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365
1
1 day
24
1
T
b
T
sa
, (1)
where T
b
is the base temperature and T
sa
is sol-air
temperature for each hour. The+sign above the parenth-
esis indicates that only positive values are to be counted,
and the temperature difference is to be taken to be zero
when T
sa
4T
b
. The annual cooling degree-hours (CDH)
can be dened in an analogous expression as
CDH 1 year
365
1
1 day
24
1
T
sa
T
b
. (2)
For opaque surfaces such as the walls and the roofs, the
effect of solar radiation is conveniently accounted for by
considering the outside temperature to be higher by an
amount equivalent to the effect of solar radiation. This is
done by replacing the ambient temperature in the heat
transfer relation through the walls and the roof by the solar
air temperature dened as [14]
T
sa
T
o
a
s
_ q
solar
h
o
sT
4
o
T
4
surr
h
o
, (3)
where T
o
is the hourly average ambient temperature, a
s
the
solar absorptivity, h
o
the outer surface combined convec-
tion and radiation heat transfer coefcient, _ q
solar
the solar
radiation incident on the surface and e emissivity of the
surface. The second term indicates the solar heat gain effect
on the opaque surface while the last term represents the
temperature correction for the radiation heat transfer when
T
surr
6T
o
. It ranges from about zero for vertical wall
surfaces to 4 1C for horizontal roof surfaces facing the sky,
due to the low effective sky temperature, T
surr
. The solar-
air temperature for a surface obviously depends on the
absorptivity of the surface for solar radiation. Being
conservative and taking h
o
17 W/m
2
K, the summer
design values of the ratio a
s
/h
o
for light- and dark-colored
surfaces are determined to be 0.026 and 0.052 m
2
K/W,
respectively.
Accurate and reliable weather data are crucial for
building energy estimation and analysis. Therefore, the
database used in an energy analysis should cover a long-
term period (average 16 years) and recent values. In this
study, hourly data given by Buyukalaca et al. [24] is used
for more accurate results. The annual heating and cooling
loads with respect to various base temperatures at the rst
zone cities are shown in Tables 2 and 3.
3. Annual heating and cooling loads
Heat losses from buildings mostly occur from external
walls, ceiling, windows, and basement and by inltration.
We calculate optimum insulation thickness considering
heat losses from external walls. Wall structures vary with
climate. In warm climates bricks or concrete bricks are only
covered with thin plaster layer while in cold climates
sandwich walls are used. Energy consumption for heating
or cooling is high in buildings in Turkey, especially in hot
climate zone since no or insufcient thermal insulation is
used. Generally, polystyrene and rock wool are used for
insulation [25]. We choose extruded polystyrene board
(r 36 kg/m
3
, k 0.028 W/mK) as an insulation material
in the calculations. The structure of wall consists of 2 cm
inner plaster (k 0.87 W/mK), 20 cm horizontal hollow
brick (k 0.45 W/mK), insulation material, and 3 cm
external plaster. This structure is used in calculations for
all cities considered.
Heat loss through a unit area of external wall is given by
q UT
b
T
sa
, (4)
where U is the overall heat transfer coefcient. The annual
energy cost for heating per unit area can be calculated by
dividing heat loss to the efciency of the heating system Z
s
,
E
A;H
C
F
U
LHV Z
s
HDH, (5)
where HDH is the degree-hours, C
F
is fuel cost in $/m
3
and
LHV is lower heating value of the fuel in J/m
3
. Similarly,
the annual cooling load can be determined in an analogous
expression as
E
A;C
C
E
U
COP
CDH, (6)
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 2
The annual cooling degree-hours various base temperature for selected
cities
City Base temperature (1C)
18 20 22 24 26
Adana 38 330 29 114 20 954 13 850 7970
Antalya 30 185 22 217 15 401 9833 5849
Aydn 31 333 23 195 16 139 10 235 5795
Hatay 32 573 24 137 16 577 10 193 5177
I
1
R
tw
x=k
. (10)
4. Optimum insulation thickness and energy savings over the
lifetime
The rst cost of thermal insulation may be evalua-
ted as capital investment. It is possible to calculate the
present worth value of the amount of net energy savings
via insulation using the P
1
P
2
method [26]. This is a
practical, well-known method and can be used for
optimizing the size of insulation of external walls.
P
1
is the present worth factor of a series of N future
payments with interest rate i per period accounting
for the time value of money with a market dis-
count rate per period of d. The equation for P
1
is dened
as
P
1
N; i; d
N
j1
1 i
j1
1 d
j
1
di
1
1i
1d
_ _
N
_ _
N
1i
_
_
if iad,
if i d. 11
P
2
is the ratio of the life cycle expenditures incurred
because of the additional capital investment to the initial
investment. P
2
is dened by
P
2
1 P
1
M
s
R
v
1 d
N
, (12)
where M
s
is the ratio of the annual maintenance
and operation cost to the original rst cost, R
v
is the
ratio of the resale value to the rst cost. P
2
can be
taken as 1 if the maintenance and operation cost is
zero [9].
The cost of insulation is given by
C
ins
C
I
x, (13)
where C
I
is the cost of insulation material in $/m
3
and x is
the insulation thickness in m.
The net energy savings for heating over the life-
time per unit area, S
H
, can be formulated with P
1
P
2
method as
S
H
P
1
E
A;H
P
2
C
ins
(14)
or
S
H
P
1
C
F
DU
LHV Z
s
HDHP
2
C
I
x. (15)
The optimum value of the net energy savings can be
determined mathematically by taking the derivative of the
savings function with respect to x and setting it equal to
zero:
qS
H
qx
qDU
qx
P
1
C
F
HDH
LHV Z
s
P
2
C
I
x (16)
so that optimum insulation thickness for heating is
obtained as
x
op
;
H
P
1
C
F
kHDH
P
2
C
I
LHV Z
s
_ _
1=2
R
tw
k. (17)
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 4
The parameters used in calculations
Parameter Value
Degree-hours, DD (1C-hours) See Tables 2 and 3
Fuel
Natural gas (in heating)
Cost, C
F
0.367 $/m
3
LHV 34.526 10
6
J/m
3
Z
S
93%
Electricity (in cooling)
Cost, C
E
0.118 $/kWh
COP 2.5
Insulation
Polystyrene
Conductivity, k 0.028 W/mK
Cost, C
I
155 $/m
3
Density, r 432 kg/m
3
External walls
2 cm int. plaster (k 0.87 W/mK)
20 cm hollow brick (k 0.45 W/mK) R
tw
0.672 m
2
K/W
x
op
cm insulation
3 cm ext. plaster
Interest rate 5%
Ination rate 4%
Lifetime, N 10
A. Bolattu rk / Building and Environment 43 (2008) 10551064 1059
The payback period of insulation cost, N
P
,
H
can be
calculated by setting the net savings function to zero:
N
P;H
ln 1
P
2
C
I
LHV Z
s
R
tw
x R
2
tw
kd i
C
F
HDH
_ _
ln
1 i
1 d
_ _ if iad,
(18)
N
P;H
P
2
C
I
LHV Z
s
R
tw
x R
2
tw
k1 i
C
F
HDH
if i d.
(19)
The total cost of heating over the lifetime per unit area the
insulated building in present dollar is given by
C
t;H
P
1
E
A;H
P
2
C
ins
. (20)
The net energy savings, optimum insulation thickness,
payback period and total cost for cooling can be expressed
similarly as
S
C
P
1
C
E
DU
COP
CDHP
2
C
I
x, (21)
x
op
;
C
P
1
C
E
kCDH
P
2
C
I
COP
_ _
1=2
R
tw
k, (22)
N
P;C
ln 1
P
2
C
I
COPR
tw
x R
2
tw
kd i
C
F
CDH
_ _
ln
1 i
1 d
_ _ if iad,
(23)
N
P;C
P
2
C
I
COPR
tw
x R
2
tw
k1 i
C
F
CDH
if i d, (24)
C
t;C
P
1
E
A;C
P
2
C
ins
. (25)
From Eqs. (17) and (22), it can be seen that the optimum
insulation thickness for heating or cooling depends on the
cost of energy and insulation material, as well as properties
of the wall and insulation material, COP of the cooling
system, efciency of the heating system, lifetime of the
equipment, and discount and ination rates. The para-
meters used in these calculations and their corresponding
values are given in Table 4. The efciency of the heating
system was considered to be constant and equal to 0.93,
whereas the average seasonal COP of the room air-
conditioners was taken to be 2.5.
5. Result and discussion
The purpose of this paper is the determination of the
optimum thickness of insulation with respect to cooling
and heating loads at various cities for a typical wall used
for the buildings in Turkey.
The variable base degree-hours method was used for the
determination of the buildings energy consumption for
heating and cooling loads. Values of heating and cooling
degree-hours with months are shown in Fig. 2 for the city
of Antalya by using 18 1C base temperature. The data
clearly indicates that the cooling degree-hours are greater
than heating degree-hours for the cities that lie in the
rst zone. Therefore, the optimum insulation thickness
ARTICLE IN PRESS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
Months
D
e
g
r
e
e
-
H
o
u
r
s
Antalya CDH
HDH
Fig 2. Variation of monthly average heating and cooling degree-hours for
an 18 1C base temperature.
Fig. 3. (a) Annual heating and cooling transmission loads and (b) cost variation versus insulation thickness (for Antalya, T
b
18 1C).
A. Bolattu rk / Building and Environment 43 (2008) 10551064 1060
calculations must be based on cooling loads for maximum
energy savings.
Fig. 3(a) presents the changes in the annual cooling and
heating transmission loads per square meter of wall
according to insulation thickness. It is obvious that as the
insulation thickness increases, the transmission load
decreases. This heat transfer decrease is more rapid at
smaller insulation thicknesses. We observe diminishing
returns at larger values of the insulation thicknesses. The
decision to determine when to stop (to nd optimum
insulation thickness) should be based on a trade-off
between the incremental savings versus the incremental
cost. The heat transfer results are used as input data to the
economic model in order to determine the variation of the
cost of insulation material plus the present value of energy
consumption over the lifetime of building with insulation
thickness.
Fig. 3(b) shows cost variations and also compares the
cost curves for cooling and heating loads for Antalya. It is
noted that the energy cost decreases with increasing
insulation thickness. On the other hand, the insulation
cost increases linearly with insulation thickness and is
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Fig. 4. Comparison of optimum insulation thicknesses versus the base temperature for heating and cooling loads in the rst zone cities.
A. Bolattu rk / Building and Environment 43 (2008) 10551064 1061
independent of energy cost. A total cost is obtained when
the cost of energy consumption is added to the insulation
material cost with respect to insulation thickness for
cooling and heating loads (Fig. 3(b)). The total cost curve
produces a minimum that corresponds to the optimum
insulation thickness. It is noted that, at the optimum
insulation thickness, the contribution to the total cost from
either the energy cost or insulation cost is approximately
the same. Fig. 3(b) compares total costs, insulation cost,
energy costs and optimum insulation thicknesses for
cooling and heating loads over a lifetime of 10 years.
Optimum insulation thickness is 3.2 cm for cooling while it
is 2.5 cm for heating. One should select 3.2 cm, the
optimum insulation thickness based on cooling degree
hours, for the design insulation thickness since it provides a
higher energy savings for building.
The chosen value of base temperature is an important
parameter in calculating heating and cooling loads
according to degree-hours method. Selecting a lower base
temperature increases cooling load but decreases heating
load (Tables 2 and 3). In Fig. 4, the results of the insulation
thicknesses are shown for the selected rst zone cities.
According to the literature, a base temperature of 18 1C is
chosen. This base temperature is used in this study for
comparing energy savings and payback periods. As the
base temperature increases, the optimum insulation thick-
ness increases for heating load calculations. On the other
hand for cooling load calculations, the optimum insulation
thickness decreases with increasing base temperatures as
seen in Figs. 4(af). In all cities, the optimum insulation
thicknesses assume the highest values at 18 1C base
temperature. The optimum insulation thicknesses are
greater for cooling loads than for heating loads. Also,
there appears to be signicant variations in insulation
thicknesses with respect to cooling and heating loads. For
instance, the difference between calculated optimum
insulation thicknesses at Adana reaches to 80%, 2.1 cm
against 3.8 cm (Table 5). The optimum insulation thick-
nesses are generally high due to high energy costs in
Turkey.
At hot climate zones, it is important that optimum
insulation thickness calculations should be based on
cooling load for energy savings. The calculated energy
savings versus insulation thicknesses are shown in Fig. 5
for both heating and cooling load cases. Energy saving is
maximum at optimum insulation thickness. For instance in
Adana, energy saving for cooling load is 12.19 $/m
2
,
whereas energy saving for heating is 3.54 $/m
2
. Generally,
the energy savings increase with increasing cooling load.
The payback periods of optimum insulation costs for
cooling are smaller than that for heating. For instance in
Adana, the payback period is 3.39 years for cooling while it
is 4.87 years for heating. The optimum insulation
thicknesses at various cities in the rst zone with calculated
energy savings and payback periods for both cooling and
heating are given in Table 5.
The overall heat transfer coefcient (U) for external
walls is given as 0.80 W/m
2
K according to Turkish
Standards (TS 825) for heat insulation [26]. The U values
which are calculated from Eq. (8) are found to be changing
between 0.49 and 0.55 W/m
2
K for cooling against
0.610.80 W/m
2
K for heating in the rst zone cities.
Therefore, it is more appropriate to use a separate U value
for each city instead of using a constant value for all cities.
This point may be observed in Fig. 6 as more clearly.
Iskenderun is a city in Hatay province but optimum
insulation thickness, energy savings, and payback period in
Iskenderun and Hatay have appreciable differences with
respect to heating and cooling loads (Table 5).
6. Conclusion
One way to reduce energy consumption would be to limit
transmission loads to/from the buildings, and hence reduce
the demand for heating or air-conditioning. Considerable
energy savings can be obtained by using proper insulation
material in buildings. In this study, the optimum insulation
thicknesses on external walls of buildings were calculated
based on both annual heating and cooling loads. A typical
wall made of insulated polystyrene insulation was used.
The annual energy consumption for cooling and heating
loads per unit area of wall was computed using an
economic model over a lifetime of 10 years. Annual
cooling and heating loads were calculated using the
degree-hours method by considering solar radiation. The
determination of the optimum insulation thickness, energy
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 5
Optimum insulation thickness, energy savings and payback period for analyzed cities for cooling and heating loads (T
b
18 1C)
City Cooling Heating
Optimum insulation
thickness (m)
Energy savings
($/m
2
)
Payback period
(years)
Optimum insulation
thickness (m)
Energy savings
($/m
2
)
Payback period
(years)
Adana 0.038 12.19 3.39 0.021 3.54 4.87
Antalya 0.032 8.44 3.81 0.025 5.24 4.39
Aydn 0.033 8.96 3.74 0.027 6.36 4.15
Hatay 0.034 9.52 3.67 0.026 5.55 4.32
I