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DIGITAL SIGNAL AND IMAGE PROCESSING

INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS SIGNAL: A signal is defined as any physical quantity that varies with time, space or any other independent variable or variables. It may be a function of one or more independent variables. The signal itself carries some kind of information available for observation. Usually signals are classified into two types Signals

Analog signals (Continuous signals)

Discrete signals ( Dis continuous signals)

ANALOG SIGNALS: - The analog signals are continuous function of an independent variable such as time, space etc. Ex:x(t)

1 t DISCRETE SIGNALS: -

2 A discrete signal is a function of a discrete independent variable, which is an integer. A digital signal is same as discrete signal except that the magnitude of the signal is quantized. Ex:x(t)

CLASSIFICATION OF DISCRETE TIME SIGNALS: The discrete time signals are classified depending on their characteristics. Some ways of classifying discrete signals are
z Energy signals and power signals z Periodic and a periodic signals z Symmetric and anti-symmetric signals

SYSTEMS:
DEFINITION: - A physical device that performs certain operations on a signal. Usually systems are classified into two types.  Analog systems  Digital systems Comparison between analog and digital systems ANALOG SYSTEMS 1 2 3 4 Implemented by using RLC components Accuracy is less More expensive Not flexible DIGITAL SYSTEMS Implemented by using delay unit, multiplier and adders. Accuracy is more Less expensive Flexible since be can increase the order of systems by using feedback. Signals are coded and transmitted. 5 Not immune to noise. Hence less reliable Hence more immune to noise and more reliable. 6 Difficult to store and retrieve. Easy to store

3 Limited range of frequency signals 7 High frequency signals can be used. are processed. Because of presence of digital to analog converter. 8 Consumes more power due to presence of resistances Components like RLC available in standard values. 9 Ex: If we require 76.8 ; resistor, we have to use nearest values Consumes less power No such restrictions. Ex: If 16 bit processor is not giving accurate value we can go for 32 bit processor

For these reasons now a days all analog systems are replaced by digital systems except for high frequency applications.

DISCRETE TIME SYSTEMS:

DEFINITION: A discrete time system is a device or an algorithm that operates on a discrete time input signal x(n), according to some well defined rule, to produce another discrete time signal y(n) called the output signal. The relation ship between x(n) and y(n) is y(n) = T[x(n)] x(n) DISCRETETIME SYSTEM

y(n)

CLASSIFICATION OF DISCRETE TIME SYSTEMS: Discrete time systems are classified according to their general properties and characteristics. They are STATIC AND DYNAMIC SYSTEMS: A discrete time system is called static or memory less if its output at any instant n depends at most on the input sample, at the same time, but not on part or future of the input. Otherwise system is dynamic system. TIME VARIANT AND TIME INVARIANT SYSTEMS: A system is said to be time-invariant if its input output characteristics do not change with time. If y(n k) = H[x(n k)] system is time invariant otherwise time variant systems.

4 CAUSAL AND NON-CAUSAL SYSTEMS: A system is said to be causal if the output of the system at any time n depends only on the present input, past input. Otherwise system is non-causal. STABLE AND UNSTABLE SYSTEMS : An arbitrary relaxed system is said to be BIBO if and only if every bounded input produces a bounded output. If the output is unbounded, the system is classified as unstable.

Stable System h(n) h(n)

Unstable System

n 0

A linear system is one that satisfies superposition principle. It states that the response of the system is equal to the weighted sum of all individual input signals. Other wise system is said to be non-linear system. FIR AND IIR SYSTEMS: In FIR systems, the impulse response consists of finite no. of samples. In IIR systems, the impulse response consists of infinite no. of samples. RECURSIVE AND NON RECURSIVE SYSTEMS: A system whose output Y(n) at time n depends on any no. of past output values is called recursive system. A system where output depends only on the present and past input is called a non-recursive system. MEANING OF PROCESSING DEFINITION: It is mathematical operations carried out on the signal to extract information. Example: - Integration, differentiation, filtering etc. ADVANTAGE OF PROCESSING: -

5 Using integrator an acceleration function can be converted into velocity function can be converted into velocity function and a velocity function can be converted into displacement function. INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING Digital signal processing is the processing of signals by digital systems. The digital systems are software, hardware or firmware. The purpose of such processing may be to estimate characteristic parameters of a signal or to transform a signal into a form, which is in some sense more desirable.

x(t)

ANTIALIASING

SAMPLE

+
HOLD

FILTER

A/D CONVER TER

DSP

D/A CONVER TER

RECONST RUCTION FILTER

y(t)

fig: DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING SYSTEM Signal processing problems are not confined of course to one-dimensional signals. Many picture-processing applications require the use of two-dimensional signalprocessing techniques. The rapid development in the area of digital signal processing is a result of the significant advances in digital computer technology and integrated circuit fabrication. The rapid developments in integrated circuit technology, starting with medium-scale integration and processing to large scale integration and very large scale integration of electronic circuits has made the development of powerful, smaller, faster and cheaper digital computers and special purpose digital hardware. In particulars, digital signal processing hardware allows programmable operations. Through software, one can more easily modify the signal processing functions to be performed by the hardware. Thus digital hardware and associated software provide a greater degree of flexibility in system design. Digital processors also form as integral part of many modern radar and sonar systems. COMPONENTS OF DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSORS: Any digital signal processor can be designed by using delay elements, multipliers and adders or summers. TYPES OF DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSORS: Digital Signal Processors are of two types

6  GENERAL PURPOSE PROCESSOR: These processors are used for any type of algorithm; usually they are bulk in size.  Dedicated processor: These processors are fast and small in size. But these are not used for different algorithms. DISCRETE TIME FOURIER TRANSFORM AND Z-TRANSFORM DISCRETE TIME FOURIER TRANSFORM: The Fourier transform of discrete time signals is called discrete time Fourier transform. The Fourier transform of a finite energy discrete time signal, x(n) is defined as E x(w) = x(n) exp(-j[ n) n = -E Ex:- Discrete in Time & A periodic Continuous in frequency & Periodic x(n) x([ )

-2T

-T

2T

Note: The Fourier transform of a signal is said to be existed if Limitations of Discrete Time Fourier Transform:

| x(n) | < E n = -E

DTFT can be applied only to stable systems, since it exists only if the impulse response is absolutely assumable, DTFT does not converge for all sequences and it is useful to have a generalization of Fourier transform, z transform is used. Z- TRANSFORM: The z- transform of a sequence is defined as E x(z) = x(n)z n n = -E NEED OF Z-TRANSFORM IS DISCRETE TIME SYSTEMS: The z-transform is the appropriate transformation for discrete time systems. It is counter part of lap lace transform, which is meant for continuous time signals. Ztransform play an important role in the analysis and representation of discrete time LTI system. Z transform of the impulse exists even for unstable systems. Thus z transform can be used to study a much larger class of systems and signals.

7 PROPERTIES OF Z-TRANSFORM: SL. NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 PROPERTY Linearity Time shifting Frequency shifting Time reversal Convolution Differentiation in Z-Domain Scaling in Z-Domain SHORT HAND NOTATION ax(n) + by(n) m ax(z)+by(z) x(n-n0 ) m z-n0 x(z) ej Pn x(n) m x(ejPnz0) x(-n) m x(1/z) x(n) x y(n) m x(z) y(z) n x (n) m -z d/dz (x(z)) an x(n) m x(z/a) ROC R1 R2 R1 R1 1/R1 R1 R2 R1 R1/a

Initial value theorem

x(0) = Lim x(n) = Lim x(z) zp g np0

Final value theorem 9

x(g) = Lim x(n) =Lim (z-1) x(z) zp1 npg

PROPERTIES OF ROC FOR Z TRANSFORM:  The ROC of x(z) consists of a ring in the z place centered about the origin.  The ROC does not contain any poles.  If x(n) is of finite duration, then the ROC is the entire z plane, except possibly z=0 and / or z = w  If x(n) is a right sided sequence, and if the circle |z| = r 0 is the ROC, then all finite values of z for which |z| > r0 will also be in the ROC.  If x(n) is a left sided sequence, and if the circle |z| = r0 is the ROC, then all the values of z for which 0 < |z| <r0 will also be in the ROC.  If x(n) is two sided, and if the circle |z| = r0 is in the ROC, then ROC consists of a ring the z plane that includes the circle |z| = r 0.  If the z transform x(z) of x(n) is rational, then its ROC is bounded by poles or extends to infinity.  If x(z) is rational and if x(n) is right sided, then ROC is the region outside the outermost pole.

8  If x(z) is rational and if x(n) is left sided, the ROC is the region inside the inner most non-zero pole. FILTERS NEED OF FILTERS IN DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING: Filtering is used in digital signal processing in a variety of ways. For example, removal of undesirable noise from desired signals, spectral shaping such as equalization of communications channels and for performing spectral analysis of signals and so on. DEFINITION: To process signals we have to design and implement systems called
filters.

TYPES OF FILTERS: Filters

Analog filters FIR

Digital Filters IIR (Infinite Duration Impulse Response)

(Finite Duration Impulse Response) COMPARISON BETWEEN DIGITAL & ANALOG FILTERS:

DIGITAL FILTER 1 2 Operates on digital samples of the signal It is governed by linear difference equations

ANALOG FILTER Operates on analog signal It is governed by linear differential equations

It

consists

of

adders,

multipliers

and

delay It

consist

of

electrical

implemented in digital logic hard ware or software

components like resistors, capacitors and inductors

In digital filters, the filter coefficient are designed to In satisfy the desired frequency response

analog

filters

the

approximation problem is solved to satisfy the desired frequency response

9 DESIRED DIGITAL FILTER: In digital signal processing there are two types of systems. The first type of system perform signal filtering in the time domain and hence are called digital filters. The second type of systems provide signal representation in frequency domain and are called spectrum analyzers. Design a proto type low pass filter of order N Perform analog to analog transformati on

Digitize the resultant analog filter

Desired digital filter

fig: BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR DESIRED DIGITAL FILTER ADVANTAGE OF DIGITAL FILTERS:  High thermal stability due to absence of resistors, inductors and capacitors.  The performance characteristics like accuracy, dynamic, range, stability and tolerance can be enhanced by increasing length of the resistors.  The digital filters are programmable.  Multiplexing and adaptive filtering are possible. DISADVANTAGE OF DIGITAL FILTERS:  The bandwidth of discrete signal is limited by the sampling frequency.  The performance of the digital filter depends on the hardware used to implement the filter COMPARISON BETWEEN FIR AND IIR: FIR 1 IIR

All the infinite samples of impulse Only N samples of impulse response are response are considered considered

The impulse response cannot be directly The impulse response can be directly converted function to digital filter transfer converted to digital filter transfer function

The specifications include the desired The specifications include the desired characteristics for magnitude response characteristics for both magnitude and only phase response

ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS OF DSP

10 ADVANTAGES OF DSP:  FLEXIBILITY: Digital programmable systems allow flexibility in reconfiguring the DSP operations by simply changing the program.  ACCURACY: DSP provides better control of accuracy requirements while tolerance limits has to be met in the analog counterpart.  EASY STORAGE: Digital signals can be easily stored in magnitude media without deterioration or loss of signal fidelity. They can also be easily transported and processed off time in remote laboratories.  PROCESSING: DSP allows for the implementation of more sophisticated signal processors than its analog counterparts. LIMITATIONS OF DSP: The conversion speed of ADC and the processing speed of signal processors should be very high to perform real time processing signals of high bandwidth requires easy sampling rate ADC s and Fast processors. APPLICATIONS OF DSP:  Speech processing; Speech compression and decompression for voice storage system and for transmission and reception of voice signals.  Human voice is Text digitally. This is less sensitive to cross talk and noise. Reason: Coding is used.  In Analysis of Seismic waves. Earthquakes and volcanic explosives since analog analysis takes more time.  In detection of underground objectives like submarines.  In RADAR for detection of distance object.  In Bio-medical applications.  Used in electronic music synthesizers.  In Boolean market to estimate next days sensex.  In design of FIR and IIR filters. INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING In general, any two-dimensional function that bears information can be considered an image. Multi dimensional signal processing is only one of many advanced and specialized topics is signal processing. The term digital image processing generally refers to processing of a two-dimensional picture by digital computers. A digital image is an array of real or complex no represented by a finite no. of bits. An image given is the

11 form of a transparency; slide, photograph or chat is first digitized and stored as a matrix of binary digits in computer memory.
Digi tal Stor age

Imaging System

Sample & quantize

Digital Comput er

On line buffer

Displa y

Output

Object

Refresh/ Store fig: DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING SEQUENCE

Record

This digitized image can then be processed and/or displayed on a highresolution television monitor. For display, the image is stored in a rapid access buffer memory, which refreshes the monitor at 30 frames/second to produce a visibly continuous display. Program input to the computer are made through a terminal, and the outputs are available, on a terminal, television monitor, or printer/plotter. The fundamentals requirement of digital processing is that images be sampled and quantized. The sampling rate (no. of pixels per unit area) has to be large enough to preserve the useful information in an image. It is determined by the bandwidth of the image.

METHODS OF DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING:  IMAGE REPRESENTATION AND MODELING: In image representation one is concerned with characterization of the quantity that each picture element represents. Image models give a logical or quantitative description of the properties of this function. An important consideration image in the fidelity or intelligibility criteria for measuring the quality of an image or the performance of processing technique knowledge. Fidelity criterion helps in designing the imaging sensor, because it describes us the variables that should be measured most accurately  IMAGE ENHANCEMENT: In image enhancement, the goal is to accentuate certain image features for subsequent analysis or for image display. Image enhancement is useful in features extraction, image analysis and visual information display. The enhancement process it self does not increase the inherent information content in the data. It simply

12 emphasizes certain specified image characteristics. Enhancement algorithms are generally interactive and application dependent.  IMAGE RESTORATION: Image restoration refers to removal or minimization of known degradations in an image. The image of a point source is blurred and degraded due to noise by an imaging system. A fundamental result in filtering theory is used commonly for image restoration is called the Wiener filter.  IMAGE ANALYSIS: Image analysis is concerned with making quantitative measurements from an image to produce a description of it more advanced image analysis system measure qualitative information and use it to make a sophisticated decision, such as controlling the arm of a robot to move as object after identifying it.  IMAGE DATA COMPRESSION: Typical television images generate data rates exceeding 10 million bytes per second. These are other image sources that generate even higher data rates storage and/or transmission of such data require large capacity and/or bandwidth, which could be very expensive. Image data compression techniques are concerned with reduction of the number of bits required to store or transmit images with out any appreciable loss of information. TWO DIMENSIONAL FOURIER TRANSFORM Two-dimensional Fourier transform are of fundamental importance in digital image processing it is given by
w w

F(P1, P2) = f(x,y)exp[-j2T(xP1+y P2)] dx dy -w -w TWO DIMENSIONAL Z TRANSFORM A useful generalization of Fourier transform is the z transforms which for a two dimensional complex sequence x(m,n) is defined as w w X(z1, z2) = x(m,n) z1-m z2-n m =-w n =-w Where z1, z2, are complex variable. The set of values of z1 and z2 for which this series converges uniformly is called the region of convergence. The z transform of the impulse response of a linear shift invariant discrete system is called its transfer function. Applying convolution theorem for z transforms

13 Y(z1, z2) = H (z1, z2) X(z1, z2)

H(z1, z2) = Y(z1, z2)/X(z1, z2)

i.e., the transfer function is also the ratio of the z transforms of the output and the input sequences. APPLICATIONS OF DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING  Digital image processing has a broad spectrum of application such as remote sensing via satellites and other space crafts, image transmission and storage for business applications, radar, sonar and acoustic image processing robotics and automated inspection of industrial parts images acquired by satellites are useful in tracking of earth resources, geo-graphical mapping, prediction of agricultural crops, urban growth and weather.  In medical applications one is concerned with processing of chest x-rays, cineangiograms, projection images of trans axial topography and other medial images that occur in radiology and ultrasonic scanning. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Digital Signal Processing OPPENHEIM AND SCHAFER 2. Discrete time Signal Processing OPPENHEIM AND SCHAFER
3.

Digital Signal processing Using MATLAB VINAY K. INGLE & JOHN G. PROAKIS

4. Theory and applications of DSP RABINER GOLD 5. Digital Signal Processing B. RAMACHANDRAN 6. Digital Signal Processing P. RAMESH BABU 7. Digital Signal Processing A. NAGOOR KANI 8. Fundamentals of Digital Image Processing A.K. JAIN