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Rational Numbers
Rational numbers sound like they should be very sensible numbers. In fact, they are. Rational numbers are simply numbers that can be written as fractions or ratios (this tells you where the term rational comes from). The hierarchy of real numbers looks something like this:
Real Numbers: Any number that can name a position on a number line is a real number. Every position on a number line can be named by a real number in some form. An important property of real numbers is the Density Property. It says that between any two real numbers, there is always another real number. Rational Numbers: Any number that can be written in fraction form is a rational number. This includes integers, terminating decimals, and repeating decimals as well as fractions.
An integer can be written as a fraction simply by giving it a denominator of one, so any integer is a rational number. ; ;
A terminating decimal can be written as a fraction simply by writing it the way you say it: 3.75 = three and seventy-five hundredths = , then adding if needed to produce a
fraction: . So, any terminating decimal is a rational number. A repeating decimal can be written as a fraction using algebraic methods, so any repeating decimal is a rational number.
Integers: The counting numbers (1, 2, 3, ...), their opposites ( 1, 2, 3, ...), and zero are integers. A common error for students in grade 7 is to assume that the integers account for all (or only) negative numbers. Whole Numbers: Zero and the positive integers are the whole numbers. Natural Numbers: Also called the counting numbers, this set includes all of the whole numbers except zero (1, 2, 3, ....) Irrational Numbers: Any real number that cannot be written in fraction form is an irrational number. These numbers include the non-terminating, non-repeating decimals (pi, 0.45445544455544445555..., 2, etc.). Any square root that is not a perfect root is an irrational number. For example, 1 and 4 are rational because 1 = 1 and 4 = 2, but 2 and 3 are irrational-there are no perfect squares between 1 and 4. All four of these numbers do name points on the number line, but they cannot be written as fractions. When a decimal or fractional approximation for an irrational number is used to compute (as in finding the area of a circle), the answer is always approximate and should clearly indicate this.
Let's make a table of terminating and repeating decimals that are equivalent to fractions with denominators 2 through 9. 1/3 1/5 1/6 1/7 1/8 1/9 = = = = = = = = 0.5 0.333 0.25 0.2 0.16666 0.142857142857 0.125 0.11111111
-all thirds, sevenths, ninths are repeating decimals. -the ninths have a really easy pattern to remember. = 0.111..., = 0.222..., = 0.333..., etc.
-in the sevenths, the same digits repeat in a different order for each numerator.
Say: Writing a terminating decimal as a fraction is simple. You're almost there when you read the decimal. Read the decimal numbers I've written on the board. Tell me whether the fraction form is in simplest form. Students should have no trouble reading these decimals and telling you which have a fraction form with a lesser denominator. Have a student record the fractional forms of these decimals. Ask: Think about the table we've just made. Is there something special about the decimals that have a simpler fractional form? Students should notice that what look like even numbers all simplify, while the odd numbers don't. This isn't exactly what's going on here, so add 0.25 and 0.75 to the list and lead a discussion about what's really happening: When you look at the numerals that make up a decimal number, you're looking at the numerator of a fraction. The denominator is deduced by the placement of the decimal point. If the numerator is a factor of the denominator (as in the case of 0.2, 0.25, 0.5) or if the numerator has a common factor with the denominator (as in the case of 0.4, 0.6, 0.75, 0.8), then there is a simplified fractional form of the decimal. Now erase the table of terminating decimals and replace it with a 2-column table of repeating decimals ( , , , ). Label the columns Decimal, Fraction. Ask: Can anyone fill in the second column of this table? Most of your students should recognize as and as . Some may recognize as
, but it's unlikely that anyone will recognize as . Say: You can use algebra to help you write any repeating decimal as a fraction. Now help students identify the repeating decimal as x. Discuss what happens if you subtract x from 10x, if you subtract 10x from 100x, and so forth. Start with one of the fraction-equivalents they know and demonstrate multiplying the repeating decimal by a power of 10 that lets you eliminate the repeating part using subtraction:
You now have a simple algebraic equation to solve. . Ask: Can you think of several ways to compute the fraction for ? Encourage students to try subtracting 10x -x and 100x 10x to see how their results compare. This exercise leads nicely into figuring out how to find the fractional equivalent for .
A fun exercise is to try writing as a fraction. This method will tell you that = 1. You and the students can have a lively mathematical discussion about why this might be so. Now that students can write rational numbers in either their fractional or their decimal form, help them use this information to compare rational numbers that are very close to each other on the number line and look quite similar in decimal form: 0.6 and ; 0.1 and ; etc. The main points you want students to get from work with terminating and repeating decimals are that they are all rational and that sometimes the fraction form of a number is a little easier to work with than the decimal form (and vice versa).
LCM of Polynomials
Now, we will take two polynomials and we will find the LCM of those polynomial.
Example: Find the LCM of the polynomial given below 2 2 f(x) = x + 5x + 6 and f(x) = x + 6x + 8 Solution: First, we will find the factors of the first polynomial. The factors of the first polynomial will be x + 3x + 2x + 6 2 (x + 3x) + (2x + 6) x (x + 3) + 2(x + 3) Now, we can take x + 3 as common. So, our expression will be, (x + 2) (x + 3), Now, we will take the second polynomial. x + 6x + 8, 2 x + 4x +2x + 8, x (x + 4) + 2(x + 4), We can take x + 4 as common. So, our expression will be, (x + 2) (x + 4) So, in both the expressions, we have (x + 2). So, the required LCM will be x + 2.
2 2
Roots of Polynomials
To find the roots or zeros of a polynomial, we simply need to equate the polynomial to zero and determine the values of variable contained in it. The number of roots or zeros of a polynomial are equal to its degree. Consider $P(x)=x^{2}-3x$ Since the degree of given polynomial is 2, hence it must have 2 roots. To find the zeros of P(x), we take P(x) = 0 $x^{2}-3x=0$ $x(x-3)=0$ $x=0\ and\ x=3$ Therefore, 0 and 3 are two zeros of polynomial P(x).
The end behavior of a polynomial function graph is depending upon following four cases: Case 1: $a> 0$ and n is even In this case, graph rises at both left and right endpoints.
Case 2: $a> 0$ and n is odd In this case, graph falls at left endpoint and rises at right endpoint.
Case 3: $a< 0$ and n is even In this case, graph falls at both left and right endpoints.
Case 4: $a< 0$ and n is odd In this case, graph rises at left endpoint and falls at right endpoint.
Along with above rules, distributive law is also remembered: $a(b+c)=ab+ac$ 4. Division: While dividing, divide each term separately and follow the following rules of exponents:
Polynomial Fractions
To simplify polynomial fraction, we should first factorize both numerator and denominator polynomials and then cancel the common factors if there is any. Let us simplify
$\frac{x^{2}-4}{x+2}$
$\frac{x^{2}-4}{x+2}$ = $\frac{(x+2)(x-2)}{x+2}$
$(x+2)$ in numerator is cancelled out from $(x+2)$ in denominator and we are left with $(x-2)$ =>
$\frac{x^{2}-4}{x+2}$ = x 2
$l+l+1$ =
$\frac{26}{2}$
$2l+1=13$ $2l=12$
$l=6$ Therefore, length = 6 meters Breadth = 6 + 1 = 7 meters. Question 2: A train ticket for an adult is $\$$5 and for a child is $\$$2. Find the general polynomial for the cost of journey for a family of x adults and y children, if it costs $\$$16 to family. Solution: Cost for one adult = $\$$5 Cost for x adults = $\$$5 * x Cost for one child = $\$$2 Cost for y children = $\$$2 * y Cost of journey = 5x + 2y
Polynomial Examples
Solved Examples
Question 1: Determine whether 0, 1, -1, 2 and 3 are the zeros of polynomial $P(x)=x^{3}-2x^{2}-3x$. Solution: Recall that: The number "a" is said to be the root or zero of a polynomial P(x), if P(a) = 0
Substituting x = 0, $P(0)=0^{3}-2 \times 0^{2}-3 \times 0$ =0 Therefore, 0 is a zero of the polynomial P(x).
Substituting x = 1, $P(1)=1^{3}-2 \times 1^{2}-3 \times 1$ = 1 - 2 - 3 $\neq $ 0 Therefore, 1 is not a zero of the polynomial P(x).
Substituting x = 2, $P(1)=2^{3}-2 \times 2^{2}-3 \times 2$ = 8 - 8 - 6 $\neq $ 0 Therefore, 2 is not a zero of the polynomial P(x).
Substituting x = 3, $P(3)=3^{3}-2 \times 3^{2}-3 \times3$ = 27 - 18 - 9 = 0 Therefore, 3 is a zero of the polynomial P(x). Question 2: Factorize the polynomial $27x^{3}-8$. Solution: $27x^{3}-8$ = $(3x)^{3}-2^{3}$ Using the identity $a^{3}-b^{3}=(a-b)(a^{2}+b^{2}+ab)$, we obtain, = $(3x-2)\left \{ (3x)^{2}+2^{2}+3x \times 2 \right \}$ $(3x-2)(9x^{2}+4+6x)$
As you can see, even-degree polynomials are either "up" on both ends (entering and then leaving the graphing "box" through the "top") or "down" on both ends (entering and then leaving through the "bottom"), depending on whether the polynomial has, respectively, a positive or negative leading coefficient. On the other hand, odd-degree polynomials have ends that head off in opposite directions. If they start "down" (entering the graphing "box" through the "bottom") and go "up" (leaving the graphing "box" through the "top"), they're positive polynomials; if they start "up" and go "down", they're negative polynomials.
All even-degree polynomials behave, on their ends, like quadratics, and all odd-degree polynomials behave, on their ends, like cubics. Which of the following could be the graph of a polynomial 4 whose leading term is "3x "?
The important things to consider are the sign and the degree of the leading term. The exponent says that this is a degree-4 polynomial, so the graph will behave roughly like a quadratic: up on both ends or down on both ends. Since the sign on the leading coefficient is negative, the graph will be down on both ends. (The actual value of the negative coefficient, 3 in this case, is actually irrelevant for this problem. All I need is the "minus" part of the leading coefficient.) Clearly Graphs A and C represent odd-degree polynomials, since their two ends head off in opposite directions. Graph D shows both ends passing through the top of the graphing box, just like a positive quadratic would. The only graph with both ends down is: Graph B Describe the end behavior of f(x)
= 3x7 + 5x + 1004
This polynomial is much too large for me to view in the standard screen on my graphing calculator, so either I can waste a lot of time fiddling with WINDOW options, or I can quickly use my knowledge of end behavior. This function is an odd-degree polynomial, so the ends go off in opposite directions, just like every cubic I've ever graphed. A positive cubic enters the graph at the bottom, down on the left, and exits the graph at the top, up on the right. Since the leading coefficient of this odd-degree polynomial is positive, then its end-behavior is going to mimic a positive cubic. "Down" on the left and "up" on the right.
y = (x + 6)(x 7)
y = (x + 6)(x 7)2
x = 6 once x = 7 once
x = 6 once x = 7 twice
y = (x + 6)2 (x 7)
y = (x + 6)2(x 7)2
x = 6 twice x = 7 once
x = 6 twice x = 7 twice
All four graphs have the same zeroes, at x = 6 and at x = 7, but the multiplicity of the zero determines whether the graph crosses the x-axis at that zero or if it instead turns back the way it came. The following graph shows an eighth-degree polynomial. List the polynomial's zeroes with their multiplicities.
I can see from the graph that there are zeroes at x = 15, x = 10, x = 5, x = 0, x = 10, and x = 15, because the graph touches or crosses the x-axis at these points. (At least, I'm assuming that the graph crosses at exactly these points, since the exercise doesn't tell me the exact values. When I'm guessing from a picture, I do have to make certain assumptions.) Since the graph just touches at x = 10 and x = 10, then it must be that these zeroes occur an even number of times. The other zeroes must occur an odd number of times. The odd-multiplicity zeroes might occur only once, or might occur three, five, or more times each; there is no way to tell from the graph. (At least, there's no way to tell yet we'll learn more about that on the next page.) And the even-multiplicity zeroes might occur four, six, or more times each; I can't tell by looking. But if I add up the minimum multiplicity of each, I should end up with the degree, because otherwise this problem is asking for more information than is available for me to give. I've got the four odd-multiplicity zeroes (at x = 15, x = 5, x = 0, and x = 15) and the two even-multiplicity zeroes (at x = 10 and x = 10). Adding up their minimum multiplicities, I get 1 + 2 + 1 + 1 + 2 + 1 = 8, which is the degree of the polynomial. So the minimum multiplicities are the correct multiplicities.
x = 15 with multiplicity 1, x = 10 with multiplicity 2, x = 5 with multiplicity 1, x = 0 with multiplicity 1, x = 10 with multiplicity 2, and x = 15 with multiplicity 1
I was able to compute the multiplicities of the zeroes in part from the fact that the multiplicities will add up to the degree of the polynomial, or two less, or four less, etc, depending on how many complex zeroes there might be. But multiplicity problems don't usually get into complex numbers.
More About Zeroes and Their Multiplicities: "Flexing" at the Axis (page 3 of 5)
There's an extra detail I'd like to mention regarding the multiplicity of a zero and the graph of the polynomial: You can tell from the graph whether an odd-multiplicity zero occurs only once or if it occurs more than once. What is the multiplicity of x = 5, given that the graph shows a fifth-degree polynomial with all real-number roots, and the root x = 5 has a multiplicity of 2?
The intercept at x = 5 is of multiplicity 2. The polynomial is of degree 5, so the zero at x = 5, the only other zero, must use up the rest of the multiplicities. Since 5 2 = 3, then
x = 5 must be of multiplicity 3.
The zero at x = 5 had to be of odd multiplicity, since the graph went through the x-axis. But the graph flexed a bit (the "flexing" being that bendy part of the graph) right in the area of x = 5. This flexing is what tells you that the multiplicity of x = 5 had to be more than just 1. In this particular case, the multiplicity couldn't have been 5 or 7 or more, because the degree of the whole polynomial was only 5,but the multiplicity certainly had to be more than just 1. Keep this in mind: Any odd-multiplicity zero that flexes at the crossing point, like this graph did at x = 5, is of multiplicity 3 or more. Note: If you get that odd flexing behavior at some location on the graph that is off the x-axis (above or below the axis), then you're probably looking at the effect of complex zeroes; namely, the zeroes that you'd find by using the Quadratic Formula, the zeroes that don't correspond to the graph crossing the xaxis. Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 2005-2011 All Rights Reserved Which of the following graphs could represent the polynomial f(x) = a(x b)2(x c)3?
Whatever this polynomial is, it is of degree 5. (I know this by adding the degrees on the two repeated factors: if I multiplied everything out, the degree on the leading term would be 5.) Since the polynomial is of odd degree, Graph A can't be correct, because its ends both go the same direction, meaning it is an even-degree polynomial. Since my polynomial has two real-number zeroes (namely, zeroes at x = b and at x = c), I know that Graph C can't be right: it only crosses the x-axis once. So Graph C may be of odd degree, but it doesn't have enough zeroes. From the end behavior, I can see that Graph D is of odd degree. Also, I know that the negative zero has an even multiplicity because the graph just touches the axis; this zero could correspond to x = b. But there is no flexing where the graph crosses the positive x-axis, so the odd zero here must have a multiplicity of only 1, and I need the multiplicity of this zero to be more than just 1. So Graph D might have the right overall degree (if the zero x = b is of multiplicity 1), but the multiplicities of the two zeroes don't match up with what I need.
On the other hand, the ends of the graph tell me that Graph B is of odd degree, and the way the graph touches or crosses the x-axis at the two graphed x-intercepts tells me that the polynomial being graphed has one even-multiplicity zero and one odd-and-more-than-1-multiplicity zero. This matches what I need. The correct graph is Graph B. Find the degree-7 polynomial corresponding to the following graph, given that one of the zeroes has multiplicity 3.
From the graph, I can see that there are zeroes of even multiplicity at x = 4 and x = 4. The zero at x = 1 must be the zero of multiplicity 3. (This matches the graph, since the line goes through the axis, but flexes as it does so, telling me that the multiplicity must be odd and must be more than 1.) Since the total degree of the polynomial is 7, and I already have multiplicities of 2, 2, and 3 (which adds up to 7), then the zeroes at 4 and 4 must be of multiplicity 2, rather than multiplicity 4 or multiplicity 6 or something bigger. Working backwards from the zeroes, I get the following expression for the polynomial:
= 1/900, and the polynomial, in factored form, is: y = ( 1/900 )(x + 4)2(x + 1)3(x 4)2
The exercise didn't say that I had to multiply this out, so I'm not going to. The factored form (especially for something as huge as this) should be a completely acceptable form of the answer.
Compare the numbers of bumps in the graphs below to the degrees of their polynomials:
degree two
degree 3
degree 3
degree 4
degree 4
two bumps
degree 5
degree 6
four bumps
five bumps
You can see from these graphs that, for degree n, the graph will have, at most, n 1 bumps. The bumps represent the spots where the graph turns back on itself and heads back the way it came. This change of direction often happens because of the polynomial's zeroes or factors. But extra pairs of factors don't show up in the graph as much more than just a little extra flexing or flattening in the graph. Because pairs of factors have this habit of disappearing from the graph (or hiding as a little bit of extra flexture or flattening), the graph may have two fewer, or four fewer, or six fewer, etc, bumps than you might otherwise expect, or it may have flex points instead of some of the bumps. That is, the degree of the polynomial gives you the upper limit (the ceiling) on the number of bumps possible for the graph (this upper limit being one less than the degree of the polynomial), and the number of bumps gives you the lower limit (the floor) on degree of the polynomial.
Since there are four bumps on the graph, and since the end-behavior says that this is an odddegree polynomial, then the degree of the polynomial is 5, or 7, or 9, or... But: The minimum possible degree is 5. Given that a polynomial is of degree six, which of the following could be its graph?
To answer this question, I have to remember that the polynomial's degree gives me the ceiling on the number of bumps. In this case, the degree is 6, so the highest number of bumps the graph could have would be 6 1 = 5. But the graph, depending on the multiplicities of the zeroes, might have only 3 or 1 bumps. (I would add 1 or 3 or 5, etc, if I were going from the number of displayed bumps on the graph to the possible degree of the polynomial, but here I'm going from the known degree of the polynomial to the possible graph, so I subtract.) Also, I'll want to check the zeroes (and their multiplicities) to see if they give me any additional information. Graph A: This shows one bump (so not too many), but only two zeroes, each looking like a multiplicity-1 zero. This is probably just a quadratic, but it might possibly be a sixth-degree polynomial (with four of the zeroes being complex). Graph B: This has seven bumps, so this is a polynomial of degree at least 8, which is too high. Graph C: This has three bumps (so not too many), it's an even-degree polynomial (being "up" on both ends), and the zero in the middle is an even-multiplicity zero. Also, the bump in the middle
looks flattened, so this is probably a zero of multiplicity 4 or more. With the two other zeroes looking like multiplicity-1 zeroes, this is a likely graph for a sixth-degree polynomial. Graph D: This has six bumps, which is too many. On top of that, this is an odd-degree graph, since the ends head off in opposite directions. This can't be a sixth-degree polynomial. Graph E: From the end-behavior, I can tell that this graph is from an even-degree polynomial. The one bump is fairly flat, so this is probably more than just a quadratic. This might be a sixthdegree polynomial. Graph F: This is an even-degree polynomial, and it has five bumps (and a flex point at that third zero). But looking at the zeroes, I've got an even-multiplicity zero, a zero that looks like multiplicity-1, a zero that looks like at least a multiplicity-3, and another even-multiplicity zero. That gives me a minimum of 2 + 1 + 3 + 2 = 8 zeroes, which is too many for a degree-six polynomial. The bumps were right, but the zeroes were wrong. This can't be a degree-six graph. Graph G: This is another odd-degree graph. Graph H: From the ends, I can see that this is an even-degree graph, and there aren't too many bumps, seeing as there's only the one. Looking at the two zeroes, they both look like at least multiplicity-3 zeroes. So this could very well be a degree-six polynomial. Graphs B, D, F, and G can't possibly be graphs of degree-six polynomials. Graphs A and E might be degree-six, and Graphs C and H probably are. To help you keep straight when to add and when to subtract, remember your graphs of quadratics and cubics. Quadratics are degree-two polynomials and have one bump (always); cubics are degree-three polynomials and have two bumps or none (having a flex point instead). So going from your polynomial to your graph, you subtract, and going from your graph to your polynomial, you add. If you know your quadratics and cubics very well, and if you remember that you're dealing with families of polynomials and their family characteristics, you shouldn't have any trouble with this sort of exercise.
x = 5, with multiplicity 2 (so the graph will be just touching the x-axis here) x = 1, with multiplicity 1 (so the graph will be crossing the axis here)
x = 4, with multiplicity 3 (so the graph will be crossing the axis here, but also flexing) x = 7, with multiplicity 1 (so the graph will be just crossing the axis here)
Also, adding the degrees of the factors, I see that this is a polynomial of degree seven (that is, an odd degree), so the ends will head off in opposite directions. Because the leading coefficient is negative, the lefthand end will be "up" (coming down from the top of the graph) and the right-hand end will go "down" (heading off the bottom of the graph). So I can start my graph by pencilling in the zeroes, the behavior near the zeroes, and the ends, like this:
If I multiplied this polynomial out (and I'm not going to, so don't hold your breath), the constant terms of the factors would give me 5 5 1 (4) (4) ( 4) (7) = 11 200, which is rather large. This would explain the large denominator of the leading coefficient: by dividing the polynomial by a sufficientlylarge number, they made this polynomial graphable. Otherwise, the graph would likely go off the picture between the zeroes. (Not all texts notice this, so don't worry about this consideration if it doesn't come up in class.) When x = 0, I get a y-value of (1/5600)(11 200) = 2, so I can pencil this in, too: I'm not supposed to find other plot points, so I'll just sketch in a rough guess as to what the graph looks like. I'll go further from the axis where there is more space between the zeroes, and I won't be so primitive as to assume that the y-intercept point is the minimum point, what with the midpoint between the two nearest zeroes, x = 1 and x = 4, being at x = 1.5. Granted, the flexy zero at x = 4 will probably push the graph a little to the left, but the bump is still probably to the right of the y-axis.
So I'll "rough in" an approximate drawing, and then draw my final answer as a heavier line, erasing my preliminary sketch-marks before I hand in my solution.
This compares favorably with the actual graph of the polynomial: Some of my details (like my max and min points) were a little off, but my overall sketch was still pretty good.
Trigonometric Identities
Basic and Pythagorean Identities
Notice how a "co-(something)" trig ratio is always the reciprocal of some "non-co" ratio. You can use this fact to help you keep straight that cosecant goes with sine and secant goes with cosine.
Double-Angle Identities
sin(2x) = 2sin(x)cos(x) cos(2x) = cos2(x) sin2(x) = 1 2sin2(x) = 2cos2(x) 1
Sum Identities
Product Identities
You will be using all of these identities, or nearly so, for proving other trig identities and for solving trig equations. However, if you're going on to study calculus, pay particular attention to the restated sine and cosine half-angle identities, because you'll be using them a lot in integral calculus.
To prove an identity, your instructor may have told you that you cannot work on both sides of the equation at the same time. This is correct. You can work on both sides together for a regular equation, because you're trying to find where the equation is true. When you are working with an identity, if you work on both sides and work down to where the sides are equal, you will only have shown that, if the starting equation is true, then you can arrive at another true equation. But you won't have proved, logically, that the original equation was actually true. Since you'll be working with two sides of an equation, it might be helpful to introduce some notation, if you haven't seen it before. The "left-hand side" of an equation is denoted by LHS, and the "right-hand side" is denoted as RHS.
Prove the identity It's usually a safe bet to start working on the side that appears to be more complicated. In this case, that would be the LHS. Another safe bet is to convert things to sines and cosines, and see where that leads. So my first step will be to convert the cotangent and cosecant into their alternative expressions:
That final string of equations is what they're wanting for your answer.
Prove the identity I'm not sure which side is more complicated, so I'll just start on the left. My first step is to convert everything to sines and cosines: Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 2010-2011 All Rights Reserved
When I get fractions, it's almost always a good idea to get a common denominator, so I'll do that next:
Now that I have a common denominator, I can combine these fractions into one:
Looking back at the RHS of the original identity, I notice that this denominator could be helpful. I'll split the product into two fractions:
And now I can finish up by converting these fractions to their reciprocal forms:
(I wrote them in the reverse order, to match the RHS.) The complete answer is all of the steps together, starting with the LHS and ending up with the RHS:
(x) + cos2(x), is always equal to 1, so I can ignore it. This leaves me with:
sin2(x) cos2(x)
Hmm... I'm not seeing much of anything here. But I do know, glancing back at the RHS of the identity, that I need more sines and fewer cosines. I think I'll try using the Pythagorean identity 2 2 2 that simplified that first factor, but in a slightly different form. If sin (x) + cos (x) = 1, then cos (x) 2 = 1 sin (x), and:
sin4(x) cos4(x) = (sin2(x) + cos2(x))(sin2(x) cos2(x)) = 1(sin2(x) cos2(x)) = sin2(x) cos2(x) = sin2(x) (1 sin2(x)) = sin2(x) 1 + sin2(x) = sin2(x) + sin2(x) 1 = 2sin2(x) 1
Prove the identity (1 cos ())(1 + cos ()) = 2sin () sin () I think I'll start by multiplying out the LHS:
2 2 2 4
(1 cos2())(1 + cos2()) = sin2()[1 + cos2()] = sin2()[1 + cos2() sin2() + sin2()] = sin2()[1 sin2() + sin2() + cos2()] = sin2()[1 sin2() + 1] = sin2()[2 sin2()] = 2sin2() sin4()
This is how the textbook authors come up with those magical proofs, where you wonder how on earth they ever came up with one or another of the steps. There will be times you'll need to do this. But, for your hand-in work, make sure you do the work the right way: Work down one side to the meeting place, and then hop over to the other side and work back up to the starting place. Only by showing your steps in that way will your proof be valid. Prove the identity sin ()sec () + sin ()csc () = sec () Clearly, the LHS is the more complicated side, so I'll start there, and will convert everything to sines and cosines:
2 2 2 2 2
The first fraction simplifies to the tangent, and the second fraction simplifies to 1.
tan2() + 1 = sec2()
...and that's what I needed to end up with. Putting it all together:
In addition to the "working on the more complicated side" and the "converting to sines and cosines" tricks, there is one other trick that hardly ever comes up, but you might want to be familiar with it....
Prove the identity This is just a mess! The only stuff I have with 1's in them are the Pythagorean identities, and they have squared stuff in them. So they won't work here. But what will happen if I multiply the LHS, top and bottom, by the "conjugate" of the denominator? The denominator can be stated as [sin() + cos()] 1; then the conjugate would be [sin() + cos()] + 1. I'll multiply the bottom by this; since this creates a difference of squares, the result is:
sin2() + cos2() + 2sin()cos() 1 1 + 2sin()cos() 1 2sin()cos() Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 2010-2011 All Rights Reserved
Now for the numerator. Just as when I was working with complexes and radicals back in algebra, the multiplication across the top is going to get pretty nasty!
Well, while the denominator sure simplified, I've still got some work to do with the numerator. I'll move the sine out in front of the squared terms, and then restate the 1 using the Pythagorean identity:
2sin() + sin2() cos2() + 1 2sin() + sin2() cos2() + sin2() + cos2() 2sin() + 2sin2()
...because the squared cosine terms cancelled out. So this is my fraction for the LHS:
Don't expect always, or even usually, to be able to "see" the solution when you start. Be willing to try different things. If one attempt isn't working, try a different approach. Identities usually work out, if you give yourself enough time.
The Quadratic Formula uses the "a", "b", and "c" from "ax + bx + c", where "a", "b", and "c" are just numbers; they are the "numerical coefficients" of the quadratic equation they've given you to solve. The Quadratic Formula is derived from the process of completing the square, and is formally stated as:
2
For ax
For the Quadratic Formula to work, you must have your equation arranged in the form "(quadratic) = 0". Also, the "2a" in the denominator of the Formula is underneath everything above, not just the square root. And it's a "2a" under there, not just a plain "2". Make sure that you are careful not to drop the square root or the "plus/minus" in the middle of your calculations, or I can guarantee that you will forget to "put them 2 back" on your test, and you'll mess yourself up. Remember that "b " means "the square of ALL of b, 2 including its sign", so don't leave b being negative, even if b is negative, because the square of a negative is a positive. In other words, don't be sloppy and don't try to take shortcuts, because it will only hurt you in the long run. Trust me on this!
Here are some examples of how the Quadratic Formula works: Solve x + 3x 4 = 0 This quadratic happens to factor:
2
x2 + 3x 4 = (x + 4)(x 1) = 0
...so I already know that the solutions are x = 4 and x = 1. How would my solution look in the Quadratic Formula? Using a = 1, b = 3, and c = 4, my solution looks like this:
= 4, x = 1.
Suppose you have ax + bx + c = y, and you are told to plug zero in for y. The corresponding x-values 2 are the x-intercepts of the graph. So solving ax + bx + c = 0 for x means, among other things, that you
are trying to find x-intercepts. Since there were two solutions for x-intercepts on the graph. Graphing, we get the curve below:
As you can see, the x-intercepts (the red dots above) match the solutions, crossing the x-axis at x = 4 and x = 1. This shows the connection between graphing and solving: When you are solving "(quadratic) = 0", you are finding the x-intercepts of the graph. This can be useful if you have a graphing calculator, because you can use the Quadratic Formula (when necessary) to solve a quadratic, and then use your graphing calculator to make sure that the displayed x-intercepts have the same decimal values as do the solutions provided by the Quadratic Formula. Note, however, that the calculator's display of the graph will probably have some pixel-related round-off error, so you'd be checking to see that the computed and graphed values were reasonably close; don't expect an exact match. Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 2000-2011 All Rights Reserved
Solve 2x 4x 3 = 0. Round your answer to two decimal places, if necessary. There are no factors of (2)(3) = 6 that add up to 4, so I know that this quadratic cannot be factored. I will apply the Quadratic Formula. In this case, a = 2, b = 4, and c = 3:
Warning: The "solution" or "roots" or "zeroes" of a quadratic are usually required to be in the "exact" form of the answer. In the example above, the exact form is the one with the square roots of ten in it. You'll need to get a calculator approximation in order to graph the x-intercepts or to simplify the final answer in a word problem. But unless you have a good reason to think that the answer is supposed to be a rounded answer, always go with the exact form. Compare the solutions of 2x intercepts of the graph:
2
4x 3 = 0 with the x-
Just as in the previous example, the x-intercepts match the zeroes from the Quadratic Formula. This is always true. The "solutions" of an equation are also the x-intercepts of the corresponding graph.
x(x 2) = 4 x2 2x = 4 x2 2x 4 = 0
Since there are no factors of (1)(4) = 4 that add up to 2, then this quadratic does not factor. (In other words, there is no possible way that the faux-factoring solution of "x = 4, x 2 = 4" could be even slightly correct.) So factoring won't work, but I can use the Quadratic Formula; in this case, a = 1, b = 2, and c = 4: Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 2000-2011 All Rights Reserved
There is a connection between the solutions from the Quadratic Formula and the graph of the parabola: you can tell how many x-intercepts you're going to have from the value inside the square root. The 2 argument of the square root, the expression b 4ac, is called the "discriminant" because, by using its value, you can discriminate between (tell the differences between) the various solution types. Solve 9x + 12x + 4 = 0. Using a
2
= 2 /3
In the previous examples, I had gotten two solutions because of the "plus-minus" part of the Formula. In this case, though, the square root reduced to zero, so the plus-minus didn't count for anything. This solution is called a "repeated" root, because x is equal to /3, but it's equal kind of twice: /3 + 0 2 2 and /3 0. You can also see this repetition better if you factor: 9x + 12x + 4 = (3x + 2)(3x + 2) = 0, 2 2 so x = /3 and x = /3. Any time you get zero in the square root of the Quadratic Formula, you'll only get one solution. The square-root part of the Quadratic Formula is called "the discriminant", I suppose because you can use it to discriminate between whether the given quadratic has two solutions, one solution, or no solutions. This is what the graph looks like:
2 2
The parabola only just touches the x-axis at x = /3; it doesn't actually cross. This is always true: if you have a root that appears exactly twice, then the graph will "kiss" the axis there, but not pass through. Solve 3x + 4x + 2 = 0. Since there are no factors of (3)(2) = 6 that add up to 4, this quadratic does not factor. But the Quadratic Formula always works; in this case, a = 3, b = 4, and c = 2:
2
At this point, I have a negative number inside the square root. If you haven't learned about complex numbers yet, then you would have to stop here, and the answer would be "no solution"; if you do know about complex numbers, then you can continue the calculations:
If you do not know about complexes, then your answer would be "no solution". If you do know about complexes, then you would say there there is a "complex solution" and would give the answer (shown above) with the " i " in it. But whether or not you know about complexes, you know that you cannot graph your answer, because you cannot graph the square root of a negative number. There are no such values on the x-axis. Since you can't find a graphable solution to the quadratic, then reasonably there should not be any x-intercept (because you can graph an x-intercept). Here's the graph:
This relationship is always true: If you get a negative value inside the square root, then there will be no real number solution, and therefore no x-intercepts. (The relationship between the value inside the square root, the type of solutions, and the number of x-intercepts on the graph is summarized in a chart on the next page.)
x2 + 2x 1 = 0
Letting a
The x-intercepts (that is, the solutions from above) are marked in red.
This relationship between the value inside the square root (the discriminant), the type of solutions (two different solutions, one repeated solution, or no real solutions), and the number of x-intercepts (on the corresponding graph) of the quadratic is summarized in this table:
x2 2 x 3
x2 6 x + 9
x2 + 3 x + 3
no x-intercepts
Probably the most important thing to remember when using the Quadratic Formula (other than the Formula itself, which you should memorize) is that you must do each step clearly and completely, so you don't lose your denominators or plus-minuses or square roots. Don't skip stuff, and you should do fine. Warning: If you get in the habit of "forgetting" the square root sign until the end when the back of the book "reminds" you that you "meant" to put it in, I'll bet good money that you'll mess up on your test. If you get in the habit of "forgetting" the plus/minus sign until the answer in the back "reminds" you that it belongs in there, then you will almost certainly miss every single problem where the answer doesn't have a square root symbol in it to "remind" you to put the plus/minus sign back in. That is, any time your answer is supposed to be something like "x = 5 10", you will put down "x = 5 + 10 = 15", and will have no idea how the book (or test) got the second answer of "x = 5". If you get sloppy with the denominator "2a",
either by forgetting the "a" or by not dividing the entire numerator by this value, you will consistenly get the wrong answers.
I've been grading homework and tests for too many years to be kidding about this. Really, truly; you want to do your work neatly and completely every single time!
To show the summation of, say, the first through tenth terms of a sequence following:
The "n = 1" is the "lower index", telling us that "n" is the counter and that the counter starts at "1"; the "10" is the "upper index", telling us that a10 will be the last term added in this series; "an" stands for the terms that we'll be adding. The whole thing is pronounced as "the sum, from n equals one to ten, of asub-n". The summation symbol above means the following:
a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6 + a7 + a8 + a9 + a10
The written-out form above is called the "expanded" form of the series, in contrast with the more compact "sigma" notation. Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 2006-2011 All Rights Reserved Any letter can be used for the index, but i,
Sequences and series are most useful when there is a formula for their terms. For instance, if the formula for an is "2n + 3", then you can find the value of any term by plugging the value of n into the formula. For instance, a8 = 2(8) + 3 = 16 + 3 = 19. In words, "an = 2n + 3" can be read as "the n-th term is given by two-enn plus three". The word "n-th" is pronounced "ENN-eth", and just means "the generic term an, where I haven't yet specified the value of n." Of course, there doesn't have to be a formula for the n-th term of a sequence. The values of the terms can be utterly random, having no relationship between n and the value of an. But sequences with random terms are hard to work with and are less useful in general, so you're not likely to see many of them in your classes.
Find the value of The index of a3 is n = 3, so they're asking me for the third term, which is "5". The "value" they're asking for is the total, the sum, of all the terms an from a1 to a5; in other words:
a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = 25
value of a3: 5 value of sum: 25 Expand the following series and find the sum:
To find each term, I'll plug the value of n = 0 and ending with n = 4.
{a1, a2, a3, a4} = {12, 22, 32, 42} = {1, 4, 9, 16}
List the first four terms of the following sequence, beginning with n = 0:
Many sequences and series contain factorials, and this is one of them. I'll evaluate in the usual way:
Notice how, in that last example above, raising the 1 to the power n made the signs alternate. This alternating pattern of signs crops up a lot, especially in calculus, so try to keep this "raising 1 to the power n" trick in mind. Find the sum of the first six terms of An, where an = 2an1 + an2, a1 = 1, and a2 = 1. This formula looks much worse than it really is; I just have to give myself some time, and dissect the formula carefully. They gave me the values of the first two terms, and then they gave me a formula that says that each term (after the first two terms) is a sum formed from the previous two terms. Plugging into the formula, I get:
a3 = 2a31 + a32 = 2a2 + a1 = 2(1) + (1) = 2 + 1 = 3 a4 = 2a41 + a42 = 2a3 + a2 = 2(3) + (1) = 6 + 1 = 7 a5 = 2a51 + a52 = 2a4 + a3 = 2(7) + (3) = 14 + 3 = 17 a6 = 2a61 + a62 = 2a5 + a4 = 2(17) + (7) = 34 + 7 = 41
Now that I've found the values of the third through the sixth terms, I can find the value of the series; the sum is:
1 + 1 + 3 + 7 + 17 + 41 = 70
2 4 + 6 8 + 10
The first thing I have to do is figure out a relationship between n and the terms in the summation. This series is pretty easy, though: each term an is twice n, so there is clearly a "2n" in the n formula. I also have the alternating sign. If I use (1) , I'll get 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, which is backwards (on the signs) from what I want. But I can switch the signs by throwing in one more factor of 1:
The only thing that changes from one term to the next is one of the numbers in the denominator. (If I "simplify" these fractions, I'll lose this information. Any time the terms of my sequence or series look oddly lumpy, I tend not to simplify those terms: that odd lumpiness almost certainly contains a hint of the pattern I need to find.) The changing numbers, as a list, are 6, 7, and 8. This looks like counting, but starting with 6 instead of 1. Without any information to the contrary, I'll assume that this is the pattern. But I need to relate these "counting" values to the counter, the index, n. For n = 1, the number is 6, or n + 5. For n = 2, the number is 7, which is also n + 5. Checking the pattern for n = 3, 3 + 5 = 8, which is the third number. Then the terms seems to be in the following pattern:
But how many terms are in the summation? The ellipsis (the "..." or "dot, dot, dot" in the middle) means that terms were omitted. However, now that I have the general pattern for the series terms, I can solve for the counter (the value of n) in the last term:
31 = n + 5 31 5 = n + 5 5 n = 26
If the fractions (above) had been simplified and reduced, it would have been a lot harder to figure out a pattern. Unless the sequence is very simple or is presented in a very straightforward manner, it is possible that you won't be able to find a pattern, or might find a "wrong" pattern. Don't let this bother you terribly much: the "right" pattern is just the one that the author had in mind when he wrote the problem. Your pattern would be "wrong" only in that it is unexpected. But if you can present your work sensibly and mathematically, you should be able to talk your way into getting at least partial credit for your answer. Once you've learned the basic notation and terminology, you should quickly move on to the two common and straightforward sequence types....
11 3 = 8 19 11 = 8 27 19 = 8 35 27 = 8
The difference is always 8, so d
Find the common ratio and the seventh term of the following sequence: 2/9, 2/3, 2, 6, 18,... To find the common ratio, I have to divide a pair of terms. It doesn't matter which pair I pick, as long as they're right next to each other:
Since arithmetic and geometric sequences are so nice and regular, they have formulas. For arithmetic sequences, the common difference is d, and the first term a1 is often referred to simply as "a". Since you get the next term by adding the common difference, the value of a2 is just a + d. The third term is a3 = (a + d) + d = a + 2d. The fourth term is a4 = (a + 2d) + d = a + 3d. Following this pattern, the n-th term an will have the form an = a + (n 1)d. For geometric sequences, the common ratio is r, and the first term a1 is often referred to simply as "a". Since you get the next term by multiplying by the common ratio, the value of a2 is just ar. The third term 2 2 3 is a3 = r(ar) = ar . The fourth term is a4 = r(ar ) = ar . Following this pattern, the n-th term an will have (n 1) the form an = ar . Find the tenth term and the n-th term of the following sequence:
1/2, 1, 2, 4, 8,...
The differences don't match: 2 1 = 1, but 4 2 = 2. So this isn't an arithmetic sequence. On the other hand, the ratios are the same: 2 1 = 2, 4 2 = 2, 8 4 = 2. So this is a geometric sequence with common ratio r = 2 and a = 1/2. To find the tenth and n-th terms, I can just plug (n 1) into the formula an = ar :
= 5 and d
The n-th term of an arithmetic sequence is of the form an = a + (n 1)d. In this case, that formula gives me a6 = a + (6 1)(3/2) = 5. Solving this formula for the value of the first term of the sequence, I get a = 5/2. Then:
= 93 and
Since a4 and a8 are four places apart, then I know from the definition of an arithmetic sequence that a8 = a4 + 4d. Using this, I can then solve for the common difference d:
65 = 93 + 4d 28 = 4d 7 = d
Also, I know that a4 the first term a:
= a + (4 1)d, so, using the value I just found for d, I can find the value of
93 = a + 3(7) 93 + 21 = a 114 = a
Once I have the value of the first term and the value of the common difference, I can plug-n-chug to find the values of the first three terms and the general form of the n-th term:
These two terms are 12 5 = 7 places apart, so, from the definition of a geometric sequence, I 7 know that a12 = ( a5 )( r ). I can use this to solve for the value of the common ratio r:
= ar4, then I can solve for the value of the first term a:
= 1, is:
The sum is, in effect, n times the "average" of the first and last terms. This sum of the first n terms is called "the n-th partial sum". (By the way: The above summation formula can be proved using induction.) Find the 35th partial sum of an = (1/2)n + 1 The 35th partial sum of this sequence is the sum of the first thirty-five terms. The first few terms of the sequence are:
Subtracting, I get:
By the way, another notation for the summation of the first fifteen terms is "S15", so the subtraction could also be expressed as "S47 S15". Formatting note: Since this was just a summation, it's safe to assume that "2 n 5" is the expression being summed. However (and especially if you're dealing with something more complex), sometimes grouping symbols may be necessary to make the meaning clear: Find the value of n for which the following equation is true:
I know that the first term is a1 = 0.25(1) + 2 = 2.25. I can see from the formula that each term will be 0.25 units bigger than the previous term, so this is an arithmetical series. Then the summation formula for arithmetical series gives me:
(n/2)(2.25 + [0.25n + 2]) = 21 n(2.25 + 0.25n + 2) = 42 n(0.25n + 4.25) = 42 0.25n2 + 4.25n 42 = 0 n2 + 17n 168 = 0 (n + 24)(n 7) = 0
Solving the quadratic, I get that n
n=7
You could do the above exercise by adding terms until you get to the required total of "21". But your instructor could easily give you a summation that requires, say, eighty-six terms before you get the right total. So make sure you can do the computations from the formula. Find the sum of 1 + 5 + 9 + ... + 49 + 53.
Checking the terms, I can see that this is indeed an arithmetic series: 5 1 = 4, 49 = 4. I've got the first and last terms, but how many terms are there in total? I have the n-th term formula, "an = a1 + (n 1)d", and I have a1 into the formula, I can figure out how many terms there are:
9 5 = 4, 53
an = a1 + (n 1)d 53 = 1 + (n 1)(4) 53 = 1 + 4n 4 53 = 4n 3 56 = 4n 14 = n
So there are 14 terms in this series. Now I have all the information I need:
You can take the sum of a finite number of terms of a geometric sequence. And, for reasons you'll study in calculus, you can take the sum of an infinite geometric sequence, but only in the special circumstance that the common ratio r is between 1 and 1; that is, you have to have | r | < 1. For a geometric sequence with first term a1 = a and common ratio r, the sum of the first n terms is given by: Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 2006-2011 All Rights Reserved
Note: Your book may have a slightly different form of the partial-sum formula above. For instance, the "a" may be multiplied through the numerator, the factors in the fraction might be reversed, or the summation may start at i = 0 and have a power of n + 1 on the numerator. All of these forms are equivalent, and the formulation above may be derived from polynomial long division. In the special case that
| r | < 1, the infinite sum exists and has the following value:
The first few terms are 6, 12, 24, so this is a geometric series with common ratio r = 2. (I can also tell that this must be a geometric series because of the form given for each term: as the index increases, each term will be multiplied by an additional factor of 2.) The first term of the sequence is a = 6. Plugging into the summation formula, I get:
097 150
The notation "S10" means that I need to find the sum of the first ten terms. The first term is a = 250. Dividing pairs of terms, I get 100 250 = 2/5, 40 100 = 2/5, etc, so the terms being added form a geometric sequence with common ratio r = 2/5. When I plug in the values of the first term and the common ratio, the summation formula gives me:
Note: If you try to do the above computations in your calculator, it may very well return the decimal approximation of 416.62297... instead of the fractional (and exact) answer. As you can see in the screen-capture to the right, entering the values in fractional form and using the "convert to fraction" command still results in just a decimal approximation to the answer. But (warning!) the decimal approximation will almost certain be regarded as a "wrong" answer! Take the time to find the fractional form! Find an if S4 = 26/27 and r = 1/3. They've given me the sum of the first four terms, S4, and the value of the common ratio r. Since there is a common ratio, I know this must be a geometric series. Plugging into the geometricseries-sum formula, I get:
a = a1, I get:
Then:
Show, by use of a geometric series, that 0.3333... is equal to 1/3. There's a trick to this. I first have to break the repeating decimal into separate terms:
Then 0.333... is an infinite geometric series with a the formula for summing infinite geometric series:
Using the summation formula to show that the geometric series "expansion" of 0.333... has a value of one-third is the "showing" that the exercise asked for. You can use this method to convert any repeating decimal to its fractional form: By use of a geometric series, convert 1.363636... to fractional form. First I'll break this into its constituent parts, so I can find the pattern:
Then this is the leading "1", plus a geometric series having a sum is:
Note: This technique can also be used to convert any repeating decimal into fractional form, and also can be used to prove that 0.999... = 1.
y = mx + b
This is called the slope-intercept form because "m" is the slope and "b" gives the y-intercept. (For a review of how this equation is used for graphing, look at slope and graphing.) I like slope-intercept form the best. It is in the form "y=", which makes it easiest to plug into, either for graphing or doing word problems. Just plug in your x-value; the equation is already solved for y. Also, this is the only format you can plug into your (nowadays obligatory) graphing calculator; you have to have a "y=" format to use a graphing utility. But the best part about the slope-intercept form is that you can read off the slope and the intercept right from the equation. This is great for graphing, and can be quite useful for word problems. C Common exercises will give you some pieces of information about a line, and you will have to come up with the equation of the line. How do you do that? You plug in whatever they give you, and solve for whatever you need, like this: Find the equation of the straight line that has slope m = 4 and passes through the point (1, 6). Okay, they've given me the value of the slope; in this case, m = 4. Also, in giving me a point on the line, they have given me an x-value and a y-value for this line: x = 1 and y = 6. In the slope-intercept form of a straight line, I have y, m, x, and b. So the only thing I don't have so far is a value for is b (which gives me the y-intercept). Then all I need to do is plug in what they gave me for the slope and the x and y from this particular point, and then solve for b:
y = mx + b (6) = (4)(1) + b 6 = 4 + b 2 = b
Then the line equation must be "y = What if they don't give you the slope? Find the equation of the line that passes through the points (2, 4) and (1, 2). Well, if I have two points on a straight line, I can always find the slope; that's what the slope formula is for.
4x 2".
Now I have the slope and two points. I know I can find the equation (by solving first for " b") if I have a point and the slope. So I need to pick one of the points (it doesn't matter which one), and use it to solve for b. Using the point (2, 4), I get:
y = mx + b 2 = ( 2/3)(1) + b 2 = 2 /3 + b 2 + 2 /3 = b 6 /3 + 2/3 = b b = 8 /3
So it doesn't matter which point I choose. Either way, the answer is the same:
y = ( 2/3)x + 8/3
As you can see, once you have the slope, it doesn't matter which point you use in order to find the line equation. The answer will work out the same either way.
y y1 = m(x x1)
Don't let the subscripts scare you. They are just intended to indicate the point they give you. You have the generic "x" and generic "y" that are always in your equation, and then you have the specific x and y from the point they gave you; the specific x and y are what is subscripted in the formula. Here's how you use the point-slope formula: Find the equation of the straight line that has slope m = 4 and passes through the point (1, 6). This is the same line that I found on the previous page, so I already know what the answer is (namely, y = 4x 2). But let's see how the process works with the point-slope formula. They've given me m and solve for "y=":
y y1 = m(x x1) y (6) = (4)(x (1)) y + 6 = 4(x + 1) y + 6 = 4x + 4 y = 4x + 4 6 y = 4x 2 Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 2000-2011 All Rights Reserved
This matches the result I got when I plugged into the slope-intercept form. This shows that it really doesn't matter which method you use (unless the text or teacher specifies). You can get the same answer either way, so use whichever method works more comfortably for you. You can find the straight-line equation using the point-slope form if they just give you a couple points: Find the equation of the line that passes through the points (2, 4) and (1, 2). I've already answered this one, but let's look at the process. I should get the same result (namely, y = ( 2/3 ) x + 8/3 ). Given two points, I can always find the slope:
Then I can use either point as my (x1, y1), along with this slope Ive just calculated, and plug in to the point-slope form. Using (2, 4) as the (x1, y1), I get:
y y1 = m(x x1) y (4) = ( 2/3 )(x (2)) y 4 = ( 2/3 )(x + 2) y 4 = ( 2/3 ) x 4/3 y = ( 2/3 ) x 4/3 + 4 y = ( 2/3 ) x 4/3 + 12/3 y = ( 2/3 ) x + 8/3
This is the same answer I got when I plugged into the slope-intercept form. So, unless your text or teacher specifies the method or format to use, you should use whichever format suits your taste, because you'll get the same answer either way.
In the examples in the next section, I'll use the point-slope formula, because that's the way I was taught and that's what most books want. But my experience has been that most students prefer to plug the slope and a point into the slope-intercept form of the line, and solve for b. If that works better for you, use that method instead.
2x 3y = 9 3y = 2x + 9 y = ( 2/3)x 3
So the reference slope from the reference line is
m = 2/3.
Since a parallel line has an identical slope, then the parallel line through (4, 1) will have slope m = 2/3. Hey, now I have a point and a slope! So I'll use the point-slope form to find the line:
y (1) = ( 2/3 )(x 4) y + 1 = ( 2/3 ) x 8/3 y = ( 2/3 ) x 8/3 3/3 y = ( 2/3 ) x 11/3
This is the parallel line that they asked for. For the perpendicular line, I have to find the perpendicular slope. The reference slope is m = /3, and, for the perpendicular slope, I'll flip this slope and change the sign. Then the perpendicular 3 slope is m = /2. So now I can do the point-slope form. Note that the only change from the calculations I just did is that the slope is different now.
2
+5
Warning: If a question asks you whether two given lines are "parallel, perpendicular, or neither", you must answer that question by finding their slopes, not by drawing a picture! Pictures can only give you a rough idea of what is going on, but you cannot tell "by looking" that lines with slopes of, say, m1 = 1.00 and m2 = 0.99 are NOT parallel, because they'll sure look parallel on their graphs. But since 1.00 does not equal 0.99, the lines are not parallel. Find the slopes; don't just draw the pictures.
Arithmetic progression
An arithmetic progression is a sequence of numbers such that the difference of any two successive members of the sequence is a constant. For example, the sequence 1, 2, 3, 4, ... is is an arithmetic progression with common difference 1. Second example: the sequence 3, 5, 7, 9, 11,... is an arithmetic progression with common difference 2. Third example: the sequence 20, 10, 0, -10, -20, -30, ... is an arithmetic progression with common difference -10.
Notation
We denote by d the common difference. By an we denote the n-th term of an arithmetic progression. By Sn we denote the sum of the first n elements of an arithmetic series. Arithmetic series means the sum of the elements of an arithmetic progression.
11 = (21 + 1)/2 21 = (31 + 11)/2... If the initial term of an arithmetic progression is a1 and the common difference of successive members is d, then the n-th term of the sequence is given by an = a1 + (n - 1)d, n = 1, 2, ...
The sum S of the first n numbers of an arithmetic progression is given by the formula: S = (a1 + an)n where a1 is the first term and an the last one. or S = (2a1 + d(n-1))n
A sequence with a common ratio of 2 and a scale factor of 1 is 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32... A sequence with a common ratio of -1 and a scale factor of 5 is 5, -5, 5, -5, 5, -5,... If the common ratio is:
Negative, the results will alternate between positive and negative. Greater than 1, there will be exponential growth towards infinity (positive). Less than -1, there will be exponential growth towards infinity (positive and negative). Between 1 and -1, there will be exponential decay towards zero. Zero, the results will remain at zero Geometric Progression Properties
a2k = ak-1.ak+1 a1.an = a2.an-1 =...= ak.an-k+1 Formula for the sum of the first n numbers of a geometric series
Sn = a1 - anq1 - q = a1. 1 - qn1 - q
If |q| < 1 then an -> 0, when n -> . The sum S of such an infinite geometric series is:
S = a1 1 1-x
which is valid only for |x| < 1 and a1 is the first term.