0 75 . 0 ( 5 . 0 75 . 0 ) 595 . 0 ( 155 . 1
ln
5 . 0 ) 10 )( 30 ( 5774 . 0
6
6
1
=
+ +
+ +
=

k
k
1
k
2
k
3
55
For the upper cast-iron frustum
[ ]
[ ]
Ibf/in ) 10 ( 5 . 285
) 5 . 0 437 . 1 ( 5 . 0 437 . 1 ) 0775 . 0 ( 155 . 1
) 5 . 0 437 . 1 ( 5 . 0 437 . 1 ) 0775 . 0 ( 155 . 1
ln
5 . 0 ) 10 )( 5 . 14 ( 5774 . 0
6
6
2
=
+ +
+ +
=

k
For the lower cast-iron frustum
[ ]
[ ]
Ibf/in ) 10 ( 15 . 14
) 5 . 0 75 . 0 ( 5 . 0 75 . 0 ) 6725 . 0 ( 155 . 1
) 5 . 0 75 . 0 ( 5 . 0 75 . 0 ) 6725 . 0 ( 155 . 1
ln
5 . 0 ) 10 )( 5 . 14 ( 5774 . 0
6
6
3
=
+ +
+ +
=

k
The three frusta are in series, so
) 10 ( 15 . 14
1
) 10 ( 5 . 285
1
) 10 ( 80 . 30
1 1
6 6 6
+ + =
m
k
This results in k
m
=9.378 (10
6
) ibf/in
56
b) If the entire joint is steel, therefore l =2(0.6725) =1.345 in gives,
ibf/in ) 10 ( 64 . 14
) 5 . 0 ( 5 . 2 ) 345 . 1 ( 5774 . 0
) 5 . 0 ( 5 . 0 ) 345 . 1 ( 5774 . 0
5 ln
5 . 0 ) 10 )( 30 ( 5774 . 0
6
6
) ( 2
=
+
+
=

m
k
c) From table 8.7, A =0.78715, B =0.62873.
ibf/in ) 10 ( 92 . 14
345 . 1
) 5 . 0 ( 62873 . 0
exp ) 78715 . 0 )( 5 . 0 )( 10 ( 30
6 6
=
=
m
k
In this case, the different between results is less than 2%.
d) Following the procedure of slide 36, the threaded length of a 0.5-in bolt is
in 25 . 1 25 . 0 ) 5 . 0 ( 2 = + =
T
L
57
The length of the unthreaded portion is (refer slide 44)
in 095 . 1 25 . 0 345 . 1 = =
t
l
in 25 . 0 25 . 1 5 . 1 = =
d
l
The length of the unthreaded portion in grip is (refer slide 44)
The major diameter area is
2
2
in 1963 . 0
4
5 . 0
=
=
d
A
From table 8-2 (slide 14) the tensile stress area is A
t
=0.1599 in.
Therefore
Ibf/in ) 10 ( 69 . 3
) 25 . 0 ( 1599 . 0 ) 095 . 1 ( 1963 . 0
) 10 ( 30 ) 1599 . 0 ( 1963 . 0
6
6
=
+
=
+
=
d t t d
t d
b
l A l A
E A A
k
58
8.7 Bolts Strength
Bolt strength is specified by minimum proof strength S
p
or minimum proof load, F
p
and minimum tensile strength, S
ut
Proof load is the maximum load that a bolt can
withstand without acquiring a permanent set
Proof strength is the quotient of proof load and
tensile-stress area
Corresponds to proportional limit
Slightly lower than yield strength
Typically used for static strength of bolt
Good bolt materials have stress-strain curve
that continues to rise to fracture
If S
p
not available use S
p
=0.85 S
y
F
p
=A
t
S
p
Figure 8-24: Typical stress-strain diagram
for bolt materials
59
8.7 Bolts Strength cont
Grades specify material, heat treatment, strengths
Table 88 for SAE grades (The SAE specifications are numbered according to
minimum tensile strength)
Table 89 for ASTM designations (ASTM are mostly deals with structural)
Table 810 for metric property class
Grades should be marked on head of bolt
60
Table 8-8: SAE Specifications for Steel Bolts
61
Table 8-8: SAE Specifications for Steel Bolts (cont)
62
Table 8-9: ASTM Specifications for Steel Bolts.
63
Table 8-9: ASTM Specifications for Steel Bolts (cont)
64
Table 8-9: ASTM Specifications for Steel Bolts (cont)
65
Table 8-10: Metric Mechanical-Property Classes for Steel Bolts
66
Table 8-10: Metric Mechanical-Property Classes for Steel Bolts (cont)
67
8.8 Tension Joints : The External Load
Let us consider what happens when an external tensile load P, is applied
to a bolt connection.
Assuming a clamping force, (preload F
i
)is applied by tightening the nut
before external force, P is applied.
F
i
= preload
P = external tensile load
P
b
= portion of P taken by bolt
P
m
= portion of P taken by members
F
b
= P
b
+ F
i
= resultant bolt load
F
m
= P
m
F
i
= resultant load on the members
C = fraction of external load P carried by bolt
1-C = fraction of external load P carried by members
68
8.8 Tension Joints : The External Load cont
During bolt preload; F
i
(clamping force
produced by tightening the nut before
external load; P is applied)
bolt is stretched
members in grip are compressed
When external load P is applied
Bolt stretches an additional amount
Members in grip uncompress same amount
69
Since External Load P is shared by bolt and members, therefore
P = P
b
+ P
m
C is defined as the stiffness constant of the joint;
C indicates the proportion of external load P that the bolt will carry. A good
design target is around 0.2.
Table 8-11:
Computation of Bolt and
Member Stiffnesses. Steel
members clamped using a
in 13 NC steel bolt.
70
Resultant Bolt and Member Load : F
b
& F
m
(1 )
b b i i
m m i i
F P F CP F
F P F C P F
= + = +
= =
0
m
F <
These results are only valid if the load on the members remains
negative, indicating the members stay in compression.
F
i
is preload; high preload is desirable in tension connections.
F
i
= 0.75 F
p
for re-use
F
i
= 0.90 F
p
for permanent joint
71
8.9 Relating Bolt Torque to Bolt Tension
Best way to measure bolt preload is by relating measured bolt elongation and
calculated stiffness
Usually, measuring bolt elongation is not practical
Measuring applied torque is common, using a torque wrench
Need to find relation between applied torque and bolt preload
Torque required to give preload F
i
From the power screw equations,
Applying tan = l / d
m
72
8.9 Relating Bolt Torque to Bolt Tension cont
Assuming a washer face diameter of 1.5d, the collar diameter is
d
c
= (d + 1.5d)/2 = 1.25d, giving
Define term in brackets as torque coefficient; K
Table 8-12: Torque factor K
Some recommended values for K for
various bolt finishes is given in Table 812
Use K = 0.2 for other cases
73
A in-16 UNF x 2 in SAE grade 5 bolt is subjected to a load P of 6 kip in a tension
joint. The initial bolt tension is F
i
= 25 kip. The bolt and joint stiffness are 6.50 and 13.8
Mlbf/in, respectively.
(a) Determine the preload and service load stresses in the bolt. Compare these
to the minimum proof strength of the bolt.
(b) Specify the torque necessary to develop the preload using equation T = Kf
i
d
(c) Specify the torque necessary to develop the preload if given f = f
c
= 0.15
Example 8-3
Example 8-3
74
Solution 8-3
Solution 8-3
From Table 8-2, A
t
= 0.373 in
2
.
a) The preload is kpsi 02 . 67
373 . 0
25
= = =
t
i
i
A
F
The stiffness constant is 320 . 0

8 . 13 5 . 6
5 . 6
=
+
=
+
=
m b
b
k k
k
C
The stress under the service load is
kpsi 17 . 72 02 . 67
373 . 0
) 6 ( 320 . 0
= + =
+ =
+
= =
i
t t
i
t
b
b
A
CP
A
F CP
A
F

From Table 8-8, the SAE minimum proof strength of the bolt is S
p
= 85 kpsi.
The preload and service load stresses are respectively 21 and 15 percent
less than the proof strength.
75
b) The torque necessary to achieve the preload is
Ibf.in 3750 ) 75 . 0 )( 10 25 ( 2 . 0
3
= = = x d KF T
i
c) The minor diameter can be determined from the minor area in Table 8-2. Thus
in 6685 . 0
) 351 . 0 ( 4 4
= = =

r
r
A
d
Than the mean diameter can be calculated as follow
in 7093 . 0
2
6685 . 0 75 . 0
=
+
=
m
d
The lead angle is
o
m m
N d d
l
6066 . 1
) 16 )( 7093 . 0 (
1
tan
1
tan tan
1 1 1
= = = =

76
Ibf.in 3551
) 75 . 0 )( 10 ( 25 ) 15 . 0 ( 625 . 0
) 30 )(sec 6066 . 1 (tan 15 . 0 1
) 30 (sec 15 . 0 6066 . 1 tan
) 75 . 0 ( 2
7093 . 0
3
=

=
o o
o o
T
For = 30
o
Which is 5.3% less than the value found in part (b)
77
8.10 Statically Loaded Tension Joint with Preload
Failure of joints occurs when
i) Bolt Yields
Proof strength
A
t
: Tensile stress area
t
i
t t
b
b
A
F
A
CP
A
F
+ = =
Failure starts
p b
S =
a) Yielding Factor of safety:
i
t p
t i
p
b
p
p
F CP
A S
A F CP
S S
n
+
=
+
= =
/ ) (
b) Load Factor:
CP
F A S
n A S F CP
i t p
L t p i
= = +
78
ii) Joint separates
Let P
0
be external load causing separation F
m
= 0
( )
( )
0
0
(1 )
0
1
/ 1
m i
m
i
i
F C P F
F
P F
n
P P C
F
For n bolts n
P N C
=
=
= =
0
(1 ) 0
i
C P F =
n
o
: factor of safety against joint separation
79
Example 8-4
Example 8-4
Figure 8-25 is a cross section of a grade 25
cast-iron pressure vessel. A total of N bolts
are to be used to resist a separating force
of 36 kip.
(a) Determine k
b
, k
m
, and C
(b) Find the number of bolts required for a
load factor of 2 where the bolts may be
reused when the joint is taken apart.
(c) With the number of bolts obtained in
part (b), determine the realized load
factor for overloading, the yielding
factor of safety, and the load factor for
joint separation. Figure 8-25:
80
Solution 8-4
Solution 8-4
81
82
83
84
8.11 Gasketed Joints
If a full gasket is present in joint, The
gasket pressure p is:
g
i
i m
g
m
A
N
C nP F p
F nP C F
n factor load With
N A
F
p
)] 1 ( [
) 1 (
/
=
=
=
No. of
bolts
85
8.11 Gasketed Joints cont
IMPORTANT:
1. To maintain uniformity of pressure
adjacent bolts should not be placed
more than 6 nominal diameters apart
on bolt circle.
2. To maintain wrench clearance bolts
should be placed at least 3 d apart.
3. A rough rule for bolt spacing around a
bolt circle is
where D
b
is the diameter of the bolt
circle and N is the number of bolts.
3 6
b
D
Nd

86
8.12 Fatigue Loading of Tension Joints
Fatigue methods of Ch. 4 are directly applicable
Distribution of typical bolt failures is
15% under the head
20% at the end of the thread
65% in the thread at the nut face
Fatigue stress-concentration factors for threads and fillet are given in
Table 813
Table 8-13: Fatigue Stress-Concentration Factors K
f
for Threaded Elements
87
8.12 Fatigue Loading of Tension Joints cont
Bolts are standardized, so endurance strengths are known by experimentation,
including all modifiers.
Table 8-14: Full Corrected Endurance Strengths for Bolts
and Screws with Rolled Threads*
Fatigue stress-concentration factor
K
f
is also included as a reducer of
the endurance strength, so it
should not be applied to the bolt
stresses.
In thread-rolling the amount of
cold-work and strain
strengthening is unknown to the
designer; therefore, fully
corrected (including K
f
) axial
endurance strength is reported in
Table 8-14.
Endurance Strength for Bolts
88
With an external load on a per bolt basis fluctuating
between P
min
and P
max
,
The alternating stress experienced by a bolt is
The midrange stress experienced by a bolt is
Fatigue Stresses
89
Typical load line starts
from constant preload,
then increases with a
constant slope
On the designers
fatigue diagram,
shown in Figure 8-26,
the load line is .
High Preload is
especially important
in fatigue.
i
is a
constant the load line
at F
i
/A
t
has a unit
slope, r = 1.0
Figure 8-26: Designers fatigue diagram showing a Goodman failure
locus and how a load line is used to define failure and
safety in preloaded bolted joints in fatigue.
Typical Fatigue Load Line for Bolts
90
Next, find the strength components S
a
of the fatigue
failure locus. These depend on the failure Criteria.
Goodman Goodman
1
a m
e ut
S S
S S
+ =
Gerber Gerber
2
1
a m
e ut
S S
S S

+ =

ASME ASME- -Elliptic Elliptic
2
2
1
a m
e p
S S
S S

+ =

m
ut
e
e a
S
S
S
S S =
e
ut
m
e a
S
S
S
S S
2
=
2
1

=
p
m
e a
S
S
S S
) (
i m
i m
a
a
S S

=
i
a
i m a
m
S
S
=
) (
Equation of a typical
fatigue load line:
91
Solving (a) and (b) for Goodman line intersection point,
Fatigue factor of safety based on
Goodman line and constant
preload load line,
Other failure curves can be used,
following the same approach.
a
f
a
S
n
=
92
Repeated Load Special Case
Bolted joints often experience repeated load, where external load fluctuates
between 0 and P
max
Setting P
min
= 0; equation in slide 88
With constant preload load line,
Load line has slope of unity for repeated load case
Fatigue factor of safety equations for repeated
loading, constant preload load line, with
various failure curves:
93
Goodman
Gerber
Repeated Load Special Case
Substitute
a
and
i
into any of
the fatigue factor of safety
equations
ASME
Elliptic
94
Yield Check with Fatigue Stresses
As always, static yielding must be checked.
In fatigue loading situations, since
a
and
m
are already calculated, it may be
convenient to check yielding with
This is equivalent to the yielding factor of safety from slide 77.
95
Example 8-5
Example 8-5
Figure 8-27:
Figure 8-27
Pressure-cone frustum member model for a cap screw. For this
model the significant sizes are
Where l = effective grip. The solutions are for =30
o
and d
w
=1.5d.
2 2
2
1
2
2
2
tan 1.5 0.577
1.5
w
w
h t t d
l
h D t d
D d l d l
D d d
+ <
=

+
= + = +
= =
(Refer to slide 43)
96
Solution 8-5
Solution 8-5
(a) For the symbols of Figs. 8-22 and 8-27,
The joint is composed of three frusta; the upper two frusta are steel and the
lower one is cast iron.
For the upper frustrum; using Eq. in slide 49:
in 9375 . 0 5 . 1
in 1 2 /
in 6875 . 0
2
1
= =
= + =
= + =
d D
d h l
t t h
w
MIbf/in 46 . 46
Mpsi 30
in 9375 . 0
in 5 . 0 2 /
1
=
=
=
= =
k
E
D
l t
97
For the middle frustrum;
For the lower frustrum;
Substituting these three stiffnesses gives k
m
= 17.40 MIbf/in. The cap screw is short
and threaded all the way. Using l = 1 in for the grip and A
t
= 0.226 in
2
from Table 8-2,
we find the stiffness to be k
b
= A
t
E / l = 6.78 MIbf/in. Thus the joint constant is
MIbf/in 43 . 197
Mpsi 30
in 1.298 30 tan ) ( 2 9375 . 0
in 1875 . 0 2 /
2
=
=
= + =
= =
k
E
h l D
l h t
o
MIbf/in 39 . 32
Mpsi 30
in 9375 . 0
in 3125 . 0
3
=
=
=
= =
k
E
D
h l t
ci
280 . 0
40 . 17 78 . 6
78 . 6
=
+
=
+
=
m b
b
k k
k
C
98
(b) Equation in slide 70 gives the preload as,
where from Table 8-8, S
p
= 85 kpsi for an SAE grade 5 cap screw. Using Eq. in slide 77,
we obtain the load factor as the yielding factor of safety is
This is the traditional factor of safety, which compares the maximum bolt stress to the
proof strength. Using Eq. in slide 77
This factor is an indication of the overload on P that can be applied without exceeding the
proof strength.
kip 4 . 14 ) 85 )( 226 . 0 ( 75 . 0 75 . 0 75 . 0 = = = =
p t p i
S A F F
22 . 1
4 . 14 ) 5 ( 280 . 0
) 226 . 0 ( 85
=
+
=
+
=
i
t p
p
F CP
A S
n
44 . 3
) 5 ( 280 . 0
4 . 14 ) 226 . 0 ( 85
=
=
CP
F A S
n
i t p
L
99
Next, using Eq. in slide 78, we have
If the force P gets too large, the joint will separate and the bolt will take the entire load.
This factor guards against that event.
For the remaining factors, refer to Fig. 8-28 at next slide. This diagram contains the
modified Goodman line, the Gerber line, the proof-strength line, and the load line. The
intersection of the load line L with the respective failure lines at points C, D, and E defines
a set of strengths S
a
and S
m
at each intersection. Point B represents the stress state
a
,
m
. Point A is the preload stress
i
. Therefore the load line begins at A and makes an
angle having a unit slope. The angle is 45
o
only when both stress axes have the same
scale.
00 . 4
) 280 . 0 1 ( 5
4 . 14
) 1 (
0
=
=
C P
F
n
i
100
Fig. 828: Designers fatiguediagramfor preload bolts, drawn to scale, showing themodified Goodman line, theGerber line, and the
Larger proof-strength line, with an exploded view of theareaof interest. Thestrengths used areS
p
=85 kpsi, S
e
=18.6 kpsi,
and S
ut
=120 kpsi. Thecoordinates are;
A,
i
= 63.72 kpsi ;
B,
a
=3.10 kpsi,
m
=66.82 kpsi ;
C, S
a
=7.55 kpsi, S
m
=71.29 kpsi ;
D, S
a
=10.64 kpsi, S
m
=74.36 kpsi ;
E, S
a
=11.32 kpsi , S
m
=75.04 kpsi.
101
8.12 Fatigue Loading of Tension J oints cont
The factors of safety are found by dividing the distances AC, ADand AE by the distance
AB. Note that this is the same as dividing S
a
for each theory by
a
.
The quantities shown in the caption of Fig. 8-28 are obtained as follows:
Point A
Point B
Point C
This is the modified Goodman criteria. From Table 8-14, we find S
e
=18.6 kpsi. Then, using
Eq. in Slide 93, the factor of safety is found to be
kpsi 72 . 63
226 . 0
4 . 14
= = =
t
i
i
A
F
kpsi 82 . 66 72 . 63 10 . 3
kpsi 10 . 3
) 226 . 0 ( 2
) 5 ( 280 . 0
2
m
= + = + =
= = =
i a
t
a
A
CP

kpsi 44 . 2
) 6 . 18 120 ( 10 . 3
) 72 . 63 120 ( 6 . 18
) (
) (
=
+
=
+
=
e ut a
i ut e
f
S S
S S
n

102
Point D
This is on the proof-strength line where
In addition, the horizontal projection of the load line AD is
Solving Eqs. above simultaneously results in
The factor of safety resulting from this is
which, of course, is identical to the result previously obtained by using Eq. in slide 77.
A similar analysis of a fatigue diagram could have been done using yield strength instead
of proof strength. Though the two strengths are somewhat related, proof strength is a much
better and more positive indicator of a fully loaded bolt than is the yield strength. It is also
worth remembering that proof-strength values are specified in the design codes; yields
strengths are not.
p a m
S S S = +
a i m
S S + =
kpsi 64 . 10
2
72 . 63 85
2
=
=
i p
a
S
S

43 . 3
10 . 3
64 . 10
= = =
a
a
p
S
n
103
We found n
f
=2.44 on the basis of fatigue and the modified Goodman line, and n
p
=3.43
on the basis of proof strength. Thus the danger of failure is by fatigue, not by overproof
loading. These two factors should always be compared to determine where is the greatest
danger lies.
Point E
For the Gerber criterion, from Eq. in slide 93, the safety factor is
which is greater than n
p
=3.43 and contradicts the conclusion earlier that the danger of
failure is fatigue. Figure 8-28 clearly shows the conflict where point D lies between points
C and E. Again, the conservative nature of Goodman criterion explains the discrepancy
and the designer must form his or her own conclusion.
[ ]
[ ]
65 . 3
) 6 . 18 )( 73 . 63 ( 2 120 ) 72 . 63 6 . 18 )( 6 . 18 ( 4 120 120
) 6 . 18 )( 10 . 3 ( 2
1

2 ) ( 4
2
1
2 2
2 2
=
+ + =
+ + =
e i ut i e e ut ut
e a
f
S S S S S S
S
n
104
8.13 Bolted and Riveted J oints Loaded in Shear
y Shear loaded joints are handled the
same for rivets, bolts, and pins
y Several failure modes are possible
(a) J oint loaded in shear
(b) Bending of bolt or members
(c) Shear of bolt
(d) Tensile failure of members
(e) Bearing stress on bolt or members
(f) Shear tear-out
(g) Tensile tear-out
Fig. 829: Modes of failurein shear loading of a
bolted or riveted connection.
105
Failure by Bending
Bending moment is approximately M =Ft / 2, where t is the grip length, i.e.
the total thickness of the connected parts.
Bending stress is determined by regular mechanics of materials approach,
where I/c is for the weakest member or for the bolt(s).
106
Failure by Shear of Bolt
Simple direct shear
Use the total cross sectional area of bolts that are carrying
the load.
For bolts, determine whether the shear is across the nominal
area or across threaded area. Use area based on nominal
diameter or minor diameter, as appropriate.
107
Failure by Tensile Rupture of Member
Simple tensile failure
Use the smallest net area of the member,
with holes removed
108
Failure by Bearing Stress
Failure by crushing known as bearing stress
Bolt or member with lowest strength will crush first
Load distribution on cylindrical surface is non-trivial
Customary to assume uniform distribution over projected
contact area, A = td
t is the thickness of the thinnest plate and d is the bolt
diameter
109
Failure by Shear-out or Tear-out
Edge shear-out or tear-out is avoided by spacing bolts at least 1.5 diameters
away from the edge
110
Example 8-6
Example 8-6
The bolted connection shown in Figure 8-30 uses SAE grade 5 bolts. The members are hot-
rolled AISI 1018 steel. A tensile shear load F =4000 Ibf is applied to the connection. Find
the factor of safety for all possible modes of failure.
Fig. 830
F =4000 Ibf
F =4000 Ibf
111
Solution 8-6
Solution 8-6
Members: S
y
=32 kpsi (from Table A-20)
Bolts: S
y
=92 kpsi (from Table 8-8) ; S
sy
=0.577S
y
=0.577(92) =53.08 kpsi
Shear of bolts
93 . 2
1 . 18
08 . 53
kpsi 1 . 18
221 . 0
4
in 221 . 0
4
) 375 . 0 (
2
2
2
= = =
= = =
=
sy
s
s
s
S
n
A
F
A
Bearing on bolts
32 . 4
3 . 21
92
kpsi 3 . 21
188 . 0
4
in 188 . 0 ) 375 . 0 )( 25 . 0 ( 2
2
=
= =
=
=
= =
b
y
b
b
S
n
A
A
b
112
Bearing of members
50 . 1
3 . 21
32
=
= =
b
sc
S
n
Tension on members
25 . 3
85 . 9
32
kpsi 85 . 9
406 . 0
4
in 406 . 0 ) 4 / 1 )( 75 . 0 375 . 2 (
2
= = =
= =
= =
t
y
t
t
A
S
n
A
A
t
113
Shear J oints with Eccentric Loading
Eccentric loading is when the load does not pass along a line of symmetry of
the fasteners.
Requires finding moment about centroid of bolt pattern
Centroid location
Fig. 831: Centroidof pins, rivets or bolts.
where A
1
to A
5
is the group of pins, rivets or bolts respective
cross sectional area and x
i
and y
i
are the distances to the ith
area center.
114
(a) Example of eccentric loading
(b) Free body diagram
(c) Close up of bolt pattern
115
Primary Shear
Secondary Shear, due to moment load
around centroid
116
Example 8-7
Example 8-7
Shown in Fig. 8-32 is a 15 by 200-mm rectangular steel bar cantilevered to a 250-mm steel
channel using four tightly fitted bolts located at A, B, C, and D.
For a F =16 kN load find
(a) The resultant load on each bolt
(b) The maximum shear stress in each bolt
(c) The maximum bearing stress
(d) The critical bending stress in the bar
Fig. 832: Dimensions in millimeters.
117
Solution 8-7
Solution 8-7
(a) Point O, the centroidof the bolt group in Fig.
8-32, is found by symmetry. If a free-body
diagram of the beam were constructed, the
shear reaction V would pass through O and
the moment reactions M would be about O.
These reaction are
V =16 kN ; M =16(425) =6800 Nm
In Fig. 8-33, the bolt group has been drawn
to a larger scale and the reactions are
shown. The distance from the centroid to the
center of each bolt is
mm 0 . 96 ) 75 ( ) 60 (
2 2
= + = r
Fig. 833
118
The primary shear load per bolt is
Since the secondary shear forces are equal, Eq. in slide 115 becomes
The primary and secondary shear forces are plotted to scale in Fig. 8-33 and the
resultants obtained by using parallelogram rule. The magnitudes are found by
measurement (or analysis) to be
kN 4
4
16
' = = =
n
V
F
kN 17.7
) 0 . 96 ( 4
6800
4 4
"
2
= = = =
r
M
r
Mr
F
kN .0 1 2 ) 7 . 38 sin 7 . 17 ( ) 7 . 38 cos 7 . 17 4 (
2 2
= + + = =
o o
B A
F F
75 mm
o
60 mm
o
3 . 51
60
75
tan
1
= =

o o o o
7 . 38 3 . 51 90 90 = = =
kN .8 14 ) 7 . 38 sin 7 . 17 ( ) 4 7 . 38 cos 7 . 17 (
2 2
= + = =
o o
D C
F F
119
(b) Bolts A and B are critical because they carry the largest shear load. Does this shear act on
the threaded portion of the bolt, or on the unthreaded portion? The bolt length will be 25 mm
plus the height of the nut plus about 2 mm for a washer. Table A-31 gives the nut height as
14.8 mm. Including two threads beyond the nut, this adds up to a length of 43.8 mm, and so
a bolt 45 mm long will be needed. From Eq. in slide 36, we compute the thread length as
L
T
=38mm. Thus the unthreaded portion of the bolt is 45 38 =7 mm long. This is less than
the 15 mm for the plate in Fig. 8-33, and so the bolt will tend to shear across its minor
diameter. Therefore the shear-stress area is A
s
=144 mm
2
, and so the shear stress is
(c) The channel is thinner than the bar, and so the largest bearing stress is due to the pressing
of the bolt against the channel web. The bearing area is A
b
=td =10(16) =160 mm
2
. Thus
the bearing stress is
MPa 146
144
) 10 ( 0 . 21
3
= = =
s
A
F
MPa 131
160
) 10 ( 0 . 21
3
= = =
b
A
F
120
(d) The critical bending stress in the bar is assumed to occur in a section parallel to the y axis
and through bolts A and B. At this section the bending moment is
The second moment of area through this section is obtained by the use of the transfer
formula, as follows:
Then
Nm 5600 ) 50 300 ( 16 = + = M
4 6 2
3 3
2
mm ) 10 ( 26 . 8 ) 16 )( 15 ( 60
12
) 16 ( 15
2
12
) 200 ( 15

) ( 2
=
+ =
+ = A d I I I
holes bar
MPa 8 . 67
) 10 ( 26 . 8
) 100 ( 5600
6
= = =
I
Mc
121
References
1. RichardG.Budynas,J.KeithNisbett. Shigley's MechanicalEngineeringDesign
(NinthEdition).Singapore :McGrawHillCompanies,Inc.,2011.ISBN978007
1311137.
2. Bazoune,Dr.A.Aziz. KFUPMOpenCourseware.[Online]KingFahd University
ofPetroleum&Minerals.[Cited:February28,2012.]
http://opencourseware.kfupm.edu.sa/colleges/ces/me/me307/lectures.asp.
Chapter 9
Permanent Joints
Prepared by: Mohd Azwir bin Azlan
Week 13 & 14
2
9 acquaintance with the terminology, and types of permanent joints.
9 design, analysis, and sizing of welded joints
Learning Outcomes
CHAPTER 9 Permanent Joints
3
9.1 - Introduction
9.2 - Welding Symbols
9.3 - Butt and Fillet Welds
9.4 - Stresses in Welded Joints in Torsion
9.5 - Stresses in Welded Joints in Bending
9.6 - The Strength of Welded Joints
9.7 - Static Loading
9.8 - Fatigue Loading
9.9 - Resistance Welding
9.10 - Adhesive Bonding
4
9.1 Introduction
Form can more readily pursue function with the help of joining processes such as welding,
brazing, soldering, cementing, and gluing - processes that are used extensively in
manufacturing today.
Particularly when sections to be joined are thin, the elimination of individual fasteners, with
their holes and assembly costs lead to significant savings.
Welding is the process of joining two pieces of metal together by hammering, pressure or
fusion. Filler metal may or may not be used.
Welding is the strongest and most common method of permanently joining steel
components together.
Arc welding is the most important since it is adaptable to various manufacturing
environments and is relatively cheap.
5
9.2 Welding Symbols
A weldment is fabricated by welding together a collection of metal shapes, cut to particular
configurations.
The welding symbol is standardized by the American Welding Society (AWS).
The weld must be precisely specified on working drawing and this is done by welding
symbol, Fig. 9-1.
The arrow of this symbol points to the joint to be welded.
The body of the symbol contains as many of the following elements as are deemed
necessary:
Reference line
Arrow
Basic weld symbols in Fig. 9-2
Dimensions and other data
Supplementary symbols
Finish symbols
Tail
Specification or process.
6
9.2 Welding Symbols cont
Figure 9-1 :
The AWS standard welding symbol showing the
location of the symbol elements
7
Figure 9-2 : Arc and gas-weld symbols
There 2 general types of welds:
1. 1. Fillet welds Fillet welds for general machine elements.
2. Butt or groove welds for pressure vessels, piping systems,...
There are also others such as: ,
Fillet welds Fillet welds
groove welds
Bead Bead Plug or slot Plug or slot
8
Parts to be joined must be arranged so that there is sufficient clearance
for welding operation.
Due to heat, there are metallurgical changes in the parent metal in the
vicinity of the weld.
Residual stresses may be introduced because of clamping or holding.
These residual stresses are not severe enough to cause concern.
A light heat treatment after welding is done to relive these stresses.
When the parts to be welded are thick, a preheating will also be of
benefit.
9
Welding Symbol Examples
Weld leg size of 5 mm
Fillet weld
Both sides
Intermittent and staggered 60 mm
along on 200 mmcenters
Leg size of 5 mm
On one side only (outside)
Circle indicates all the way around
10
11
12
13
9.3 Butt and Fillet Welds
Where h is the weld throat and l is the length of the weld. Notice that the value of h does
not include the reinforcement.
Reinforcement adds some strength for static loaded joints.
The reinforcement can be desirable, but it varies somewhat and does produce stress
concentration at point A in the figure. If fatigue loads exist, it is good practice to grind or
machine off the reinforcement.
hl
F
= stress; Normal
hl
F
= ; stress Shear
14
9.3 Butt and Fillet Welds cont
At angle the forces on each
weldment consists of a
normal force F
n
and a shear
force F
s
sin ,
cos n
s F F
F F
=
=
Fig. 9-3 illustrates a typical
transverse fillet weld.
In Fig. 9-4 a portion of the
welded joint has been isolated
from Fig. 9-3
Figure 9-3 : A transverse fillet weld
Figure 9-4 : Free Body Diagram from Fig. 9-4
15
sin (cos sin )
cos (cos sin ) n
s F F
A hl
F F
A hl

+
= =
+
= =
The nominal stresses at the angle in the
weldment, and , are
The von Mises stress at angle is

max
occurs at = 62.5
o
with a value of
The corresponding values of and , are and

max
can be found by solving the equation [d()/d] = 0.
The stationary point occurs at = 67.5
o
with a corresponding &
hl
F
16 . 2 '
max
=
hl
F
196 . 1 =
hl
F
623 . 0 =
hl
F
5 . 0 =
hl
F
207 . 1
max
=
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
2 / 1
2
2
2
2
2 / 1
2 2
cos sin sin 3 cos sin cos 3 ' + + + = + =
hl
F
16
No analytical approach accurately predicts the experimentally measured stresses.
Standard practice is to use a simple and conservative model
Assume the external load is carried entirely by shear forces on the minimum throat
area. Equation for simpler case of simple shear loading in fillet weld
By ignoring normal stress on throat, the shearing stresses are inflated sufficiently to
render the model conservative.
By comparison with previous maximum shear stress model, this inflates estimated shear
stress by factor of 1.414/1.207 = 1.17.
Transverse Fillet Weld Simplified Model
hl
F
hl
F 414 . 1
707 . 0
= =
Figure 9-3 : Parallel fillet welds
17
9.4 Stresses in Welded Joints in Torsion
Figure 9-4 : This is a moment connection; such a
connection produces torsion in the weld
Figure 9-4 illustrates a cantilever of length l
welded to a column by 2 fillet welds.
The reaction at the support of a cantilever
always consists of shear force V and a
moment reaction M.
The shear force produces a primary shear in
the welds of magnitude
where A is the throat area of the welds.
The moment at the support produces
secondary shear or torsion of the welds, and
this stress is given by
'
V
A
=
"
Mr
J
=
where
r: distance from the centroid of the weld
group to the point in the weld of interest.
J: second polar moment of area of the
group about the centroid of the group.
Fillet Welds Loaded in Torsion
18
9.4 Stresses in Welded Joints in Torsion cont
Figure 9-5 shows 2 welds in a group. The
rectangles represent the throat areas of the welds.
Weld 1 has a throat width t
1
= 0.707 h
1
Weld 2 has a throat width t
2
= 0.707 h
2
Throat area of both welds together is
A = A
1
+ A
2
= t
1
d + t
2
b
The x-axis passes through the Centroid G
1
of the
weld 1.
The second moment of area about this axis is
Similarly, the second moment of area about an
axis passing through G
1
parallel to the y-axis is
Figure 9-5 : Second polar moment of area on two welds
12
3
1
d t
I
x
=
12
3
1
dt
I
y
=
Example of Finding A and J
19
Figure 9-5 : Second polar moment of area on two welds
Thus the second polar moment of areas of
weld 1 and weld 2 about their Centroid are
The Centroid G of the weld group is located at
The distances r
1
and r
2
from G
1
and G
2
are
respectively given by
Using the parallel axis theorem, the second
polar moment of area of the weld group is
12 12
12 12
3
2
3
2
2
3
1
3
1
1
b t bt
I I J
dt d t
I I J
y x G
y x G
+ = + =
+ = + =
A
y A y A
y
A
x A x A
x
2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1
;
+
=
+
=
( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) [ ]
1/2
2
2
2
2 2
1/2
2 2
1 1
; y y x x r y x x r + = + =
) ( ) (
2 2 2 1 1 1
r A J r A J J
G G
+ + + =
20
Note that t
3
terms will be very small compared
to b
3
and d
3
Usually neglected
Leaves J
G1
and J
G2
linear in weld width
Can normalize by treating each weld as a line
with unit thickness t
Results in unit second polar moment of area, J
u
Since t = 0.707h,
J = 0.707hJ
u
in which J
u
is found by conventional methods
for an area having unit width.
12 / ; 12 /
3
2 2
3
1 1
b t J d t J
G G
= =
( )
u
G G
J t J
br
b
dr
d
t J
tbr
tb
tdr
td
J
r A J r A J J
=

+ + + =
+ + + =
+ + + =
2
3
1
3
2
3
1
3
2 2 2 1 1 1
12 12
12 12
) ( ) (
J
u
: is found from table 9.1 on next slide
21
Table 9-1 : Common Torsional Properties of Fillet Welds*
22
Table 9-1 : Common Torsional Properties of Fillet Welds* - cont
23
Example 9-1
A 50-kN load is transferred from a welded fitting into a 200-mm steel channel as
illustrated in Figure below. Estimate the maximum stress in the weld.
Figure 9-6 : Dimensions in millimeters
24
Solution 9-1
a) Label the ends and corners of each
weld by letter.
b) Finding the primary shear stress for 1
side:
Figure 9-7 :
Diagram showing the weld geometry on a single plate. Note
that V and M represent the reaction loads applied by the
welds to the plate.
A = 0.707(6)[2(56) + 190] = 1280 mm
2
Then the primary shear stress is
MPa 5 . 19
1280
) 10 ( 25
'
3
= = =
A
V
Weld joint is under torsion

primary shear and torsion shear
Weld joint is in form of weld group
centroidO position and r
2 side joints (left and right)
for one side, F= 25 kN
25
Solution 9-1
c) Draw the stress, to scale, at each lettered corner or end. See Fig. 9-8
d) Locate the centroid of the weld pattern. Using case 4 of Table 9-1, we find
e) Find the distance r
i
(see Fig. 9-8):
These distance can also be scale from the drawing.
f) Find J. Using case 4 of Table 9-1 again, we get
mm 4 . 10
190 ) 56 ( 2
) 56 (
2
=
+
= =
A
V
x
mm 6 . 95 ] ) 4 . 10 ( ) 2 / 190 [(
mm 105 ] ) 4 . 10 56 ( ) 2 / 190 [(
2 / 1 2 2
2 / 1 2 2
= + = =
= + = =
D C
B A
r r
r r
4 6
4 3 2 3
mm ) 10 ( 07 . 7
190 ) 56 ( 2
) 56 (
12
) 190 ( ) 190 )( 56 ( 6 ) 56 ( 8
) 6 ( 707 . 0 =
+ +
= J
26
Solution 9-1
g) Find M:
h) Estimate the secondary shear stress at each lettered end or corner;
i) Draw the stress at each corner end. See Fig 9-8. Note that this is a free body
diagram of one of the side plates, and therefore the and stresses represent what
the channel is doing to the plate (through the welds) to hold the plate in equilibrium.
j) At each point labeled, combine the two stress components as vectors (since they apply
to the same area). At point A, the angle that
A
makes with the vertical, , is also the
angle r
A
makes with the horizontal, which is = tan
-1
(45.6/95) = 25.64
o
and = 90
o
25.64
o
= 64.36
o
. This angle also applies to point B.
Nm 2760 ) 4 . 10 100 ( 25 = + = = Fl M
MPa 3 . 37
) 10 ( 07 . 7
) 6 . 95 ( ) 10 ( 2760
" "
MPa 0 . 41
) 10 ( 07 . 7
) 105 ( ) 10 ( 2760
" "
6
3
6
3
= = =
= = = =
D C
B A
J
Mr

27
Solution 9-1
Figure 9-8 : Free-body diagram of one of the side plates.
B
D
28
Solution 9-1
Thus:
MPa 0 . 37 ) 36 . 64 cos( ) 0 . 41 )( 5 . 19 ( 2 0 . 41 5 . 19
2 2
= + = =
o
B A

Similarly, for C and D, = tan
-1
(10.4/95) = 6.25
o
and = 90
o
+ 6.25
o
= 96.25
o
.
Thus :
MPa 9 . 43 ) 25 . 96 cos( ) 3 . 37 )( 5 . 19 ( 2 3 . 37 5 . 19
2 2
= + = =
o
D C

k) Identify the most highly stressed point:
MPa 9 . 43
max
= = =
D C

29
9.5 Stresses in Welded Joints in Bending
A FBD diagram of the beam would show a shear force V and a moment diagram M.
Bending cause 2 shear stresses :
i. primary shear
ii. Secondary shear
Bending moment cause normal bending in base metal, BUT it cause
SHEAR stress in weld THROAT.
The second moment of area I, based on weld throat area, is
in which I
u
is found from table 9.2
The 2 shear stress are then combine as vectors. Because the 2
shear vector are PERPENDICULAR use Pythagoras rules.
A
V
= '
u
hI
Mc
I
Mc
707 . 0
" = =
u
hI I 707 . 0 =
2 2
) " ( ) ' ( + =
30
9.5 Stresses in Welded Joints in Bending cont
Fig. 9-9 shows a cantilever welded to a support by fillet welds at top and bottom.
Figure 9-9 : A rectangular cross-section cantilever welded to a support at the top and
bottom edges.
Example of Finding
Treating the two
welds of Fig. 9-9
as lines we find the
second moment of
area to be (from
table 9-2)
The nominal throat
shear stress is now
found to be
12
2
bd
I
u
=
bdh
M
bd h
d M
hI
Mc
u
414 . 1
) 2 / ( 707 . 0
) 2 / (
707 . 0
"
2
= = =
31
Table 9-2 : Bending Properties of Fillet Welds
Pattern
32
Pattern
33
9.6 The Strength of Welded Joints
Must check for failure in parent material and in weld
Safety factor in welding is based on YIELD strength of parent material
NOT ultimate strength.
Weld strength is dependent on choice of electrode material
Weld material is often stronger than parent material
Parent material experiences heat treatment near weld
Cold drawn parent material may become more like hot rolled in vicinity of weld
Often welded joints are designed by following codes rather than designing by the
conventional factor of safety method
34
9.6 The Strength of Welded Joints cont
The properties of electrodes vary considerably, but Table 9-3 lists the minimum
properties for some electrode classes.
Table 9-3 : Minimum Weld-Metal Properties
35
E 7 0 X X H 4 R
Electrode
Tensile in Kpsi
Welding Position
1=All Position, 2=Flat & Horizontal Position, 3=Flat Welding, 4=Vertical
Type of Current and Coating
*Hydrogen
H4=Less than 4ml/100g weld metal, H8=Less than 8ml/100g weld metal
or H16=Less than 16ml/100 weld metal
*Meets Requirement of Absorbed Moisture Test
*Optional Designator
Electrode Welding Code
36
Table 9-4 : Stresses Permitted by the AISC Code for Weld Metal
The table below show the recommended safety factor for welded structure.
Safety factor n* is estimated by using Distortion Energy Theory (DET) or Von Mises.
According DET, permissible effective stress
Note: Look how to calculate Von Mises effective stress.
n
yield
effective

37
Table 9-5 : Fatigue Stress-Concentration Factors, K
fs
The fatigue stress concentration factors listed in Table 9-5 are suggested for use.
These factors should be used for the parent metal as well as for the weld metal.
K
fs
appropriate for application to shear stresses
Use for parent metal and for weld metal
38
Table 9-6 : Allowable Steady Loads and Minimum Fillet Weld Sizes
39
9.7 Static Loading
A 12 -mm by 50mm rectangular-cross-section 1015 bar carries a static load of
73kN. It is welded to a gusset plate with a 10-mm fillet weld 50 mm long on both
sides with an E70XX electrode as depicted in Fig. 9-10. Use the welding code
method.
(a) Is the weld metal strength satisfactory?
(b) Is the attachment strength satisfactory?
Example 9-2
Figure 9-10
40
9.7 Static Loading cont
Solution 9-2
(a) From Table 9-6, allowable force per unit length for a 10-mm E70 electrode metal is
1025 N/mm of weldment; thus
F
allow
= 1025l = 1025(100) = 102.5 kN
Since 102.5 kN > 73 kN, weld metal is satisfactory.
(b) Check shear in attachment adjacent to the welds. From Table 9-4 and Table A-20,
from which S
y
= 190 MPa, the allowable attachment shear stress is
all
= 0.4 S
y
= 0.4(190) = 76 MPa
The shear stress on the base metal adjacent to the weld is
Since
all
, the attachment is satisfactory near the weld beads.
MPa 73
) 05 . 0 )( 01 . 0 ( 2
73000
2
= = =
hl
F
41
Solution 9-2
The tensile stress in the shank of the attachment is
The allowable tensile stress
all
, from Table 9-4, is 0.60 S
y
and, with welding code
safety level preserved,
all
= 0.6 S
y
= 0.60(190) = 114 MPa
Since
all
, the shank tensile is satisfactory
MPa 122
) 05 . 0 )( 012 . 0 (
73000
= = =
tl
F
42
Example 9-3
The attachment shown in Figure 9-11 is made of 1018 HR steel 12 mm thick. The
static force is 100kN. The member is 75 mm wide. Specify the weldment ( give the
pattern, electrode number, type of weld, length of weld, and leg size ).
Figure 9-11 : Dimension in millimeters.
Materials:
Attachment (1018 HR) S
y
= 220 MPa ; S
ut
= 400 MPa (refer Table A-20)
Members (A36) S
y
= 250 MPa ; S
ut
= 400 ~ 550 MPa, use 400 MPa
(refer to www.matweb.com for ASTM A36 Steel, plate)
The member and attachment are weak compared to the E60XX Electrode. (refer Table 9-3)
Decision : Specify E6010 electrode (refer slide 35 and electrode code)
Controlling property :
all
= min [0.3(400),0.4(220)] = min (120,88) = 88 MPa --- (refer Table 9-4)
43
Solution 9-3
(weld metal) , (base metal) Stress permitted
Critical location (base metal)
44
Solution 9-3
For a static load the parallel and transverse fillets are the same. If n is the number of beads,
Make a table
mm 43 . 21
) 88 )( 75 )( 707 . 0 (
100000
) 707 . 0 (

) 707 . 0 (
= = =
= =
all
all
l
F
nh
hl n
F

Number of beads Leg size
n h
1 21.43 22 mm
2 10.72 11 mm
3 7.14 8 mm
4 5.36 6 mm
Decision: Specify 6 mm leg size
Decision: Well all-round
Weldment Specifications:
Pattern: All-round square
Electrode: E6010
Type: Two parallel fillets
Two transverse fillets
Length of bead: 300 mm
Leg size: 6 mm
Answer
45
Example 9-4
Perform an adequacy assessment of the statically loaded welded cantilever carrying
2.2 kN depicted in Fig. 912. The cantilever is made of AISI 1018 HR steel and
welded with a 10-mm fillet weld as shown in the figure. An E6010 electrode was used,
and the design factor was 3.0.
(a) Use the conventional method for the weld metal.
(b) Use the conventional method for the attachment (cantilever) metal.
(c) Use a welding code for the weld metal.
Figure 9-12
46
Solution 9-4
(a) From Table 9-3, S
y
= 345 MPa, S
ut
= 427 MPa. From Table 9-2, second pattern, b = 10mm,
d = 50 mm, so
Primary shear:
Secondary shear:
The shear magnitude is the Pythagorean combination
The factor of safety based on minimum strength and the distortion-energy criterion is
4
3 3 3
2
mm 289 , 147 ) 883 , 20 )( 10 ( 707 . 0 707 . 0
mm 883 , 20 6 / 50 6 /
mm 707 ) 50 )( 10 ( 414 . 1 414 . 1
= = =
= = =
= = =
u
u
hI I
d I
hd A
MPa 1 . 3
707
2200
' = = =
A
F
MPa 56
147289
) 25 )( 150 ( 2200
" = = =
I
Mr
( ) ( ) MPa 1 . 56 56 1 . 3 " '

2 / 1
2 2
2 / 1
2 2
= + = + =
55 . 3
1 . 56
) 345 ( 577 . 0
= = =
sy
S
n
Since n > n
d
, that is, 3.39 > 3.0, the
weld metal has satisfactory strength.
Since n > n
d
, that is, 3.39 > 3.0, the
weld metal has satisfactory strength.
47
Solution 9-4
(b) From Table A-20, minimum strengths are S
ut
=400 MPa and S
y
= 220 MPa. Then
(c) From part (a), = 56.1 MPa. For an E6010 electrode Table 9-6 gives the allowable shear
stress
all
as 124 MPa, Since <
all
, the weld is satisfactory. Since the code already has a
design factor of 0.577(345)/124 = 1.6 included at the equality, the corresponding factor of
safety to part (a) is
which is consistent.
78 . 2
2 . 79
220
MPa 2 . 79
6 / ) 50 ( 10
) 150 ( 2200
6 / /
2 2
= = =
= = = =
y
S
n
bd
M
c I
M
Since n < n
d
, that is, 2.78 < 3.0, the joint is unsatisfactory as to the attachment strength. Since n < n
d
, that is, 2.78 < 3.0, the joint is unsatisfactory as to the attachment strength.
54 . 3
1 . 56
124
6 . 1 =
= n
48
9.8 Fatigue Loading
The conventional methods will be provided here.
In fatigue, the Gerber criterion is best; however, you will find that the Goodman
criterion is in common use.
Recall, that the fatigue stress concentration factors are given in Table 9-5.
For Welding codes, see the fatigue stress allowable in the AISI manual.
49
9.8 Fatigue Loading cont
Example 9-5
The 1018 steel strap of Fig. 9-13 has a 4500-N, completely reversed load applied.
Determine the factor of safety of the weldment for infinite life.
Figure 9-13
50
Solution 9-5
From Table A-20 for the 1018 attachment metal the strengths are S
ut
= 400 MPa and S
y
= 220 MPa.
For the E6010 electrode, S
ut
= 430 MPa and S
y
= 340 MPa. The fatigue stress-concentration factor,
from Table 9-5, is K
fs
= 2.7. From Table 6-2, k
a
= 272(400)
-0.995
= 0.7. The shear area is:
For a uniform shear stress on the throat, k
b
= 1
For torsion (shear), k
c
= 0.59 k
d
= k
e
= k
f
= 1
S
se
= 0.70(1)(0.59)(1)(1)(1) [(0.5)(400)] = 82.8 MPa
K
fs
= 2.7 F
a
= 4500 N F
m
= 0
Only primary shear is present:
In the absence of a midrange component, the fatigue factor of safety n
f
is given by
2
mm 707 ) 50 )( 10 )( 707 . 0 ( 2 = = A
MPa 0 ' ; MPa 2 . 17
707
) 4500 ( 7 . 2
' = = = =
m
a fs
a
A
F K

81 . 4
2 . 17
8 . 82
'
= = =
a
se
f
S
n
51
Example 9-6
The 1018 steel strap of Fig. 9-14 has a repeatedly applied load of 9000 N
(F
a
= F
m
= 4500 N). Determine the fatigue factor of safety fatigue strength
of the weldment.
Figure 9-14
52
Solution 9-6
From Table 6-2, k
a
= 272(400)
-0.995
= 0.7. The shear area is:
For uniform shear stress on the throat, k
b
= 1
For torsion (shear), k
c
= 0.59 k
d
= k
e
= k
f
= 1
S
se
= 0.70(1)(0.59)(1)(1)(1) [(0.5)(400)] = 82.8 MPa
From Table 9-5, K
fs
= 2. Only primary shear is present:
From Eq. (6-53), p. 317 (in text book). S
su
= 0.67 S
ut
. This together with the Gerber Fatigue Failure
criterion for shear stresses from Table 6-7, p. 307 (in text book) gives,
2
mm 707 ) 50 )( 10 )( 707 . 0 ( 2 = = A
MPa 7 . 12
707
) 4500 ( 2
' ' = = = =
A
F K
a fs
m a

99 . 5
7 . 12 ) 400 ( 67 . 0
8 . 82 ) 7 . 12 ( 2
1 1
8 . 82
7 . 12
7 . 12
) 400 ( 67 . 0
2
1
67 . 0
2
1 1
67 . 0
2
1
2 2
2 2
=
+ +
+ +
=
a ut
se m
se
a
m
ut
f
S
S
S
S
n
53
9.9 Resistance Welding
The heating and consequent welding that
occur when an electric current is passed
through several parts that are pressed
together is called resistance welding. Spot
welding and seam welding are forms of
resistance welding most often used.
Failure of a resistance weld occurs either by
shearing of the weld or by tearing of the
metal around the weld.
Somewhat larger factors of safety should be used when parts are fastened by spot
welding rather than by bolts or rivets, to account for the metallurgical changes in the
materials due to the welding.
Figure 9-15 : (a) Spot welding ; (b) seam welding
54
9.10 Adhesive Bonding
Adhesive bonding has unique advantages
Reduced weight, sealing capabilities, reduced part count, reduced assembly time,
improved fatigue and corrosion resistance, reduced stress concentration associated
with bolt holes
Figure 9-16 : Diagram of an automobile body showing at least 15 locations at which adhesives and
sealants could be used or are being used.
55
9.10 Adhesive Bonding cont
Types of Adhesive
9 Structural adhesives are relatively strong adhesives that are normally used well
below their glass transition temperature (e.g. epoxies and certain acrylic).
9 Contact adhesives, provides a solution or emulsion containing an elastomeric
adhesive is coated onto both adherends where failure would be less critical such for
aesthetic purposes (e.g. rubber cement).
9 Pressure-sensitive adhesives are very low modulus elastomers that deform easily
under small pressures (e.g. tapes and labels for nonstructural application).
9 Anaerobic adhesives cure within narrow spaces poor of oxygen (e.g. thread
locking, pipe sealing and gasketing).
56
9.10 Adhesive Bonding cont
Table 9-7 : Mechanical Performance of Various Types of Adhesives
Useful Tables Appendix A
Appendix Outline
A1 Standard SI Prexes 961
A2 Conversion Factors 962
A3 Optional SI Units for Bending, Torsion, Axial, and Direct Shear Stresses 963
A4 Optional SI Units for Bending and Torsional Deections 963
A5 Physical Constants of Materials 963
A6 Properties of Structural-Steel Angles 964
A7 Properties of Structural-Steel Channels 966
A8 Properties of Round Tubing 968
A9 Shear, Moment, and Deection of Beams 969
A10 Cumulative Distribution Function of Normal (Gaussian) Distribution 977
A11 A Selection of International Tolerance GradesMetric Series 978
A12 Fundamental Deviations for ShaftsMetric Series 979
A13 A Selection of International Tolerance GradesInch Series 980
A14 Fundamental Deviations for ShaftsInch Series 981
A15 Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors K
t
982
A16 Approximate Stress-Concentration Factors K
t
and K
ts
for Bending a Round Bar
or Tube with a Transverse Round Hole 987
A17 Preferred Sizes and Renard (R-series) Numbers 989
A18 Geometric Properties 990
A19 American Standard Pipe 993
A20 Deterministic ASTM Minimum Tensile and Yield Strengths
for HR and CD Steels 994
A21 Mean Mechanical Properties of Some Heat-Treated Steels 995
A22 Results of Tensile Tests of Some Metals 997
A23 Mean Monotonic and Cyclic Stress-Strain Properties of Selected Steels 998
A24 Mechanical Properties of Three Non-Steel Metals 1000
A25 Stochastic Yield and Ultimate Strengths for Selected Materials 1002
A26 Stochastic Parameters from Finite Life Fatigue Tests in Selected Metals 1003
959
shi20361_app_A.qxd 6/3/03 3:42 PM Page 959
A27 Finite Life Fatigue Strengths of Selected Plain Carbon Steels 1004
A28 Decimal Equivalents of Wire and Sheet-Metal Gauges 1005
A29 Dimensions of Square and Hexagonal Bolts 1007
A30 Dimensions of Hexagonal Cap Screws and Heavy Hexagonal Screws 1008
A31 Dimensions of Hexagonal Nuts 1009
A32 Basic Dimensions of American Standard Plain Washers 1010
A33 Dimensions of Metric Plain Washers 1011
A34 Gamma Function 1012
960 Mechanical Engineering Design
Useful Tables 961
Name Symbol Factor
exa E 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 =10
18
peta P 1 000 000 000 000 000 =10
15
tera T 1 000 000 000 000 =10
12
giga G 1 000 000 000 =10
9
mega M 1 000 000 =10
6
kilo k 1 000 =10
3
hecto
h 100 =10
2
deka
da 10 =10
1
deci
d 0.1 =10
1
centi
c 0.01 =10
2
milli m 0.001 =10
3
micro 0.000 001 =10
6
nano n 0.000 000 001 =10
9
pico p 0.000 000 000 001 =10
12
femto f 0.000 000 000 000 001 =10
15
atto a 0.000 000 000 000 000 001 =10
18
If possible use multiple and submultiple prexes in steps of 1000.
Spaces are used in SI instead of commas to group numbers to avoid confusion with the practice in some European countries
of using commas for decimal points.
Not recommended but sometimes encountered.

Table A1
Standard SI Prexes

Multiply Input By Factor To Get Output Multiply Input By Factor To Get Output
X A Y X A Y
British thermal 1055 joule, J
unit, Btu
Btu/second, Btu/s 1.05 kilowatt, kW
calorie 4.19 joule, J
centimeter of 1.333 kilopascal, kPa
mercury (0
C)
centipoise, cP 0.001 pascal-second,
Pa s
degree (angle) 0.0174 radian, rad
foot, ft 0.305 meter, m
foot
2
, ft
2
0.0929 meter
2
, m
2
foot/minute, 0.0051 meter/second, m/s
ft/min
foot-pound, ft lbf 1.35 joule, J
foot-pound/ 1.35 watt, W
second, ft lbf/s
foot/second, ft/s 0.305 meter/second, m/s
gallon (U.S.), gal 3.785 liter, L
horsepower, hp 0.746 kilowatt, kW
inch, in 0.0254 meter, m
inch, in 25.4 millimeter, mm
inch
2
, in
2
645 millimeter
2
, mm
2
inch of mercury 3.386 kilopascal, kPa
(32
F)
kilopound, kip 4.45 kilonewton, kN
kilopound/inch
2
, 6.89 megapascal, MPa
kpsi (ksi) (N/mm
2
)
mass, lbf s
2
/in 175 kilogram, kg
mile, mi 1.610 kilometer, km
Approximate.
The U.S. Customary system unit of the pound-force is often abbreviated as lbf to distinguish it from the pound-mass, which is abbreviated as lbm.
Table A2
Conversion Factors A to Convert Input X to Output Y Using the Formula Y = AX
mile/hour, mi/h 1.61 kilometer/hour, km/h

mile/hour, mi/h 0.447 meter/second, m/s
moment of inertia, 0.0421 kilogram-meter
2
,
lbm ft
2
kg m
2
moment of inertia, 293 kilogram-millimeter
2
,
lbm in
2
kg mm
2
moment of section 41.6 centimeter
4
, cm
4
(second moment
of area), in
4
ounce-force, oz 0.278 newton, N
ounce-mass 0.0311 kilogram, kg
pound, lbf
4.45 newton, N
pound-foot, 1.36 newton-meter,
lbf ft N m
pound/foot
2
, lbf/ft
2
47.9 pascal, Pa
pound-inch, lbf in 0.113 joule, J
pound-inch, lbf in 0.113 newton-meter,
N m
pound/inch, lbf/in 175 newton/meter, N/m
pound/inch
2
, psi 6.89 kilopascal, kPa
(lbf/in
2
)
pound-mass, lbm 0.454 kilogram, kg
pound-mass/ 0.454 kilogram/second,
second, lbm/s kg/s
quart (U.S. liquid), qt 946 milliliter, mL
section modulus, in
3
16.4 centimeter
3
, cm
3
slug 14.6 kilogram, kg
ton (short 2000 lbm) 907 kilogram, kg
yard, yd 0.914 meter, m
Axial and
Bending and Torsion Direct Shear
M , T I , J c, r , F A ,
N m
m
4
m Pa N
m
2
Pa
N m cm
4
cm MPa (N/mm
2
) N
mm
2
MPa (N/mm
2
)
N m
mm
4
mm GPa kN m
2
kPa
kN m cm
4
cm GPa kN
mm
2
GPa
N mm
mm
4
mm MPa (N/mm
2
)
Basic relation.
Often preferred.
Bending Deection Torsional Deection
F, wl l I E y T l J G
N
m m
4
Pa m N m
m m
4
Pa rad
kN
mm mm
4
GPa mm N m
mm mm
4
GPa rad
kN m m
4
GPa m N mm mm mm
4
MPa (N/mm
2
) rad
N mm mm
4
kPa m N m cm cm
4
MPa (N/mm
2
) rad
Basic relation.
Often preferred.
Table A4
Optional SI Units for
Bending Deection
y = f (Fl
3
/El ) or
y = f (wl
4
/El ) and
Torsional Deection
= Tl/GJ
Table A3
Optional SI Units for
Bending Stress
= Mc/l, Torsion Stress
= Tr/J, Axial Stress
= F/A, and Direct
Shear Stress
= F/A
Table A5
Physical Constants of Materials
Modulus of Modulus of
Elasticity E Rigidity G
Poissons
Unit Weight w
Material Mpsi GPa Mpsi GPa Ratio v lbf/in
3
lbf/ft
3
kN/m
3
Aluminum (all alloys) 10.4 71.7 3.9 26.9 0.333 0.098 169 26.6
Beryllium copper 18.0 124.0 7.0 48.3 0.285 0.297 513 80.6
Brass 15.4 106.0 5.82 40.1 0.324 0.309 534 83.8
Carbon steel 30.0 207.0 11.5 79.3 0.292 0.282 487 76.5
Cast iron (gray) 14.5 100.0 6.0 41.4 0.211 0.260 450 70.6
Copper 17.2 119.0 6.49 44.7 0.326 0.322 556 87.3
Douglas r 1.6 11.0 0.6 4.1 0.33 0.016 28 4.3
Glass 6.7 46.2 2.7 18.6 0.245 0.094 162 25.4
Inconel 31.0 214.0 11.0 75.8 0.290 0.307 530 83.3
Lead 5.3 36.5 1.9 13.1 0.425 0.411 710 111.5
Magnesium 6.5 44.8 2.4 16.5 0.350 0.065 112 17.6
Molybdenum 48.0 331.0 17.0 117.0 0.307 0.368 636 100.0
Monel metal 26.0 179.0 9.5 65.5 0.320 0.319 551 86.6
Nickel silver 18.5 127.0 7.0 48.3 0.322 0.316 546 85.8
Nickel steel 30.0 207.0 11.5 79.3 0.291 0.280 484 76.0
Phosphor bronze 16.1 111.0 6.0 41.4 0.349 0.295 510 80.1
Stainless steel (18-8) 27.6 190.0 10.6 73.1 0.305 0.280 484 76.0
Titanium alloys 16.5 114.0 6.2 42.4 0.340 0.160 276 43.4
Useful Tables 963
w = weight per foot, lbf/ft
m = mass per meter, kg/m
A = area, in
2
(cm
2
)
I = second moment of area, in
4
(cm
4
)
k = radius of gyration, in (cm)
y = centroidal distance, in (cm)
Z = section modulus, in
3
, (cm
3
)
Size, in w A l
11
k
11
Z
11
y k
33
1 1
1
8
0.80 0.234 0.021 0.298 0.029 0.290 0.191
1
4
1.49 0.437 0.036 0.287 0.054 0.336 0.193
1
1
2
1
1
2

1
8
1.23 0.36 0.074 0.45 0.068 0.41 0.29
1
4
2.34 0.69 0.135 0.44 0.130 0.46 0.29
2 2
1
8
1.65 0.484 0.190 0.626 0.131 0.546 0.398
1
4
3.19 0.938 0.348 0.609 0.247 0.592 0.391
3
8
4.7 1.36 0.479 0.594 0.351 0.636 0.389
2
1
2
2
1
2

1
4
4.1 1.19 0.703 0.769 0.394 0.717 0.491
3
8
5.9 1.73 0.984 0.753 0.566 0.762 0.487
3 3
1
4
4.9 1.44 1.24 0.930 0.577 0.842 0.592
3
8
7.2 2.11 1.76 0.913 0.833 0.888 0.587
1
2
9.4 2.75 2.22 0.898 1.07 0.932 0.584
3
1
2
3
1
2
1
4
5.8 1.69 2.01 1.09 0.794 0.968 0.694
3
8
8.5 2.48 2.87 1.07 1.15 1.01 0.687
1
2
11.1 3.25 3.64 1.06 1.49 1.06 0.683
4 4
1
4
6.6 1.94 3.04 1.25 1.05 1.09 0.795
3
8
9.8 2.86 4.36 1.23 1.52 1.14 0.788
1
2
12.8 3.75 5.56 1.22 1.97 1.18 0.782
5
8
15.7 4.61 6.66 1.20 2.40 1.23 0.779
6 6
3
8
14.9 4.36 15.4 1.88 3.53 1.64 1.19
1
2
19.6 5.75 19.9 1.86 4.61 1.68 1.18
5
8
24.2 7.11 24.2 1.84 5.66 1.73 1.18
3
4
28.7 8.44 28.2 1.83 6.66 1.78 1.17
Table A6
Properties of Structural-
Steel Angles
1 1
3
3
y
Useful Tables 965
Size, mm m A l
11
k
11
Z
11
y k
33
25 25 3 1.11 1.42 0.80 0.75 0.45 0.72 0.48
4 1.45 1.85 1.01 0.74 0.58 0.76 0.48
5 1.77 2.26 1.20 0.73 0.71 0.80 0.48
40 40 4 2.42 3.08 4.47 1.21 1.55 1.12 0.78
5 2.97 3.79 5.43 1.20 1.91 1.16 0.77
6 3.52 4.48 6.31 1.19 2.26 1.20 0.77
50 50 5 3.77 4.80 11.0 1.51 3.05 1.40 0.97
6 4.47 5.59 12.8 1.50 3.61 1.45 0.97
8 5.82 7.41 16.3 1.48 4.68 1.52 0.96
60 60 5 4.57 5.82 19.4 1.82 4.45 1.64 1.17
6 5.42 6.91 22.8 1.82 5.29 1.69 1.17
8 7.09 9.03 29.2 1.80 6.89 1.77 1.16
10 8.69 11.1 34.9 1.78 8.41 1.85 1.16
80 80 6 7.34 9.35 55.8 2.44 9.57 2.17 1.57
8 9.63 12.3 72.2 2.43 12.6 2.26 1.56
10 11.9 15.1 87.5 2.41 15.4 2.34 1.55
100 100 8 12.2 15.5 145 3.06 19.9 2.74 1.96
12 17.8 22.7 207 3.02 29.1 2.90 1.94
15 21.9 27.9 249 2.98 35.6 3.02 1.93
150 150 10 23.0 29.3 624 4.62 56.9 4.03 2.97
12 27.3 34.8 737 4.60 67.7 4.12 2.95
15 33.8 43.0 898 4.57 83.5 4.25 2.93
18 40.1 51.0 1050 4.54 98.7 4.37 2.92
Metric sizes also available in sizes of 45, 70, 90, 120, and 200 mm.
These sizes are also available in aluminum alloy.

Table A6
Properties of Structural-
Steel Angles
(Continued)
a, b = size, in (mm)
w = weight per foot, lbf/ft
m = mass per meter, kg/m
t = web thickness, in (mm)
A = area, in
2
(cm
2
)
4
(cm
4
)
x = centroidal distance, in (cm)
3
(cm
3
)
a, in b, in t A w l
11
k
11
Z
11
l
22
k
22
Z
22
x
3 1.410 0.170 1.21 4.1 1.66 1.17 1.10 0.197 0.404 0.202 0.436
3 1.498 0.258 1.47 5.0 1.85 1.12 1.24 0.247 0.410 0.233 0.438
3 1.596 0.356 1.76 6.0 2.07 1.08 1.38 0.305 0.416 0.268 0.455
4 1.580 0.180 1.57 5.4 3.85 1.56 1.93 0.319 0.449 0.283 0.457
4 1.720 0.321 2.13 7.25 4.59 1.47 2.29 0.433 0.450 0.343 0.459
5 1.750 0.190 1.97 6.7 7.49 1.95 3.00 0.479 0.493 0.378 0.484
5 1.885 0.325 2.64 9.0 8.90 1.83 3.56 0.632 0.489 0.450 0.478
6 1.920 0.200 2.40 8.2 13.1 2.34 4.38 0.693 0.537 0.492 0.511
6 2.034 0.314 3.09 10.5 15.2 2.22 5.06 0.866 0.529 0.564 0.499
6 2.157 0.437 3.83 13.0 17.4 2.13 5.80 1.05 0.525 0.642 0.514
7 2.090 0.210 2.87 9.8 21.3 2.72 6.08 0.968 0.581 0.625 0.540
7 2.194 0.314 3.60 12.25 24.2 2.60 6.93 1.17 0.571 0.703 0.525
7 2.299 0.419 4.33 14.75 27.2 2.51 7.78 1.38 0.564 0.779 0.532
8 2.260 0.220 3.36 11.5 32.3 3.10 8.10 1.30 0.625 0.781 0.571
8 2.343 0.303 4.04 13.75 36.2 2.99 9.03 1.53 0.615 0.854 0.553
8 2.527 0.487 5.51 18.75 44.0 2.82 11.0 1.98 0.599 1.01 0.565
9 2.430 0.230 3.91 13.4 47.7 3.49 10.6 1.75 0.669 0.962 0.601
9 2.485 0.285 4.41 15.0 51.0 3.40 11.3 1.93 0.661 1.01 0.586
9 2.648 0.448 5.88 20.0 60.9 3.22 13.5 2.42 0.647 1.17 0.583
10 2.600 0.240 4.49 15.3 67.4 3.87 13.5 2.28 0.713 1.16 0.634
10 2.739 0.379 5.88 20.0 78.9 3.66 15.8 2.81 0.693 1.32 0.606
10 2.886 0.526 7.35 25.0 91.2 3.52 18.2 3.36 0.676 1.48 0.617
10 3.033 0.673 8.82 30.0 103 3.43 20.7 3.95 0.669 1.66 0.649
12 3.047 0.387 7.35 25.0 144 4.43 24.1 4.47 0.780 1.89 0.674
12 3.170 0.510 8.82 30.0 162 4.29 27.0 5.14 0.763 2.06 0.674
Table A7
Properties of Structural-Steel Channels
b
x
a
t
1
2
2
1
Useful Tables 967
a b, mm m t A I
11
k
11
Z
11
I
22
k
22
Z
22
x
76 38 6.70 5.1 8.53 74.14 2.95 19.46 10.66 1.12 4.07 1.19
102 51 10.42 6.1 13.28 207.7 3.95 40.89 29.10 1.48 8.16 1.51
127 64 14.90 6.4 18.98 482.5 5.04 75.99 67.23 1.88 15.25 1.94
152 76 17.88 6.4 22.77 851.5 6.12 111.8 113.8 2.24 21.05 2.21
152 89 23.84 7.1 30.36 1166 6.20 153.0 215.1 2.66 35.70 2.86
178 76 20.84 6.6 26.54 1337 7.10 150.4 134.0 2.25 24.72 2.20
178 89 26.81 7.6 34.15 1753 7.16 197.2 241.0 2.66 39.29 2.76
203 76 23.82 7.1 30.34 1950 8.02 192.0 151.3 2.23 27.59 2.13
203 89 29.78 8.1 37.94 2491 8.10 245.2 264.4 2.64 42.34 2.65
229 76 26.06 7.6 33.20 2610 8.87 228.3 158.7 2.19 28.22 2.00
229 89 32.76 8.6 41.73 3387 9.01 296.4 285.0 2.61 44.82 2.53
254 76 28.29 8.1 36.03 3367 9.67 265.1 162.6 2.12 28.21 1.86
254 89 35.74 9.1 45.42 4448 9.88 350.2 302.4 2.58 46.70 2.42
305 89 41.69 10.2 53.11 7061 11.5 463.3 325.4 2.48 48.49 2.18
305 102 46.18 10.2 58.83 8214 11.8 539.0 499.5 2.91 66.59 2.66
These sizes are also available in aluminum alloy.

Table A7
Properties of Structural-Steel Channels (Continued)
w
a
= unit weight of aluminum tubing, lbf/ft
w
s
= unit weight of steel tubing, lbf/ft
m = unit mass, kg/m
A = area, in
2
(cm
2
)
4
(cm
4
)
J = second polar moment of area, in
4
(cm
4
)
3
(cm
3
)
d, t = size (OD) and thickness, in (mm)
Size, in w
a
w
s
A l k Z J
1
1
8
0.416 1.128 0.344 0.034 0.313 0.067 0.067
1
1
4
0.713 2.003 0.589 0.046 0.280 0.092 0.092
1
1
2

1
8
0.653 1.769 0.540 0.129 0.488 0.172 0.257
1
1
2

1
4
1.188 3.338 0.982 0.199 0.451 0.266 0.399
2
1
8
0.891 2.670 0.736 0.325 0.664 0.325 0.650
2
1
4
1.663 4.673 1.374 0.537 0.625 0.537 1.074
2
1
2

1
8
1.129 3.050 0.933 0.660 0.841 0.528 1.319
2
1
2

1
4
2.138 6.008 1.767 1.132 0.800 0.906 2.276
3
1
4
2.614 7.343 2.160 2.059 0.976 1.373 4.117
3
3
8
3.742 10.51 3.093 2.718 0.938 1.812 5.436
4
3
16
2.717 7.654 2.246 4.090 1.350 2.045 8.180
4
3
8
5.167 14.52 4.271 7.090 1.289 3.544 14.180
Size, mm m A l k Z J
12 2 0.490 0.628 0.082 0.361 0.136 0.163
16 2 0.687 0.879 0.220 0.500 0.275 0.440
16 3 0.956 1.225 0.273 0.472 0.341 0.545
20 4 1.569 2.010 0.684 0.583 0.684 1.367
25 4 2.060 2.638 1.508 0.756 1.206 3.015
25 5 2.452 3.140 1.669 0.729 1.336 3.338
30 4 2.550 3.266 2.827 0.930 1.885 5.652
30 5 3.065 3.925 3.192 0.901 2.128 6.381
42 4 3.727 4.773 8.717 1.351 4.151 17.430
42 5 4.536 5.809 10.130 1.320 4.825 20.255
50 4 4.512 5.778 15.409 1.632 6.164 30.810
50 5 5.517 7.065 18.118 1.601 7.247 36.226
Table A8
Properties of Round
Tubing
Useful Tables 969
Table A9
Shear, Moment, and
Deection of Beams
(Note: Force and
moment reactions are
positive in the directions
shown; equations for
shear force V and
bending moment M
follow the sign
conventions given in
Sec. 42.)
1 Cantileverend load
R
1
= V = F M
1
= Fl
M = F(x l)
y =
Fx
2
6EI
(x 3l)
y
max
=
Fl
3
3EI
2 Cantileverintermediate load
R
1
= V = F M
1
= Fa
M
AB
= F(x a) M
BC
= 0
y
AB
=
Fx
2
6EI
(x 3a)
y
BC
=
Fa
2
6EI
(a 3x)
y
max
=
Fa
2
6EI
(a 3l)
x
F
l
y
R
1
M
1
x
V
+
x
M
x
F
C B A
l
y
R
1
M
1
a b
x
V
+
x
M
(continued)
Table A9
Shear, Moment, and
Deection of Beams
(Continued)
(Note: Force and
shear force V and
bending moment M
follow the sign
Sec. 42.)
3 Cantileveruniform load
R
1
= wl M
1
=
wl
2
2
V = w(l x) M =
w
2
(l x)
2
y =
wx
2
24EI
(4l x x
2
6l
2
)
y
max
=
wl
4
8EI
4 Cantilevermoment load
R
1
= 0 M
1
= M
B
M = M
B
y =
M
B
x
2
2EI
y
max
=
M
B
l
2
2EI
x
l
w
y
R
1
M
1
x
V
+
x
M
M
B
x
B
A
l
y
R
1
M
1
x
V
x
M
Useful Tables 971
5 Simple supportscenter load
R
1
= R
2
=
F
2
V
AB
= R
1
V
AB
= R
1
V
BC
= R
2
M
AB
=
Fx
2
M
BC
=
F
2
(l x)
y
AB
=
Fx
48EI
(4x
2
3l
2
)
y
max
=
Fl
3
48EI
6 Simple supportsintermediate load
R
1
=
Fb
l
R
2
=
Fa
l
V
AB
= R
1
V
BC
= R
2
M
AB
=
Fbx
l
M
BC
=
Fa
l
(l x)
y
AB
=
Fbx
6EI l
(x
2
+b
2
l
2
)
y
BC
=
Fa(l x)
6EI l
(x
2
+a
2
2l x)
Table A9
Shear, Moment, and
Deection of Beams
(Continued)
(Note: Force and
shear force V and
bending moment M
follow the sign
Sec. 42.)
x
F
C B A
l
y
R
1
R
2
l / 2
x
V
+
x
M
+
x
F
C B
a
A
l
y
R
1
R
2
b
x
V
+
x
M
+
(continued)
7 Simple supportsuniform load
R
1
= R
2
=
wl
2
V =
wl
2
wx
M =
wx
2
(l x)
y =
wx
24EI
(2l x
2
x
3
l
3
)
y
max
=
5wl
4
384EI
8 Simple supportsmoment load
R
1
= R
2
=
M
B
l
V =
M
B
l
M
AB
=
M
B
x
l
M
BC
=
M
B
l
(x l)
y
AB
=
M
B
x
6EI l
(x
2
+3a
2
6al +2l
2
)
y
BC
=
M
B
6EI l
[x
3
3l x
2
+ x(2l
2
+3a
2
) 3a
2
l]
Table A9
Shear, Moment, and
Deection of Beams
(Continued)
(Note: Force and
shear force V and
bending moment M
follow the sign
Sec. 42.)
x
l
w
y
R
1
R
2
x
V
+
x
M
+
x
C
B
A
a
l
y
R
1
R
2
b
M
B
x
V
+
x
M
+

Useful Tables 973
Table A9
Shear, Moment, and
Deection of Beams
(Continued)
(Note: Force and
shear force V and
bending moment M
follow the sign
Sec. 42.)
9 Simple supportstwin loads
R
1
= R
2
= F V
AB
= F V
BC
= 0
V
C D
= F
M
AB
= Fx M
BC
= Fa M
C D
= F(l x)
y
AB
=
Fx
6EI
(x
2
+3a
2
3la)
y
BC
=
Fa
6EI
(3x
2
+a
2
3l x)
y
max
=
Fa
24EI
(4a
2
3l
2
)
10 Simple supportsoverhanging load
R
1
=
Fa
l
R
2
=
F
l
(l +a)
V
AB
=
Fa
l
V
BC
= F
M
AB
=
Fax
l
M
BC
= F(x l a)
y
AB
=
Fax
6EI l
(l
2
x
2
)
y
BC
=
F(x l)
6EI
[(x l)
2
a(3x l)]
y
c
=
Fa
2
3EI
(l +a)
x
F F
D B C
a
A
l
y
R
1
R
2
a
x
V
+
x
M
+
x
F
C B
A
y
R
2
R
1
a l
x
V
+
x
M
(continued)
11 One xed and one simple supportcenter load
R
1
=
11F
16
R
2
=
5F
16
M
1
=
3Fl
16
V
AB
= R
1
V
BC
= R
2
M
AB
=
F
16
(11x 3l) M
BC
=
5F
16
(l x)
y
AB
=
Fx
2
96EI
(11x 9l)
y
BC
=
F(l x)
96EI
(5x
2
+2l
2
10l x)
12 One xed and one simple supportintermediate load
R
1
=
Fb
2l
3
(3l
2
b
2
) R
2
=
Fa
2
2l
3
(3l a)
M
1
=
Fb
2l
2
(l
2
b
2
)
V
AB
= R
1
V
BC
= R
2
M
AB
=
Fb
2l
3
[b
2
l l
3
+ x(3l
2
b
2
)]
M
BC
=
Fa
2
2l
3
(3l
2
3l x al +ax)
y
AB
=
Fbx
2
12EI l
3
[3l(b
2
l
2
) + x(3l
2
b
2
)]
y
BC
= y
AB

F(x a)
3
6EI
Table A9
Shear, Moment, and
Deection of Beams
(Continued)
(Note: Force and
shear force V and
bending moment M
follow the sign
Sec. 42.)
x
C A
l
y
R
2
B
F
R
1
M
1
l / 2
x
V
+
x
M
+
x
C A
l
y
R
2
B
F
a
b
R
1
M
1
x
V
+
x
M
+

Useful Tables 975
13 One xed and one simple supportuniform load
R
1
=
5wl
8
R
2
=
3wl
8
M
1
=
wl
2
8
V =
5wl
8
wx
M =
w
8
(4x
2
5l x +l
2
)
y =
wx
2
48EI
(l x)(2x 3l)
y
max
=
wl
4
185EI
14 Fixed supportscenter load
R
1
= R
2
=
F
2
M
1
= M
2
=
Fl
8
V
AB
= V
BC
=
F
2
M
AB
=
F
8
(4x l) M
BC
=
F
8
(3l 4x)
y
AB
=
Fx
2
48EI
(4x 3l)
y
max
=
Fl
3
192EI
Table A9
Shear, Moment, and
Deection of Beams
(Continued)
(Note: Force and
shear force V and
bending moment M
follow the sign
Sec. 42.)
x
l
y
R
1
R
2 M
1
y
max
0.4215l
x
V
+
5l / 8
x
M
+
l /4
x
l
y
A B
F
C
R
1
R
2
M
1
M
2
l / 2
x
V
+
x
M
+

(continued)
15 Fixed supportsintermediate load
R
1
=
Fb
2
l
3
(3a +b) R
2
=
Fa
2
l
3
(3b +a)
M
1
=
Fab
2
l
2
M
2
=
Fa
2
b
l
2
V
AB
= R
1
V
BC
= R
2
M
AB
=
Fb
2
l
3
[x(3a +b) al]
M
BC
= M
AB
F(x a)
y
AB
=
Fb
2
x
2
6EI l
3
[x(3a +b) 3al]
y
BC
=
Fa
2
(l x)
2
6EI l
3
[(l x)(3b +a) 3bl]
16 Fixed supportsuniform load
R
1
= R
2
=
wl
2
M
1
= M
2
=
wl
2
12
V =
w
2
(l 2x)
M =
w
12
(6l x 6x
2
l
2
)
y =
wx
2
24EI
(l x)
2
y
max
=
wl
4
384EI
Table A9
Shear, Moment, and
Deection of Beams
(Continued)
(Note: Force and
shear force V and
bending moment M
follow the sign
Sec. 42.)
l
a
y
A B
F
x
C
R
1
R
2
M
1
M
2
b
x
V
+
x
M
+

x
l
y
R
1
R
2
M
1
M
2
x
V
+
M
x
+

0.2113l
Useful Tables 977
Z
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
0.0 0.5000 0.4960 0.4920 0.4880 0.4840 0.4801 0.4761 0.4721 0.4681 0.4641
0.1 0.4602 0.4562 0.4522 0.4483 0.4443 0.4404 0.4364 0.4325 0.4286 0.4247
0.2 0.4207 0.4168 0.4129 0.4090 0.4052 0.4013 0.3974 0.3936 0.3897 0.3859
0.3 0.3821 0.3783 0.3745 0.3707 0.3669 0.3632 0.3594 0.3557 0.3520 0.3483
0.4 0.3446 0.3409 0.3372 0.3336 0.3300 0.3264 0.3238 0.3192 0.3156 0.3121
0.5 0.3085 0.3050 0.3015 0.2981 0.2946 0.2912 0.2877 0.2843 0.2810 0.2776
0.6 0.2743 0.2709 0.2676 0.2643 0.2611 0.2578 0.2546 0.2514 0.2483 0.2451
0.7 0.2420 0.2389 0.2358 0.2327 0.2296 0.2266 0.2236 0.2206 0.2177 0.2148
0.8 0.2119 0.2090 0.2061 0.2033 0.2005 0.1977 0.1949 0.1922 0.1894 0.1867
0.9 0.1841 0.1814 0.1788 0.1762 0.1736 0.1711 0.1685 0.1660 0.1635 0.1611
1.0 0.1587 0.1562 0.1539 0.1515 0.1492 0.1469 0.1446 0.1423 0.1401 0.1379
1.1 0.1357 0.1335 0.1314 0.1292 0.1271 0.1251 0.1230 0.1210 0.1190 0.1170
1.2 0.1151 0.1131 0.1112 0.1093 0.1075 0.1056 0.1038 0.1020 0.1003 0.0985
1.3 0.0968 0.0951 0.0934 0.0918 0.0901 0.0885 0.0869 0.0853 0.0838 0.0823
1.4 0.0808 0.0793 0.0778 0.0764 0.0749 0.0735 0.0721 0.0708 0.0694 0.0681
1.5 0.0668 0.0655 0.0643 0.0630 0.0618 0.0606 0.0594 0.0582 0.0571 0.0559
1.6 0.0548 0.0537 0.0526 0.0516 0.0505 0.0495 0.0485 0.0475 0.0465 0.0455
1.7 0.0446 0.0436 0.0427 0.0418 0.0409 0.0401 0.0392 0.0384 0.0375 0.0367
1.8 0.0359 0.0351 0.0344 0.0336 0.0329 0.0322 0.0314 0.0307 0.0301 0.0294
1.9 0.0287 0.0281 0.0274 0.0268 0.0262 0.0256 0.0250 0.0244 0.0239 0.0233
2.0 0.0228 0.0222 0.0217 0.0212 0.0207 0.0202 0.0197 0.0192 0.0188 0.0183
2.1 0.0179 0.0174 0.0170 0.0166 0.0162 0.0158 0.0154 0.0150 0.0146 0.0143
2.2 0.0139 0.0136 0.0132 0.0129 0.0125 0.0122 0.0119 0.0116 0.0113 0.0110
2.3 0.0107 0.0104 0.0102 0.00990 0.00964 0.00939 0.00914 0.00889 0.00866 0.00842
2.4 0.00820 0.00798 0.00776 0.00755 0.00734 0.00714 0.00695 0.00676 0.00657 0.00639
2.5 0.00621 0.00604 0.00587 0.00570 0.00554 0.00539 0.00523 0.00508 0.00494 0.00480
2.6 0.00466 0.00453 0.00440 0.00427 0.00415 0.00402 0.00391 0.00379 0.00368 0.00357
2.7 0.00347 0.00336 0.00326 0.00317 0.00307 0.00298 0.00289 0.00280 0.00272 0.00264
2.8 0.00256 0.00248 0.00240 0.00233 0.00226 0.00219 0.00212 0.00205 0.00199 0.00193
2.9 0.00187 0.00181 0.00175 0.00169 0.00164 0.00159 0.00154 0.00149 0.00144 0.00139
Table A10
Cumulative Distribution Function of Normal (Gaussian) Distribution
(z
) =
_
z
2
exp
_
u
2
2
_
du
=
_
z
0
1 z
> 0
(z
)
f (z)
0
z
(continued)
Table A10
Cumulative Distribution Function of Normal (Gaussian) Distribution (Continued)
Z
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
3 0.00135 0.0
3
968 0.0
3
687 0.0
3
483 0.0
3
337 0.0
3
233 0.0
3
159 0.0
3
108 0.0
4
723 0.0
4
481
4 0.0
4
317 0.0
4
207 0.0
4
133 0.0
5
854 0.0
5
541 0.0
5
340 0.0
5
211 0.0
5
130 0.0
6
793 0.0
6
479
5 0.0
6
287 0.0
6
170 0.0
7
996 0.0
7
579 0.0
7
333 0.0
7
190 0.0
7
107 0.0
8
599 0.0
8
332 0.0
8
182
6 0.0
9
987 0.0
9
530 0.0
9
282 0.0
9
149 0.0
10
777 0.0
10
402 0.0
10
206 0.0
10
104 0.0
11
523 0.0
11
260
z
1.282 1.643 1.960 2.326 2.576 3.090 3.291 3.891 4.417

F(z
) 0.10 0.05 0.025 0.010 0.005 0.001 0.005 0.00005 0.000005

R(z
) 0.90 0.95 0.975 0.999 0.995 0.999 0.9995 0.9999 0.999995

Basic
Tolerance Grades
Sizes IT6 IT7 IT8 IT9 IT10 IT11
03 0.006 0.010 0.014 0.025 0.040 0.060
36 0.008 0.012 0.018 0.030 0.048 0.075
610 0.009 0.015 0.022 0.036 0.058 0.090
1018 0.011 0.018 0.027 0.043 0.070 0.110
1830 0.013 0.021 0.033 0.052 0.084 0.130
3050 0.016 0.025 0.039 0.062 0.100 0.160
5080 0.019 0.030 0.046 0.074 0.120 0.190
80120 0.022 0.035 0.054 0.087 0.140 0.220
120180 0.025 0.040 0.063 0.100 0.160 0.250
180250 0.029 0.046 0.072 0.115 0.185 0.290
250315 0.032 0.052 0.081 0.130 0.210 0.320
315400 0.036 0.057 0.089 0.140 0.230 0.360
Table A11
A Selection of
International Tolerance
GradesMetric Series
and Including the Upper
Limit. All Values Are
in Millimeters)
and Fits, ANSI B4.2-1978.
See also BSI 4500.
Useful Tables 979
Table A12
Fundamental Deviations for ShaftsMetric Series
(Size Ranges Are for Over the Lower Limit and Including the Upper Limit. All Values Are in Millimeters)
Source: Preferred Metric Limits and Fits , ANSI B4.2-1978. See also BSI 4500.
Basic
Upper-Deviation Letter Lower-Deviation Letter
Sizes c d f g h k n p s u
03 0.060 0.020 0.006 0.002 0 0 +0.004 +0.006 +0.014 +0.018
36 0.070 0.030 0.010 0.004 0 +0.001 +0.008 +0.012 +0.019 +0.023
610 0.080 0.040 0.013 0.005 0 +0.001 +0.010 +0.015 +0.023 +0.028
1014 0.095 0.050 0.016 0.006 0 +0.001 +0.012 +0.018 +0.028 +0.033
1418 0.095 0.050 0.016 0.006 0 +0.001 +0.012 +0.018 +0.028 +0.033
1824 0.110 0.065 0.020 0.007 0 +0.002 +0.015 +0.022 +0.035 +0.041
2430 0.110 0.065 0.020 0.007 0 +0.002 +0.015 +0.022 +0.035 +0.048
3040 0.120 0.080 0.025 0.009 0 +0.002 +0.017 +0.026 +0.043 +0.060
4050 0.130 0.080 0.025 0.009 0 +0.002 +0.017 +0.026 +0.043 +0.070
5065 0.140 0.100 0.030 0.010 0 +0.002 +0.020 +0.032 +0.053 +0.087
6580 0.150 0.100 0.030 0.010 0 +0.002 +0.020 +0.032 +0.059 +0.102
80100 0.170 0.120 0.036 0.012 0 +0.003 +0.023 +0.037 +0.071 +0.124
100120 0.180 0.120 0.036 0.012 0 +0.003 +0.023 +0.037 +0.079 +0.144
120140 0.200 0.145 0.043 0.014 0 +0.003 +0.027 +0.043 +0.092 +0.170
140160 0.210 0.145 0.043 0.014 0 +0.003 +0.027 +0.043 +0.100 +0.190
160180 0.230 0.145 0.043 0.014 0 +0.003 +0.027 +0.043 +0.108 +0.210
180200 0.240 0.170 0.050 0.015 0 +0.004 +0.031 +0.050 +0.122 +0.236
200225 0.260 0.170 0.050 0.015 0 +0.004 +0.031 +0.050 +0.130 +0.258
225250 0.280 0.170 0.050 0.015 0 +0.004 +0.031 +0.050 +0.140 +0.284
250280 0.300 0.190 0.056 0.017 0 +0.004 +0.034 +0.056 +0.158 +0.315
280315 0.330 0.190 0.056 0.017 0 +0.004 +0.034 +0.056 +0.170 +0.350
315355 0.360 0.210 0.062 0.018 0 +0.004 +0.037 +0.062 +0.190 +0.390
355400 0.400 0.210 0.062 0.018 0 +0.004 +0.037 +0.062 +0.208 +0.435
Basic
Tolerance Grades
Sizes IT6 IT7 IT8 IT9 IT10 IT11
00.12 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006 0.0010 0.0016 0.0024
0.120.24 0.0003 0.0005 0.0007 0.0012 0.0019 0.0030
0.240.40 0.0004 0.0006 0.0009 0.0014 0.0023 0.0035
0.400.72 0.0004 0.0007 0.0011 0.0017 0.0028 0.0043
0.721.20 0.0005 0.0008 0.0013 0.0020 0.0033 0.0051
1.202.00 0.0006 0.0010 0.0015 0.0024 0.0039 0.0063
2.003.20 0.0007 0.0012 0.0018 0.0029 0.0047 0.0075
3.204.80 0.0009 0.0014 0.0021 0.0034 0.0055 0.0087
4.807.20 0.0010 0.0016 0.0025 0.0039 0.0063 0.0098
7.2010.00 0.0011 0.0018 0.0028 0.0045 0.0073 0.0114
10.0012.60 0.0013 0.0020 0.0032 0.0051 0.0083 0.0126
12.6016.00 0.0014 0.0022 0.0035 0.0055 0.0091 0.0142
Table A13
A Selection of
International Tolerance
GradesInch Series
and Including the Upper
Limit. All Values Are in
Inches, Converted from
Table A11)
981
B
a
s
i
c
U
p
p
e
r
-
D
e
v
i
a
t
i
o
n

L
e
t
t
e
r
L
o
w
e
r
-
D
e
v
i
a
t
i
o
n

L
e
t
t
e
r
S
i
z
e
s
c
d
f
g
h
k
n
p
s
u
0
0
.
1
2
0
.
0
0
2
4
0
.
0
0
0
8
0
.
0
0
0
2
0
.
0
0
0
1
0
0
+
0
.
0
0
0
2
+
0
.
0
0
0
2
+
0
.
0
0
0
6
+
0
.
0
0
0
7
0
.
1
2
0
.
2
4
0
.
0
0
2
8
0
.
0
0
1
2
0
.
0
0
0
4
0
.
0
0
0
2
0
0
+
0
.
0
0
0
3
+
0
.
0
0
0
5
+
0
.
0
0
0
7
+
0
.
0
0
0
9
0
.
2
4
0
.
4
0
0
.
0
0
3
1
0
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1
T
a
b
l
e

A
1
4
F
u
n
d
a
m
e
n
t
a
l

D
e
v
i
a
t
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o
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s

f
o
r

S
h
a
f
t
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I
n
c
h

S
e
r
i
e
s

(
S
i
z
e

R
a
n
g
e
s

A
r
e

f
o
r

O
v
e
r
t
h
e

L
o
w
e
r

L
i
m
i
t

a
n
d

I
n
c
l
u
d
i
n
g
t
h
e

U
p
p
e
r

L
i
m
i
t
.

A
l
l

V
a
l
u
e
s

A
r
e

i
n
I
n
c
h
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s
,

C
o
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d

f
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T
a
b
l
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A
1
2
)
Table A15
Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors K*
t
Figure A151
Bar in tension or simple
compression with a transverse
hole.
0
= F/A, where
A = (w d )t and t is the
thickness.
K
t
d
d/w
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
w
Figure A152
Rectangular bar with a
transverse hole in bending.
0
= Mc/I , where
I = (w d )h
3
/12.
K
t
d
d/w
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
1.0
1.4
1.8
2.2
2.6
3.0
w
M M
0.25
1.0
2.0
d/h = 0
0.5
h
K
t
r
r/d
0
1.5
1.2
1.1
1.05
1.0
1.4
1.8
2.2
2.6
3.0
d
w
w/d = 3
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
Figure A153
Notched rectangular bar in
tension or simple compression.
0
= F/A, where A = dt and t
is the thickness.
Useful Tables 983
Table A15
t
(Continued)
1.5
1.10
1.05
1.02
w/d =
K
t
r
r/d
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
1.0
1.4
1.8
2.2
2.6
3.0
d
w
M M
1.02
K
t
r/d
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
1.0
1.4
1.8
2.2
2.6
3.0
r
d D
D/d = 1.50
1.05
1.10
K
t
r/d
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
1.0
1.4
1.8
2.2
2.6
3.0
r
d D
D/d = 1.02
3
1.3
1.1
1.05
M M
Figure A154
Notched rectangular bar in
bending.
0
= Mc/I , where
c = d/2, I = td
3
/12, and t is
the thickness.
Figure A155
Rectangular lleted bar in
tension or simple compression.
0
= F/A, where A = dt and t
is the thickness.
Figure A156
Rectangular lleted bar in
bending.
0
= Mc/I , where
c = d/2, I = td
3
/12, t is the
thickness.
*Factors from R. E. Peterson, Design Factors for Stress Concentration, Machine Design, vol. 23, no. 2, February 1951, p. 169; no. 3, March 1951, p. 161, no. 5, May 1951, p. 159; no. 6, June 1951,
p. 173; no. 7, July 1951, p. 155. Reprinted with permission from Machine Design, a Penton Media Inc. publication.
(continued)
Table A15
t
(Continued)
Figure A157
Round shaft with shoulder llet
in tension.
0
= F/A, where
A = d
2
/4.
Figure A158
in torsion.
0
= Tc/J, where
c = d/2 and J = d
4
/32.
Figure A159
in bending.
0
= Mc/I , where
c = d/2 and I = d
4
/64.
K
t
r/d
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
1.0
1.4
1.8
2.2
2.6
r
1
.0
5
1.02
1.10
D
/d
=
1
.5
0
d D
K
ts
r/d
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
1.0
1.4
1.8
2.2
2.6
3.0
D
/d = 2
1.09
1.20
1.33
r
T T
D d
K
t
r/d
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
1.0
1.4
1.8
2.2
2.6
3.0
D
/d
=
3
1.02
1.5
1.10
1.05
r
M D d M
Useful Tables 985
Table A15
t
(Continued)
Figure A1510
Round shaft in torsion with
transverse hole.
Figure A1511
Round shaft in bending with
a transverse hole.
0
=
M/[(D
3
/32) (dD
2
/6)],
approximately.
K
ts
d/D
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
2.4
2.8
3.2
3.6
4.0
J
c
T
B
d
D
3
16
dD
2
6
= (approx)
A
D
K
ts
, A
K
ts
, B
K
t
d/D
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
1.0
1.4
1.8
2.2
2.6
3.0
d
D
M M
Figure A1512
Plate loaded in tension by a
pin through a hole.
0
= F/A,
where A = (w d)t . When
clearance exists, increase K
t
35 to 50 percent. (M. M. Frocht
and H. N. Hill, Stress Concentration Factors
around a Central Circular Hole in a Plate
Loaded through a Pin in Hole, J. Appl.
Mechanics, vol. 7, no. 1, March 1940,
p. A-5.)
d
h
t
K
t
d/w
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.8 0.7
1
3
5
7
9
11
w
h/w = 0.35
h/w 1.0
h/w = 0.50
(continued)
Table A15
t
(Continued)
Figure A1513
Grooved round bar in tension.
0
= F/A, where
A = d
2
/4.
Figure A1514
Grooved round bar in
bending.
0
= Mc/l , where
c = d/2 and I = d
4
/64.
Figure A1515
Grooved round bar in torsion.
0
= Tc/J, where c = d/2
and J = d
4
/32.
K
t
r/d
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
1.0
1.4
1.8
2.2
2.6
3.0
D/d = 1.50
1.05
1.02
1.15
d
r
D
K
t
r/d
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
1.0
1.4
1.8
2.2
2.6
3.0
D/d = 1.50 1.02
1.05
d
r
D
M M
K
ts
r/d
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
1.0
1.4
1.8
2.2
2.6
D/d = 1.30
1.02
1.05
d
r
D
T T
Useful Tables 987
Table A16
Approximate Stress-
Concentration Factor K
t
for Bending of a Round
Bar or Tube with a
Transverse Round Hole
Source: R. E. Peterson, Stress
Concentration Factors, Wiley,
New York, 1974, pp. 146,
235.
The nominal bending stress is
0
= M/Z
net
where Z
net
is a reduced value
of the section modulus and is dened by
Z
net
=
A
32D
(D
4
d
4
)
Values of A are listed in the table. Use d = 0 for a solid bar
d/D
0.9 0.6 0
a/D A K
t
A K
t
A K
t
0.050 0.92 2.63 0.91 2.55 0.88 2.42
0.075 0.89 2.55 0.88 2.43 0.86 2.35
0.10 0.86 2.49 0.85 2.36 0.83 2.27
0.125 0.82 2.41 0.82 2.32 0.80 2.20
0.15 0.79 2.39 0.79 2.29 0.76 2.15
0.175 0.76 2.38 0.75 2.26 0.72 2.10
0.20 0.73 2.39 0.72 2.23 0.68 2.07
0.225 0.69 2.40 0.68 2.21 0.65 2.04
0.25 0.67 2.42 0.64 2.18 0.61 2.00
0.275 0.66 2.48 0.61 2.16 0.58 1.97
0.30 0.64 2.52 0.58 2.14 0.54 1.94
M M
D d
a
(continued)
Table A16 (Continued)
Approximate Stress-Concentration Factors K
ts
for a Round Bar or Tube Having a Transverse Round Hole and
Loaded in Torsion Source: R. E. Peterson, Stress Concentration Factors, Wiley, New York, 1974, pp. 148, 244.
T
T
D
a d
The maximum stress occurs on the inside of the hole, slightly below the shaft surface. The nominal shear stress is
0
= T D/2J
net
,
where J
net
is a reduced value of the second polar moment of area and is dened by
J
net
=
A(D
4
d
4
)
32
Values of A are listed in the table. Use d = 0 for a solid bar.
d/D
0.9 0.8 0.6 0.4 0
a/D A K
ts
A K
ts
A K
ts
A K
ts
A K
ts
0.05 0.96 1.78 0.95 1.77
0.075 0.95 1.82 0.93 1.71
0.10 0.94 1.76 0.93 1.74 0.92 1.72 0.92 1.70 0.92 1.68
0.125 0.91 1.76 0.91 1.74 0.90 1.70 0.90 1.67 0.89 1.64
0.15 0.90 1.77 0.89 1.75 0.87 1.69 0.87 1.65 0.87 1.62
0.175 0.89 1.81 0.88 1.76 0.87 1.69 0.86 1.64 0.85 1.60
0.20 0.88 1.96 0.86 1.79 0.85 1.70 0.84 1.63 0.83 1.58
0.25 0.87 2.00 0.82 1.86 0.81 1.72 0.80 1.63 0.79 1.54
0.30 0.80 2.18 0.78 1.97 0.77 1.76 0.75 1.63 0.74 1.51
0.35 0.77 2.41 0.75 2.09 0.72 1.81 0.69 1.63 0.68 1.47
0.40 0.72 2.67 0.71 2.25 0.68 1.89 0.64 1.63 0.63 1.44
Useful Tables 989
Table A17
Preferred Sizes and
Renard (R-Series)
Numbers
(When a choice can be
made, use one of these
sizes; however, not all
parts or items are
available in all the sizes
shown in the table.)
Fraction of Inches
1
64
,
1
32
,
1
16
,
3
32
,
1
8
,
5
32
,
3
16
,
1
4
,
5
16
,
3
8
,
7
16
,
1
2
,
9
16
,
5
8
,
11
16
,
3
4
,
7
8
, 1, 1
1
4
, 1
1
2
, 1
3
4
, 2, 2
1
4
,
2
1
2
, 2
3
4
, 3, 3
1
4
, 3
1
2
, 3
3
4
, 4, 4
1
4
, 4
1
2
, 4
3
4
, 5, 5
1
4
, 5
1
2
, 5
3
4
, 6, 6
1
2
, 7, 7
1
2
, 8, 8
1
2
, 9, 9
1
2
,
10, 10
1
2
, 11, 11
1
2
, 12, 12
1
2
, 13, 13
1
2
, 14, 14
1
2
, 15, 15
1
2
, 16, 16
1
2
, 17, 17
1
2
, 18,
18
1
2
, 19, 19
1
2
, 20
Decimal Inches
0.010, 0.012, 0.016, 0.020, 0.025, 0.032, 0.040, 0.05, 0.06, 0.08, 0.10, 0.12, 0.16,
0.20, 0.24, 0.30, 0.40, 0.50, 0.60, 0.80, 1.00, 1.20, 1.40, 1.60, 1.80, 2.0, 2.4, 2.6,
2.8, 3.0, 3.2, 3.4, 3.6, 3.8, 4.0, 4.2, 4.4, 4.6, 4.8, 5.0, 5.2, 5.4, 5.6, 5.8, 6.0, 7.0, 7.5,
8.5, 9.0, 9.5, 10.0, 10.5, 11.0, 11.5, 12.0, 12.5, 13.0, 13.5, 14.0, 14.5, 15.0, 15.5,
16.0, 16.5, 17.0, 17.5, 18.0, 18.5, 19.0, 19.5, 20
Millimeters
0.05, 0.06, 0.08, 0.10, 0.12, 0.16, 0.20, 0.25, 0.30, 0.40, 0.50, 0.60, 0.70, 0.80,
0.90, 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0, 2.2, 2.5, 2.8, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0, 5.5,
6.0, 6.5, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 25, 28, 30, 32, 35, 40, 45, 50,
60, 80, 100, 120, 140, 160, 180, 200, 250, 300
Renard Numbers*
1st choice, R5: 1, 1.6, 2.5, 4, 6.3, 10
2d choice, R10: 1.25, 2, 3.15, 5, 8
3d choice, R20: 1.12, 1.4, 1.8, 2.24, 2.8, 3.55, 4.5, 5.6, 7.1, 9
4th choice, R40: 1.06, 1.18, 1.32, 1.5, 1.7, 1.9, 2.12, 2.36, 2.65, 3, 3.35, 3.75,
4.25, 4.75, 5.3, 6, 6.7, 7.5, 8.5, 9.5
*May be multiplied or divided by powers of 10.
Part 1 Properties of Sections
A = area
G = location of centroid
I
x
=
_
x
2
d A = second moment of area about x axis
I
x y
=
_
xy d A = mixed moment of area about x and y axes
J
G
=
_
r
2
d A =
_
(x
2
+ y
2
) d A = I
x
+ I
y
= second polar moment of area about axis through G
k
2
x
= I
x
/A = squared radius of gyration about x axis
Rectangle
A = bh I
x
=
bh
3
12
I
y
=
b
3
h
12
I
x y
= 0
Circle
A =
D
2
4
I
x
= I
y
=
D
4
64
I
x y
= 0
Hollow circle
A =

4
(D
2
d
2
) I
x
= I
y
=

64
(D
4
d
4
) I
x y
= 0
Table A18
Geometric Properties
b
h
x
y
b
2
h
2
G
x
y
G
D
x
y
G
D
d
Useful Tables 991
Table A18
(Continued)
Right triangles
A =
bh
2
I
x
=
bh
3
36
I
y
=
b
3
h
36
I
x y
=
b
2
h
2
72
Right triangles
A =
bh
2
I
x
=
bh
3
36
I
y
=
b
3
h
36
I
x y
=
b
2
h
2
72
Quarter-circles
A =
r
2
4
I
x
= I
y
= r
4
_

16

4
9
_
I
x y
= r
4
_
1
8

4
9
_
Quarter-circles
A =
r
2
4
I
x
= I
y
= r
4
_

16

4
9
_
I
x y
= r
4
_
4
9
1
8
_
x
x
G
G
h h
b
b
y y
h
3
b
3
b
3
h
3
h
x
x
h
b
b
y y
h
3
b
3
b
3
h
3
G
G
r
y
x
4r
3
4r
3
r
y
x
4r
3
4r
3
G
G
r
y
x
4r
3
4r
3
r
y
x
4r
3
4r
3
G
G
(continued)
Table A18
(Continued)
Part 2 Properties of Solids ( = Density, Weight per Unit Volume)
Rods
m =
d
2
l
4g
I
y
= I
z
=
ml
2
12
Round disks
m =
d
2
t
4g
I
x
=
md
2
8
I
y
= I
z
=
md
2
16
Rectangular prisms
m =
abc
g
I
x
=
m
12
(a
2
+b
2
) I
y
=
m
12
(a
2
+c
2
) I
z
=
m
12
(b
2
+c
2
)
Cylinders
m =
d
2
l
4g
I
x
=
md
2
8
I
y
= I
z
=
m
48
(3d
2
+4l
2
)
Hollow cylinders
m =

_
d
2
o
d
2
i
_
l
4g
I
x
=
m
8
_
d
2
o
+d
2
i
_
I
y
= I
z
=
m
48
_
3d
2
o
+3d
2
i
+4l
2
_
y
z
x
d
l
y
t
d
z
x
c
a
b
x
z
y
y
z
x
d
l
y
z
x
d
o
d
i
l
Useful Tables 993
Table A19
American Standard Pipe
Wall Thickness, in
Nominal Outside Extra Double
Size, Diameter, Threads Standard Strong Extra
in in per inch No. 40 No. 80 Strong
1
8
0.405 27 0.070 0.098
1
4
0.540 18 0.090 0.122
3
8
0.675 18 0.093 0.129
1
2
0.840 14 0.111 0.151 0.307
3
4
1.050 14 0.115 0.157 0.318
1 1.315 11
1
2
0.136 0.183 0.369
1
1
4
1.660 11
1
2
0.143 0.195 0.393
1
1
2
1.900 11
1
2
0.148 0.204 0.411
2 2.375 11
1
2
0.158 0.223 0.447
2
1
2
2.875 8 0.208 0.282 0.565
3 3.500 8 0.221 0.306 0.615
3
1
2
4.000 8 0.231 0.325
4 4.500 8 0.242 0.344 0.690
5 5.563 8 0.263 0.383 0.768
6 6.625 8 0.286 0.441 0.884
8 8.625 8 0.329 0.510 0.895
Table A20
Deterministic ASTM Minimum Tensile and Yield Strengths for Some Hot-Rolled (HR) and Cold-Drawn (CD) Steels
[The strengths listed are estimated ASTM minimum values in the size range 18 to 32 mm (
3
4
to 1
1
4
in). These
strengths are suitable for use with the design factor dened in Sec. 110, provided the materials conform to
ASTM A6 or A568 requirements or are required in the purchase specications. Remember that a numbering
system is not a specication. See Table 11 for certain ASTM steels.] Source: 1986 SAE Handbook, p. 2.15.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Tensile Yield
SAE and/or Proces- Strength, Strength, Elongation in Reduction in Brinell
UNS No. AISI No. sing MPa (kpsi) MPa (kpsi) 2 in, % Area, % Hardness
G10060 1006 HR 300 (43) 170 (24) 30 55 86
CD 330 (48) 280 (41) 20 45 95
G10100 1010 HR 320 (47) 180 (26) 28 50 95
CD 370 (53) 300 (44) 20 40 105
G10150 1015 HR 340 (50) 190 (27.5) 28 50 101
CD 390 (56) 320 (47) 18 40 111
G10180 1018 HR 400 (58) 220 (32) 25 50 116
CD 440 (64) 370 (54) 15 40 126
G10200 1020 HR 380 (55) 210 (30) 25 50 111
CD 470 (68) 390 (57) 15 40 131
G10300 1030 HR 470 (68) 260 (37.5) 20 42 137
CD 520 (76) 440 (64) 12 35 149
G10350 1035 HR 500 (72) 270 (39.5) 18 40 143
CD 550 (80) 460 (67) 12 35 163
G10400 1040 HR 520 (76) 290 (42) 18 40 149
CD 590 (85) 490 (71) 12 35 170
G10450 1045 HR 570 (82) 310 (45) 16 40 163
CD 630 (91) 530 (77) 12 35 179
G10500 1050 HR 620 (90) 340 (49.5) 15 35 179
CD 690 (100) 580 (84) 10 30 197
G10600 1060 HR 680 (98) 370 (54) 12 30 201
G10800 1080 HR 770 (112) 420 (61.5) 10 25 229
G10950 1095 HR 830 (120) 460 (66) 10 25 248
Useful Tables 995
Table A21
Mean Mechanical Properties of Some Heat-Treated Steels
[These are typical properties for materials normalized and annealed. The properties for quenched and tempered
(Q&T) steels are from a single heat. Because of the many variables, the properties listed are global averages. In
all cases, data were obtained from specimens of diameter 0.505 in, machined from 1-in rounds, and of gauge
length 2 in. unless noted, all specimens were oil-quenched.] Source: ASM Metals Reference Book, 2d ed., American
Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1983.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Tensile Yield
Temperature Strength Strength, Elongation, Reduction Brinell
AISI No. Treatment C (F) MPa (kpsi) MPa (kpsi) % in Area, % Hardness
1030 Q&T* 205 (400) 848 (123) 648 (94) 17 47 495
Q&T* 315 (600) 800 (116) 621 (90) 19 53 401
Q&T* 425 (800) 731 (106) 579 (84) 23 60 302
Q&T* 540 (1000) 669 (97) 517 (75) 28 65 255
Q&T* 650 (1200) 586 (85) 441 (64) 32 70 207
Normalized 925 (1700) 521 (75) 345 (50) 32 61 149
Annealed 870 (1600) 430 (62) 317 (46) 35 64 137
1040 Q&T 205 (400) 779 (113) 593 (86) 19 48 262
Q&T 425 (800) 758 (110) 552 (80) 21 54 241
Q&T 650 (1200) 634 (92) 434 (63) 29 65 192
Normalized 900 (1650) 590 (86) 374 (54) 28 55 170
Annealed 790 (1450) 519 (75) 353 (51) 30 57 149
1050 Q&T* 205 (400) 1120 (163) 807 (117) 9 27 514
Q&T* 425 (800) 1090 (158) 793 (115) 13 36 444
Q&T* 650 (1200) 717 (104) 538 (78) 28 65 235
Normalized 900 (1650) 748 (108) 427 (62) 20 39 217
Annealed 790 (1450) 636 (92) 365 (53) 24 40 187
1060 Q&T 425 (800) 1080 (156) 765 (111) 14 41 311
Q&T 540 (1000) 965 (140) 669 (97) 17 45 277
Q&T 650 (1200) 800 (116) 524 (76) 23 54 229
Normalized 900 (1650) 776 (112) 421 (61) 18 37 229
Annealed 790 (1450) 626 (91) 372 (54) 22 38 179
1095 Q&T 315 (600) 1260 (183) 813 (118) 10 30 375
Q&T 425 (800) 1210 (176) 772 (112) 12 32 363
Q&T 540 (1000) 1090 (158) 676 (98) 15 37 321
Q&T 650 (1200) 896 (130) 552 (80) 21 47 269
Normalized 900 (1650) 1010 (147) 500 (72) 9 13 293
Annealed 790 (1450) 658 (95) 380 (55) 13 21 192
1141 Q&T 315 (600) 1460 (212) 1280 (186) 9 32 415
Q&T 540 (1000) 896 (130) 765 (111) 18 57 262
(continued)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Tensile Yield
Temperature Strength Strength, Elongation, Reduction Brinell
AISI No. Treatment C (F) MPa (kpsi) MPa (kpsi) % in Area, % Hardness
4130 Q&T* 205 (400) 1630 (236) 1460 (212) 10 41 467
Q&T* 315 (600) 1500 (217) 1380 (200) 11 43 435
Q&T* 425 (800) 1280 (186) 1190 (173) 13 49 380
Q&T* 540 (1000) 1030 (150) 910 (132) 17 57 315
Q&T* 650 (1200) 814 (118) 703 (102) 22 64 245
Normalized 870 (1600) 670 (97) 436 (63) 25 59 197
Annealed 865 (1585) 560 (81) 361 (52) 28 56 156
4140 Q&T 205 (400) 1770 (257) 1640 (238) 8 38 510
Q&T 315 (600) 1550 (225) 1430 (208) 9 43 445
Q&T 425 (800) 1250 (181) 1140 (165) 13 49 370
Q&T 540 (1000) 951 (138) 834 (121) 18 58 285
Q&T 650 (1200) 758 (110) 655 (95) 22 63 230
Normalized 870 (1600) 1020 (148) 655 (95) 18 47 302
Annealed 815 (1500) 655 (95) 417 (61) 26 57 197
4340 Q&T 315 (600) 1720 (250) 1590 (230) 10 40 486
Q&T 425 (800) 1470 (213) 1360 (198) 10 44 430
Q&T 540 (1000) 1170 (170) 1080 (156) 13 51 360
Q&T 650 (1200) 965 (140) 855 (124) 19 60 280
*Water-quenched
Table A21 (Continued)
Mean Mechanical Properties of Some Heat-Treated Steels
[These are typical properties for materials normalized and annealed. The properties for quenched and tempered
(Q&T) steels are from a single heat. Because of the many variables, the properties listed are global averages. In
all cases, data were obtained from specimens of diameter 0.505 in, machined from 1-in rounds, and of gauge
length 2 in. Unless noted, all specimens were oil-quenched.] Source: ASM Metals Reference Book, 2d ed., American
Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1983.
997
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]
1000
Table A24
Mechanical Properties of Three Non-Steel Metals (Continued)
(b) Mechanical Properties of Some Aluminum Alloys
[These are typical properties for sizes of about
1
2
in; similar properties can be obtained by using proper
purchase specications. The values given for fatigue strength correspond to 50(10
7
) cycles of completely
reversed stress. Alluminum alloys do not have an endurance limit. Yield strengths were obtained by the
0.2 percent offset method.]
Aluminum
Strength
Elongation Brinell
Association Yield, S
y
, Tensile, S
u
, Fatigue, S
f
, in 2 in, Hardness
Number Temper MPa (kpsi) MPa (kpsi) MPa (kpsi) % H
B
Wrought:
2017 O 70 (10) 179 (26) 90 (13) 22 45
2024 O 76 (11) 186 (27) 90 (13) 22 47
T3 345 (50) 482 (70) 138 (20) 16 120
3003 H12 117 (17) 131 (19) 55 (8) 20 35
H16 165 (24) 179 (26) 65 (9.5) 14 47
3004 H34 186 (27) 234 (34) 103 (15) 12 63
H38 234 (34) 276 (40) 110 (16) 6 77
5052 H32 186 (27) 234 (34) 117 (17) 18 62
H36 234 (34) 269 (39) 124 (18) 10 74
Cast:
319.0* T6 165 (24) 248 (36) 69 (10) 2.0 80
333.0
T5 172 (25) 234 (34) 83 (12) 1.0 100

T6 207 (30) 289 (42) 103 (15) 1.5 105
335.0* T6 172 (25) 241 (35) 62 (9) 3.0 80
T7 248 (36) 262 (38) 62 (9) 0.5 85
*Sand casting.
Permanent-mold casting.
1001
(c) Mechanical Properties of Some Titanium Alloys
Yield, S
y
Strength Elongation Hardness
(0.2% offset) Tensile, S
ut
in 2 in, (Brinell or
Titanium Alloy Condition MPa (kpsi) MPa (kpsi) % Rockwell)
Ti-35A
Annealed 210 (30) 275 (40) 30 135 HB

Ti-50A
Annealed 310 (45) 380 (55) 25 215 HB

Ti-0.2 Pd Annealed 280 (40) 340 (50) 28 200 HB
Ti-5 Al-2.5 Sn Annealed 760 (110) 790 (115) 16 36 HRC
Ti-8 Al-1 Mo-1 V Annealed 900 (130) 965 (140) 15 39 HRC
Ti-6 Al-6 V-2 Sn Annealed 970 (140) 1030 (150) 14 38 HRC
Ti-6Al-4V Annealed 900 (130) 830 (120) 14 36 HRC
Ti-13 V-11 Cr-3 Al Sol. + aging 1207 (175) 1276 (185) 8 40 HRC
Commercially pure alpha titanium

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.
0
2
8

1
2
5
0
.
0
2
6

9
0
.
0
2
5

8
0
.
0
5
1
0
.
1
5
3
0
.
1
5
4

0
2
4
0
.
0
2
0

1
0
0
.
0
2
2
0
.
0
2
5
0
.
0
2
3

9
0
.
0
2
3

0
0
.
0
5
5
0
.
1
5
1
0
.
1
5
2

0
2
5
0
.
0
1
7

9
0
0
.
0
2
0
0
.
0
2
1

8
7
5
0
.
0
2
0

9
0
.
0
2
0

4
0
.
0
5
9
0
.
1
4
8
0
.
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9

5
2
6
0
.
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5

9
4
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8
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7
5
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9
0
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8

1
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7
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4

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6
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2
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0
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4
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3
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4
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6
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5
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4
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9
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3
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5
3
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9

5
4
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3

1
4
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8

0
*
S
p
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c
i
f
y

s
h
e
e
t
,

w
i
r
e
,

a
n
d

p
l
a
t
e

b
y

s
t
a
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i
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t
h
e

g
a
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n
u
m
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,

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a
n
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d
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e
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.
Table A29
Dimensions of Square and Hexagonal Bolts
Head Type
Nominal
Square Regular Hexagonal Heavy Hexagonal Structural Hexagonal
Size, in W H W H R
min
W H R
min
W H R
min
1
4
3
8
11
64
7
16
11
64
0.01
5
16
1
2
13
64
1
2
7
32
0.01
3
8
9
16
1
4
9
16
1
4
0.01
7
16
5
8
19
64
5
8
19
64
0.01
1
2
3
4
21
64
3
4
11
32
0.01
7
8
11
32
0.01
7
8
5
16
0.009
5
8
15
16
27
64
15
16
27
64
0.02 1
1
16
27
64
0.02 1
1
16
25
64
0.021
3
4
1
1
8
1
2
1
1
8
1
2
0.02 1
1
4
1
2
0.02 1
1
4
15
32
0.021
1 1
1
2
21
32
1
1
2
43
64
0.03 1
5
8
43
64
0.03 1
5
8
39
64
0.062
1
1
8
1
11
16
3
4
1
11
16
3
4
0.03 1
13
16
3
4
0.03 1
13
16
11
16
0.062
1
1
4
1
7
8
27
32
1
7
8
27
32
0.03 2
27
32
0.03 2
25
32
0.062
1
3
8
2
1
16
29
32
2
1
16
29
32
0.03 2
3
16
29
32
0.03 2
3
16
27
32
0.062
1
1
2
2
1
4
1 2
1
4
1 0.03 2
3
8
1 0.03 2
3
8
15
16
0.062
Nominal
Size, mm
M5 8 3.58 8 3.58 0.2
M6 10 4.38 0.3
M8 13 5.68 0.4
M10 16 6.85 0.4
M12 18 7.95 0.6 21 7.95 0.6
M14 21 9.25 0.6 24 9.25 0.6
M16 24 10.75 0.6 27 10.75 0.6 27 10.75 0.6
M20 30 13.40 0.8 34 13.40 0.8 34 13.40 0.8
M24 36 15.90 0.8 41 15.90 0.8 41 15.90 1.0
M30 46 19.75 1.0 50 19.75 1.0 50 19.75 1.2
M36 55 23.55 1.0 60 23.55 1.0 60 23.55 1.5
H
R
W
Useful Tables 1007
Table A30
Dimensions of
Hexagonal Cap Screws
and Heavy Hexagonal
Screws (W = Width
across Flats; H = Height
of Head; See Figure
in Table A29)
Minimum
Type of Screw
Nominal Fillet Cap Heavy Height
Size, in Radius W W H
1
4
0.015
7
16
5
32
5
16
0.015
1
2
13
64
3
8
0.015
9
16
15
64
7
16
0.015
5
8
9
32
1
2
0.015
3
4
7
8
5
16
5
8
0.020
15
16
1
1
16
25
64
3
4
0.020 1
1
8
1
1
4
15
32
7
8
0.040 1
5
16
1
7
16
35
64
1 0.060 1
1
2
1
1
8
39
64
1
1
4
0.060 1
7
8
2
25
32
1
3
8
0.060 2
1
16
2
3
16
27
32
1
1
2
0.060 2
1
4
2
3
8
15
16
Nominal
Size, mm
M5 0.2 8 3.65
M6 0.3 10 4.15
M8 0.4 13 5.50
M10 0.4 16 6.63
M12 0.6 18 21 7.76
M14 0.6 21 24 9.09
M16 0.6 24 27 10.32
M20 0.8 30 34 12.88
M24 0.8 36 41 15.44
M30 1.0 46 50 19.48
M36 1.0 55 60 23.38
Useful Tables 1009
Table A31
Dimensions of
Hexagonal Nuts
Height H
Nominal Width Regular Thick or
Size, in W Hexagonal Slotted JAM
1
4
7
16
7
32
9
32
5
32
5
16
1
2
17
64
21
64
3
16
3
8
9
16
21
64
13
32
7
32
7
16
11
16
3
8
29
64
1
4
1
2
3
4
7
16
9
16
5
16
9
16
7
8
31
64
39
64
5
16
5
8
15
16
35
64
23
32
3
8
3
4
1
1
8
41
64
13
16
27
64
7
8
1
5
16
3
4
29
32
31
64
1 1
1
2
55
64
1
35
64
1
1
8
1
11
16
31
32
1
5
32
39
64
1
1
4
1
7
8
1
1
16
1
1
4
23
32
1
3
8
2
1
16
1
11
64
1
3
8
25
32
1
1
2
2
1
4
1
9
32
1
1
2
27
32
Nominal
Size, mm
M5 8 4.7 5.1 2.7
M6 10 5.2 5.7 3.2
M8 13 6.8 7.5 4.0
M10 16 8.4 9.3 5.0
M12 18 10.8 12.0 6.0
M14 21 12.8 14.1 7.0
M16 24 14.8 16.4 8.0
M20 30 18.0 20.3 10.0
M24 36 21.5 23.9 12.0
M30 46 25.6 28.6 15.0
M36 55 31.0 34.7 18.0
Table A32
Basic Dimensions of
American Standard
Plain Washers (All
Dimensions in Inches)
Fastener Washer
Diameter
Size Size ID OD Thickness
#6 0.138 0.156 0.375 0.049
#8 0.164 0.188 0.438 0.049
#10 0.190 0.219 0.500 0.049
3
16
0.188 0.250 0.562 0.049
#12 0.216 0.250 0.562 0.065
1
4
N 0.250 0.281 0.625 0.065
1
4
W 0.250 0.312 0.734 0.065
5
16
N 0.312 0.344 0.688 0.065
5
16
W 0.312 0.375 0.875 0.083
3
8
N 0.375 0.406 0.812 0.065
3
8
W 0.375 0.438 1.000 0.083
7
16
N 0.438 0.469 0.922 0.065
7
16
W 0.438 0.500 1.250 0.083
1
2
N 0.500 0.531 1.062 0.095
1
2
W 0.500 0.562 1.375 0.109
9
16
N 0.562 0.594 1.156 0.095
9
16
W 0.562 0.625 1.469 0.109
5
8
N 0.625 0.656 1.312 0.095
5
8
W 0.625 0.688 1.750 0.134
3
4
N 0.750 0.812 1.469 0.134
3
4
W 0.750 0.812 2.000 0.148
7
8
N 0.875 0.938 1.750 0.134
7
8
W 0.875 0.938 2.250 0.165
1 N 1.000 1.062 2.000 0.134
1 W 1.000 1.062 2.500 0.165
1
1
8
N 1.125 1.250 2.250 0.134
1
1
8
W 1.125 1.250 2.750 0.165
1
1
4
N 1.250 1.375 2.500 0.165
1
1
4
W 1.250 1.375 3.000 0.165
1
3
8
N 1.375 1.500 2.750 0.165
1
3
8
W 1.375 1.500 3.250 0.180
1
1
2
N 1.500 1.625 3.000 0.165
1
1
2
W 1.500 1.625 3.500 0.180
1
5
8
1.625 1.750 3.750 0.180
1
3
4
1.750 1.875 4.000 0.180
1
7
8
1.875 2.000 4.250 0.180
2 2.000 2.125 4.500 0.180
2
1
4
2.250 2.375 4.750 0.220
2
1
2
2.500 2.625 5.000 0.238
2
3
4
2.750 2.875 5.250 0.259
3 3.000 3.125 5.500 0.284
N =narrow; W =wide; use W when not specied.
1010
Table A33
Dimensions of Metric Plain Washers (All Dimensions in Millimeters)
Washer Minimum Maximum Maximum Washer Minimum Maximum Maximum
Size* ID OD Thickness Size* ID OD Thickness
1.6 N 1.95 4.00 0.70 10 N 10.85 20.00 2.30
1.6 R 1.95 5.00 0.70 10 R 10.85 28.00 2.80
1.6 W 1.95 6.00 0.90 10 W 10.85 39.00 3.50
2 N 2.50 5.00 0.90 12 N 13.30 25.40 2.80
2 R 2.50 6.00 0.90 12 R 13.30 34.00 3.50
2 W 2.50 8.00 0.90 12 W 13.30 44.00 3.50
2.5 N 3.00 6.00 0.90 14 N 15.25 28.00 2.80
2.5 R 3.00 8.00 0.90 14 R 15.25 39.00 3.50
2.5 W 3.00 10.00 1.20 14 W 15.25 50.00 4.00
3 N 3.50 7.00 0.90 16 N 17.25 32.00 3.50
3 R 3.50 10.00 1.20 16 R 17.25 44.00 4.00
3 W 3.50 12.00 1.40 16 W 17.25 56.00 4.60
3.5 N 4.00 9.00 1.20 20 N 21.80 39.00 4.00
3.5 R 4.00 10.00 1.40 20 R 21.80 50.00 4.60
3.5 W 4.00 15.00 1.75 20 W 21.80 66.00 5.10
4 N 4.70 10.00 1.20 24 N 25.60 44.00 4.60
4 R 4.70 12.00 1.40 24 R 25.60 56.00 5.10
4 W 4.70 16.00 2.30 24 W 25.60 72.00 5.60
5 N 5.50 11.00 1.40 30 N 32.40 56.00 5.10
5 R 5.50 15.00 1.75 30 R 32.40 72.00 5.60
5 W 5.50 20.00 2.30 30 W 32.40 90.00 6.40
6 N 6.65 13.00 1.75 36 N 38.30 66.00 5.60
6 R 6.65 18.80 1.75 36 R 38.30 90.00 6.40
6 W 6.65 25.40 2.30 36 W 38.30 110.00 8.50
8 N 8.90 18.80 2.30
8 R 8.90 25.40 2.30
8 W 8.90 32.00 2.80
N =narrow; R =regular; W =wide.
*Same as screw or bolt size.
Useful Tables 1011
Table A34
Gamma Function*
Source: Reprinted with
permission from William H.
Beyer (ed.), Handbook of
Tables for Probability and
Statistics, 2nd ed., 1966.
Copyright CRC Press, Boca
Raton, Florida.
Values of (n) =
_

0
e
x
x
n1
dx; (n +1) = n(n)
n (n) n (n) n (n) n (n)
1.00 1.000 00 1.25 .906 40 1.50 .886 23 1.75 .919 06
1.01 .994 33 1.26 .904 40 1.51 .886 59 1.76 .921 37
1.02 .988 84 1.27 .902 50 1.52 .887 04 1.77 .923 76
1.03 .983 55 1.28 .900 72 1.53 .887 57 1.78 .926 23
1.04 .978 44 1.29 .899 04 1.54 .888 18 1.79 .928 77
1.05 .973 50 1.30 .897 47 1.55 .888 87 1.80 .931 38
1.06 .968 74 1.31 .896 00 1.56 .889 64 1.81 .934 08
1.07 .964 15 1.32 .894 64 1.57 .890 49 1.82 .936 85
1.08 .959 73 1.33 .893 38 1.58 .891 42 1.83 .939 69
1.09 .955 46 1.34 .892 22 1.59 .892 43 1.84 .942 61
1.10 .951 35 1.35 .891 15 1.60 .893 52 1.85 .945 61
1.11 .947 39 1.36 .890 18 1.61 .894 68 1.86 .948 69
1.12 .943 59 1.37 .889 31 1.62 .895 92 1.87 .951 84
1.13 .939 93 1.38 .888 54 1.63 .897 24 1.88 .955 07
1.14 .936 42 1.39 .887 85 1.64 .898 64 1.89 .958 38
1.15 .933 04 1.40 .887 26 1.65 .900 12 1.90 .961 77
1.16 .929 80 1.41 .886 76 1.66 .901 67 1.91 .965 23
1.17 .936 70 1.42 .886 36 1.67 .903 30 1.92 .968 78
1.18 .923 73 1.43 .886 04 1.68 .905 00 1.93 .972 40
1.19 .920 88 1.44 .885 80 1.69 .906 78 1.94 .976 10
1.20 .918 17 1.45 .885 65 1.70 .908 64 1.95 .979 88
1.21 .915 58 1.46 .885 60 1.71 .910 57 1.96 .983 74
1.22 .913 11 1.47 .885 63 1.72 .912 58 1.97 .987 68
1.23 .910 75 1.48 .885 75 1.73 .914 66 1.98 .991 71
1.24 .908 52 1.49 .885 95 1.74 .916 83 1.99 .995 81
2.00 1.000 00
*For large positive values of x, (x) approximates the asymptotic series
x
x
e
x
_
2x
x
_
1 +
1
12x
+
1
288x
2

139
51 840x
3

571
2 488 320x
4
+
_

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BDA 30803 - Mechanical Engineering Design

CHAPTER 2 Analysis and Synthesis

CHAPTER 2 Analysis and Synthesis

CHAPTER 2 Analysis and Synthesis

Top of the wire is suffered to

Meanwhile the bottom is suffered to

Top of the wire is suffered to

Meanwhile the bottom is suffered to

Shear Stress cause by torsion

= dynamic or velocity factor

= 1.5 from example 5-4. Substituting all

The surface endurance strength of cast iron can be estimated from

17 Department of Material and Engineering Design,

(U.S. customary units)

Gear tooth bending

Gear tooth wear

(c) Threat Comparison (tooth bending or wear)

The radii of the pinion and gear are r

Then the surface strength geometry factor

Gear tooth bending

Gear tooth wear

(c) Threat Comparison (tooth bending or wear)

Fatigue failure curve on the modified Goodman diagram

BDA 30803 Mechanical Engineering Design

Equation for the minimum diameter

CHAPTER 6 Shaft Design

These will simply drops out some of previously terms.

CHAPTER 6 Shaft Design

Reliability for bearing is given by the equation:

= R And the new reliability is

The area of element is

The stiffness constant is 320 . 0

Weld joint is under torsion

( ) ( ) MPa 1 . 56 56 1 . 3 " '

If possible use multiple and submultiple prexes in steps of 1000.

Not recommended but sometimes encountered.

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mile/hour, mi/h 1.61 kilometer/hour, km/h

These sizes are also available in aluminum alloy.

These sizes are also available in aluminum alloy.

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shi20361_app_A.qxd 6/3/03 3:43 PM Page 974

1.282 1.643 1.960 2.326 2.576 3.090 3.291 3.891 4.417

) 0.10 0.05 0.025 0.010 0.005 0.001 0.005 0.00005 0.000005

) 0.90 0.95 0.975 0.999 0.995 0.999 0.9995 0.9999 0.999995

T5 172 (25) 234 (34) 83 (12) 1.0 100

Annealed 210 (30) 275 (40) 30 135 HB

Annealed 310 (45) 380 (55) 25 215 HB

Commercially pure alpha titanium

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