Capriles Et Al 2012 - Early Human Bolivia

Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e14
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Quaternary International
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The earliest human occupations in Bolivia: A review of the archaeological evidence

Jos M. Capriles a, *, Juan Albarracin-Jordan b
a b
Department of Anthropology, Washington University in St. Louis, One Brookings Drive, Campus Box 1114, St. Louis, MO 63130, United States Unidad de Apoyo de Servicios de la Cooperacin Canadiense, Calle Vctor Sangines No. 2678, La Paz, Bolivia
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history: Available online xxx
a b s t r a c t
This paper reviews archaeological research of Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene sites in Bolivia. Given that few projects have explicitly dealt with issues related to early human peopling of the country, an attempt is made to provide a comprehensive overview of known available data, focusing on radiocarbon dated sites. Recent research in different regions of the country is not only improving understanding of the variability of early human settlements, but also providing new perspectives in relation to human adaptation and climate change. Furthermore, ongoing research in Iroco and Cueva Bautista, in the highland region of the country, shows that human colonization of high-altitude ecosystems (>3800 m asl) occurred, at least, by 13,000 cal BP. 2012 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction The aim of this paper is to assess the current state of archaeological research regarding the earliest human occupations in present day Bolivia. The state of the art of archaeological research is reviewed, with discussion of the prospects for carrying out further studies in the country. In doing so, this paper provides a rst overarching synthesis of the history of archaeology, different interpretation frameworks, and results of recent investigations on early human occupations in Bolivia. It also provides information on available radiocarbon dates associated with early human settlements and discusses their archaeological context and implications. Located in the center of South America, the Plurinational State of Bolivia has a surface area of 1,098,581 km2 (Fig. 1). This vast landlocked Neotropical country includes three major physiographic regions: the Andean highlands, the Sub-Andean valleys, and the eastern lowlands (Ibisch et al., 2004). The Andean highlands consist of a large open plateau, also referred to as altiplano, situated over 3500 m above sea level (asl) and constrained by two mountain ranges, running from north to south, with peaks over 6000 m asl. The climate of the altiplano is cold and seasonally dry, because the Eastern Cordillera regularly prevents the Amazons moisture from entering the highlands. The altiplano encompasses a series of high-
elevation lakes and salt lakes, including Lake Titicaca, Lake Poop, Salar de Coipasa, and Salar de Uyuni. The altiplano is divided into different sections, depending on variation in elevation, temperature, and precipitation. Following previous biogeographic classications (e.g., Troll, 1968), there is a rough correspondence between the northern altiplano and the wet puna, the central altiplano and the dry puna, and the southern altiplano and the salt puna. The Sub-Andean valleys (3500e400 m asl) comprise scores of adjacent rivers that progressively drop from the Andean highlands into large, white water rivers from the Amazon and La Plata basins. As these systems progressively plunge in elevation, they produce a diversity of landscapes that range from extremely humid montane forests (yungas) to relatively temperate shrublands and dry forests. The eastern lowlands (<400 m asl) are divided into the hot and humid tropical Amazonian lowlands (including the pampas of the Llanos de Moxos), and the southeastern dry and hot Chaco plains. Over 30 different ecosystems with distinctive and often unique plant and animal species make Bolivia one of the ten most diverse countries in the world and a biodiversity hotspot (Navarro and Maldonado, 2002). Not surprisingly, various cultural adaptations developed here through time, as manifested by a rich, yet largely unexplored, archaeological record (Pereira Herrera and Albarracin-Jordan, 1996; Michel Lpez, 2006). 2. Paleoenvironmental and paleoclimatic research in Bolivia Environmental factors are complex, interlinked, and dynamic variables that inuence cultural change in varying ways. Human groups are constantly adapting to and affecting their physical
* Corresponding author. Present address: Center for Comparative Archaeology, Department of Anthropology, University of Pittsburgh, 3302 WWPH, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, United States. E-mail addresses: jcaprilesores@wustl.edu (J.M. Capriles), albarracinjordan@ yahoo.com (J. Albarracin-Jordan). 1040-6182/$ e see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2012.06.012
Please cite this article in press as: Capriles, J.M., Albarracin-Jordan, J., The earliest human occupations in Bolivia: A review of the archaeological evidence, Quaternary International (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2012.06.012
J.M. Capriles, J. Albarracin-Jordan / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e14
Fig. 1. Map of Bolivia showing Archaic Period sites, Quaternary paleontological localities and geological faults (based on Marshall and Sempere, 1991, and data compiled in this paper).
environment by means of complex ecological interactions such as predation, domestication, and niche construction (Odling-Smee et al., 2003). Paleoenvironmental research can contribute to explaining long-term humaneenvironment interactions throughout time. Considerable paleoclimatic and paleoenvironmental research has been carried out in Bolivia by a number of Quaternary geologists, glaciologists, limnologists, palynologists, paleoclimatologists, and paleoecologists (e.g., Abbott et al., 1997; Clayton and Clapperton, 1997; Thompson et al., 1998; Baucom and Rigsby, 1999; Argollo and Mourguiart, 2000; Baker et al., 2001; Chepstow-Lusty et al., 2005; May and Veit, 2009; Placzek et al., 2009; Bush et al., 2010). Even though it is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss the signicance all of this work, a summary of the most recent and signicant research is presented here. Currently, there are several ongoing paleoclimatological projects from North American and European universities, as well as research organizations, focusing on a number of different environmental proxies. These studies have been increasingly funded by global climate change initiatives and are mainly concerned with understanding the effects of global warming and climate change in tropical regions and the Andean mountain glaciers (see Thompson et al., 2000; Bush et al., 2010). Most of these projects have been implemented in the highlands, but increasing work is being carried out in the inter-Andean valleys and lowlands (e.g., Punyasena et al., 2008; May et al., 2011). Although there have been some
controversies surrounding the reconstruction of climatic patterns of the last 20,000 years, increased research is facilitating consensus regarding the specic events and processes involved. For instance, Thompson et al. (1998) collected ice cores from Sajama, which, at 6542 m asl is the highest mountain in Bolivia. The Sajama ice cores were approximately 131 m deep, and analysis of their geochemical content closely monitors changes in temperature and atmospheric geochemistry during the last 25,000 years. The data are compatible with glacial reconstructions from other countries and include the identication of signicant impacts, such as an abrupt drop in temperature, about 5100 years ago (Thompson et al., 2000). Recent research at Sajama, based on 36Cl exposure ages, suggests glacial development between 16,900e10,200 cal BP, followed by climatic stability during the Holocene, slightly interrupted by two minor glacial advances, between 7000 and 3300 cal BP (Smith et al., 2009). A clear implication of these studies, for discussing human adaptations and early peopling of the Andean highlands, is that glaciers did not extend over the altiplano. Because of its high elevation (>3500 m asl), geographical extent, and climatological complexity, during the Late Pleistocene, the altiplano was largely ice-free. Moraines and other typical geomorphological features associated with their expansion are generally absent in the altiplano and are mostly located in proximity to high mountain ranges in the Eastern and Western cordilleras (Clayton and Clapperton,
1997). For instance, the maximum extent of the Huayna Potosi glacier, at around 11,000 cal BP, was 4500 m asl, just 2 km west of its current level, above 5000 m asl (Jomelli et al., 2011). A combination of melted glaciers and precipitation facilitated the formation of different lake cycles throughout the Quaternary (Argollo and Mourguiart, 2000; Baker et al., 2005; Chepstow-Lusty et al., 2005; Rigsby et al., 2005). Placzek et al. (2006, 2009, 2011) directed the most recent and thorough paleoenvironmental reconstruction of the central and southern altiplano lake cycles during the Late Pleistocene. Based on collection and dating (using a combination of AMS 14C and UeTh dates) of evaporites (tufa) samples from paleoshores proles distributed throughout the altiplano, the last two cycles they document correspond to Lake Tauca and Lake Coipasa. Lake Tauca, dated between 18,100 and 14,100 cal BP, was the deepest lake in the sequence, occupied approximately 60,000 km2 and had its highest stand between 3765 and 3790 m asl (Placzek et al., 2006). After a short period of regression, Lake Coipasa was the last of the large lake cycles, occurring between 13,000 and 11,000 cal BP, covering approximately 30,000 km2, and having its highest stand at 3680 m asl (Sylvestre et al., 1999; Placzek et al., 2006, 2009). Clayton and Clapperton (1997) documented synchronicity between the expansion of the last deep lake in the altiplano and a cycle of glacial advance ca. 13,500 and 11,500 cal BP. In coincidence with glacial expansion, Lake Coipasa, during this time, reached its highest stand, suggesting high precipitation and perhaps decreased temperatures by as much as 5 C (Baker et al., 2005). Following this wet episode, no other signicant transgression events are recorded in the altiplano, suggesting the Holocene was characterized by a comparatively stable climate. However, the paleohydrological work of Abbott et al. (1997, 2003), in Lake Titicaca and several high elevation lakes in the Eastern Cordillera, suggests that at least in the northern altiplano, there was a period of rapid warming between 10,700 and 9700 cal BP and absence of glacier advances after 8900 cal BP. Furthermore, their work hypothesizes that the Middle Holocene, between 6200 and 2300 cal BP, was a period of increased aridity, as represented by a clear unconformity in well-dated lake cores, beginning 7000e6000 cal BP (Abbott et al., 2003). Researchers working in the Peruvian side of the northern altiplano have noted that this increased aridity might explain the low frequency of early archaeological settlements in the region (see Rigsby et al., 2003; Craig et al., 2010). Nevertheless, lake expansion and climatologic conditions could be related to different precipitation regimes across the south central Andean highlands during the Holocene. Differential precipitation between the northern and southern altiplano is probably related to various factors that continue to constraint precipitation seasonality and climatic variability in the south central Andes (Placzek et al., 2009, 2011). 3. The archaeology of early human occupations in Bolivia Following Aldenderfers (2009: Fig. 5.1) chronological scheme for the South Central Andes, the term Archaic Period refers to human occupations chronologically situated between, approximately, 10,950 and 3900 cal BP. Geologically, this period ranges from the Late Pleistocene to the beginning of the Late Holocene. The end of the Archaic Period is associated with the consolidation of agricultural, pastoral, and ceramic technologies, sedentary ways of life, and emergent socio-political complexity. Aldenderfers (2009) general sequence divides the Archaic Period into four sub-chronological periods: Early Archaic (9500e8000 BP or 10,950e8950 cal BP), Middle Archaic (8000e6000 BP or 8950e6950 cal BP), Late Archaic (6000e4500 BP or 6950e5250 cal BP), and Terminal Archaic (4500e3600 BP or 5250e3950 cal BP). The term Paleoamerican
(sensu Bonnichsen, 2005) is used to designate occupations earlier than 9500 BP or 10,950 cal BP. The following sections are organized diachronically and geographically, emphasizing theoretical and methodological contributions and focusing on recent research. 3.1. Archaic period studies: rst phase (1900e1980) In strong contrast with the suite of available paleoenvironmental studies, the archaeology of early human occupations in Bolivia is limited. Historically, most archaeological research in Bolivia has been carried out in the highlands and inter-Andean valleys, particularly in large, monumental sites, such as Tiwanaku. Furthermore, the question of the development of Tiwanaku as a state level polity, centered in the southeastern shores of the Lake Titicaca basin, has received the most attention (Kolata, 1993, 2003; Albarracin-Jordan, 1996, 2007; Stanish, 2003; Janusek, 2008). Research on the earliest human colonization in all regions of Bolivia lags behind research carried out in neighboring countries (see Aldenderfer, 1989, 1999; Dillehay, 2000, 2008; Lavalle, 2000; Miotti and Salemme, 2003; Nez et al., 2005; Politis et al., 2008; Borrero, 2009; Aldenderfer and Flores Blanco, 2011; Santoro et al., 2011). The rst archaeological evidence of Archaic Period occupations in Bolivia was reported by the French explorer, Georges Courty (1910), who visited two such sites in 1903, Relaves and Huancane, located between San Pablo and San Vicente in the remote region of Lpez, in the southern altiplano. Relaves, located at 4400 m asl, consisted of a lithic workshop, including green and black quartzite scrapers and burins. Huancane, at 4350 m asl, included chert and jasper akes. Courty (1910), inferring from the artifact characteristics, argued that these sites were probably Neolithic; this was certainly a non-conventional interpretation, given that the prevailing notion with respect to the peopling of the New World, at that time, was linked to the Old World Paleolithic. Dick Edgar Ibarra Grasso (informed by collectors in La Paz) reported the next signicant archaeological discovery, in 1954, at the site of Viscachani, located at 3820 m asl, in the road between La Paz and Oruro. Ibarra Grasso (1954, 1955, 1957, 1965a, 1965b) described Viscachani as a large site, extending between six and eleven hectares, covered with projectile points and other aked stone tools. He suggested that the settlement was located on top of 8e15 m high terraces, on the shores of a now dried-up ancient glacial lake. Surface collections carried out between 1954 and 1960 produced over 9000 artifacts (see also Vela, 1964). Excavations conducted at the site included ve initial test pits, shortly after the initial report of the site (Ibarra Grasso, 1957: p. 145, 1965b: p. 32), and 30 additional test pits conducted in 1960 in collaboration with German scholars Hermann Trimborn, Hansjrgen Mller-Beck, and Josephine Welt (Ibarra Grasso, 1965a: p. 13). No substantive stratigraphy was documented in the excavations, due to a combination of agricultural plowing and soil erosion. Ibarra Grasso (1954) initially classied the Viscachani projectile points into two types. The rst included elongated points similar to willow leafs and with ne lateral retouching, while the second type included broader points, similar to bay leafs that were worked by percussion akes only. He linked the rst type to the Ayampitn complex described by Alberto Rex Gonzlez (1952) from an open-air site, located in the Argentinean province of Crdoba, while he compared the second to an Early Paleolithic industry. Osvaldo Menghin (1954) subsequently named these industries Ayampatinense and Viscachaniense, respectively. Ibarra Grasso (1965b: pp. 54e57, 1973) then subdivided these groups into ve chronological phases and speculated that the site could be as old as 20,000 years. Archaeologists specializing in Andean archaeology welcomed the new addition of a preceramic settlement into the expanding list of Andean early sites (e.g., Lanning, 1967; Ravines, 1972), albeit
with some disagreement. For instance, Lanning and Hammel (1961) argued that the distinction between the two industries was probably articial. To solve the controversy, Patterson and Heizer (1965) carried out a technological and stylistic analysis of Viscachani stone tools. Their sample consisted of 63 artifacts predominated by projectile points, suggesting the bulk of the assemblage was similar to the earliest (Ayampitn) level of Intihuasi Cave (ca. 6300 BC), in northwest Argentina, and the Luz (ca. 5500 BC) and Canario (ca. 4950 BC) complexes of the Peruvian coast. Exceptions included small stemmed points, characteristic of Laguna Hedionda (see below) and the Pichalo Preceramic II of northern Chile, dated to approximately 2000e3000 BC. As a consequence, Viscachani was interpreted as a typical Archaic Period settlement associated with an adaptation to highland hunting and gathering, an interpretation still employed by many researchers (e.g., Bruhns, 1994: p. 60; Aldenderfer, 2000; Dillehay, 2000: p. 181; Lizarraga-Mehringer, 2004). In 1958, an expedition from the University of Cambridge, led by Vita-Finzi (1959), explored the salt lakes of the Atacama Desert, in northern Chile, and the adjacent highland lakes of the Lpez desert, in southwest Bolivia. Lawrence Bareld (1961), the expeditions archaeologist, reported signicant preceramic occupations at eight sites from Laguna Colorada, ve sites from Laguna Hedionda, and at Chacilla (Chucilla in Vita-Finzis map), a site located on the shores of Rio Grande de Lpez. Lithic artifacts were collected from the surface of all of these sites and included several projectile points. Additionally, a rock shelter (Laguna Hediondas Site IV) was partially excavated, revealing 12 overlapping layers, several of which were preceramic. Bareld compared the lithic artifacts with the typological sequence developed by Le Paige (1958), in northern Chile (but also based on some visits to Bolivian territory, see below). As a result, the lithic assemblages, Puripica (contemporary with Ayampitn), Tambillo, Cebollar, and a new assemblage, named Colorada, were identied and related to temporary, but frequently reoccupied, hunting camps. In Barelds interpretation, these sites, give an indication of a long tradition of hunting in the area, but at present can only be tentatively tted into a cultural or chronological scheme (Bareld, 1961: p. 96). Furthermore, there seemed to be a typological sequence [of settlements] associated with the shores of progressively shrinking lakes (Vita-Finzi, 1959: p. 402). Le Paige (1964) carried out his explorations in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile and, in addition, made some explorations in the Bolivian southern altiplano. In Bolivia, he documented sites in Soniquera, Quetena, Quetena Chico, San Agustn, San Pablo de Lpez, Laguna Hedionda, Laguna Colorada, Laguna Verde, Zapaleri, and Laguna de Tara, collecting several artifacts, which he describes as mostly manufactured in black basalt and some local raw materials (Le Paige, 1964: p. 37). Le Paige (1964) reported that the occupations in southwest Bolivia correspond well with the chronological phases he identied in the different environments of the Atacama Desert. He suggested that the most important place for carrying out further research should be Soniquera, where he identied at least 11 different locations. 3.2. Archaic period studies: second phase (1980e2010) 3.2.1. Northern altiplano The northern altiplano around Lake Titicaca has received more archaeological attention than any other region in Bolivia (Browman, 1981; Kolata, 1993, 2003; Stanish, 2003; Janusek, 2008). Although this work has included several full coverage survey projects and several large-scale excavations, very few Archaic Period sites have been identied. Juan Albarracin-Jordan (1992, 1996: pp. 78e79) and Albarracin-Jordan and Matthews (1990) documented two sites and two isolated Archaic Period projectile
points in the Tiwanaku lower valley. Sergio Calla Maldonado (2011) has recently documented ten additional Archaic Period sites in the Tiwanaku upper valley, and, based on typological comparisons of projectile points, he assigned four of these sites to the Early Archaic Period. All of these sites consist of small (<1 ha) open-air camps and workshops. In addition, Carlos Lmuz Aguirre (2001: pp. 187e188) documented three Late and Terminal Archaic Period occupations in Santiago de Huata, on the eastern shore of the lake. Similarly, Jos Capriles (2007) reported four Archaic Period sites on the northeastern shore of Lake Titicaca, including two rock shelters and two open-air camps. The only radiocarbon-dated Archaic context in the Bolivian side of Lake Titicaca is the lowest level at Chuxuqullu, a site reported by Charles Stanish et al. (2002) at the Island of the Sun. A charcoal sample produced an AMS date of 3780 170 BP (Stanish et al., 2002: Table 1). In addition, two more sites in the Island of the Sun comprised Archaic Period occupations (Stanish and Bauer, 2004: Table 2.1). In comparison, the work that Mark Aldenderfer and his students have been carrying out in the Peruvian side of Lake Titicaca is notable for its Archaic Period ndings (Aldenderfer, 1998, 2000, 2009; Cipolla, 2005; Craig, 2005; Klink, 2005; Klink and Aldenderfer, 2005; Tripcevich, 2007). Interestingly enough, although Early Archaic sites have been reported from surface surveys in the Peruvian side of Lake Titicaca, most of the excavated occupations date to the Middle Archaic or later (Craig et al., 2010). For instance, two uncalibrated samples from the earliest levels of the Qillqatani rock shelter date to 7100 130 BP (Beta-18926) and 7250 170 BP (Beta-18927) (Tripcevich, 2007: Table 3.5). 3.2.2. Central altiplano Research in the central altiplano identied a number of Archaic Period occupations, and, although some excavations have been conducted, few sites have been radiocarbon dated. Jorge Arellano Lpez (1992) and Arellano Lpez and Kuljis Meruvia (1986) carried out research in Ro Mauri where he documented two lithic workshops, including Abrigo Clemente, a rock shelter with abundant lithic artifacts and naturalistic rock art paintings representing deer. More recently, Vannesa Jimnez (2007, 2012) has surveyed the valley of Markanasa, near Charaa and the Bolivian-ChileanPeruvian border. She documented 23 open-air sites and four rock shelters, two of which (PAM-05 and PAM-06) were test excavated and included a stratigraphic and projectile point sequence, comparable to the well-studied nearby site of Hakenasa in northern Chile (Santoro and Nez, 1987; Moreno et al., 2009; Osorio et al., 2011; Santoro et al., 2011). Through collaboration, an AMS 14C sample of a camelid metapodial from one of the intermediate levels (45e52 cm) of her excavations at PAM-05 was dated to 3201 51 BP (AA96431, bone collagen d13C 19.4). Jimnez (2012) has also discovered, in Markanasa, the potential location of the obsidian source previously known as Khonko Type (Giesso, 2003). Yara Lizarraga-Mehringer (2004) conducted additional research in Viscachani, including test excavations, documentation of naturally occurring proles, collection of additional stone artifacts, and analysis of material previously collected by Ibarra Grasso and other scholars. She described sites in other areas, such as Viacha, Quellcatani, Callapa, and the inter-salar region, including surface ndings similar to those from Viscachani. Although she did not radiometrically date any archaeological materials, LizarragaMehringers (2004) detailed typological work conrms previous interpretations about the site, including the possible long-term reoccupation cycles implied by the diversity of projectile points, bifaces, and other stone tools present at Viscachani. In addition, she also reexamined other previously known Archaic Period sites, including Laguna Hedionda, Kayarani, Mayra Pampa, Huerta Mayu, and uapua (see below).
Additional research in the central altiplano includes surface surveys that were carried out in Eucaliptus (Irahola, 2007) and Cala Cala (Lima Trrez et al., 2002: p. 71), where sites and lithic artifacts similar to Viscachani were documented. Albarracin-Jordan (2006) has also conducted a survey between the city of Oruro and Pisiga, in the border with Chile, where some Archaic Period lithic workshops and stationary camps were documented. Marcos Michel Lpez (2008: p. 100) recorded two Late Archaic Period settlements in his survey of Huari, near the southern shore of Lake Poop. Fox (2007: p. 73) identied a Terminal Archaic Period level including foliated projectile points in his excavations at the Formative Period mound of Chuquia. Research in Iroco, near the modern city of Oruro, documented 35 Archaic Period sites and included excavations and dating of one of these sites (Capriles et al., 2011; see below). Albarracin-Jordan (2005a) carried out a systematic survey of approximately 16 km2 near the city of Potos, as part of the environmental impact study of the San Bartolom mining project. At an altitude between 4100 and 4400 m asl, 21 sites were recorded, ten of which consisted of Archaic Period occupations (Albarracin-Jordan, 2005a). Seven of these sites were test-excavated, producing a considerable range of lithic artifacts and debitage. One of these sites also included the fragmented remains of extinct Hippidium horse teeth in the same layer as lithic debitage. However, more research, including radiocarbon dating, is required to conrm this contextual association. 3.2.3. Southern altiplano Several years after the expeditions of Bareld and Le Paige, Eduardo Berberin and Jorge Arellano Lpez (1978, 1980) resumed research in Lpez. Most of their work consisted of a surface reconnaissance of open-air sites near Quetena and San Pablo de Lpez. They described different projectile point types, including lanceolated, rhomboid, and triangular. Based on typological comparisons, they suggest that these tools correspond to a transitional phase, from generalized hunting-gathering to specialized hunting that took place between 8500 and 1500 BC (Berberin and Arellano Lpez, 1980: pp. 262e263). Arellano Lpez (1984, 1987, 1992, 2000) continued working in Lpez and reported additional Archaic Period settlements near Alota, Soniquera, and Quetena. In the absence of dates, his interpretations switched from a chronological approach to a functional interpretation, describing three types of sites: lithic workshops, temporary camps (paraderos), and hunting camps (Arellano, 1987: p. 189). Workshops were located on top of terraces of rivers such as Quetena and Lpez that ow into Salar de Uyuni. The temporary and hunting camps were, apparently dispersed, over the interior of the plains. In addition, possible residential locations, such as rock shelters and caves, were located on rocky outcrops, sometimes quite far above the valley oors. Workshops, such as Mina Abaroa, included bifaces (with variable forms, amount of retouch and unmodied cortex), unifacial tools of different sizes and shapes, scrapers, and various akes. In collaboration with Arellano Lpez, Juan Carlos Berazain (1995) also carried out survey work in Laguna Colorada, documenting various Archaic Period occupations. Unfortunately, his ndings derive exclusively from dispersed surface ndings. Arellano Lpez (2000) excavated and radiocarbon-dated a few sites in the region, but all of them correspond to Formative Period and later occupations. More recently, an intensive survey was carried out in the surroundings of San Cristbal and along the road between San Cristobal and Salar de Ascotn, near the Chilean border, as part of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of the San Cristobal Mining Project (Albarracin-Jordan and Michel Lpez, 1998; Albarracin-Jordan, 1999, 2000a, 2000b). Here, more than 300 sites have been documented, including numerous Archaic Period open-
air lithic workshops and camps. In 23 of these sites, additional work consisted of mapping, systematic surface collections, and test excavations. Unfortunately, because of the strong aeolian processes that occur in the region, most of the sites consist of deated and highly eroded locations covered by stone artifacts from multiple occupations. In 2008, this work was complemented with a survey near Alota and identied caves and rock shelters with stratied, well-preserved occupations that date back to the Late Pleistocene (see below). 3.2.4. Other regions Very little is known from other regions of Bolivia. It is ironic that some of the few dated Early Archaic Period sites in Bolivia, including uapua, San Luis, and San Lucas are found in the inter-Andean valleys and Chaco lowlands (see below). In 1978, David Davies published a short evaluation of three Bolivian, early human remains that he described as having robust features (Davies, 1978: p. 280). Although the provenience of the remains is not specied (in the paper, the sites are referred to as Bolivia I, II, and III), the present authors believe that at least two of these correspond to the Jaihuayco and Sacaba human skeletons (see Lynch, 1976: p. 231, 1990: p. 16). The Sacaba and Jaihuayco human remains correspond to different, partially mineralized skeletons discovered in the Cochabamba valley during civil construction work in the 1950s and 1960s (Ibarra Grasso, 1965a: p. 14). Mandibular and maxillary samples from these skeletons were exported by Davies (in addition to possibly two additional human specimens) for radiocarbon dating, amino-acid racemization, and uorine content analyses by Reiner Protsch (1979: p. 72) at the University of Frankfurt. The reported results of the Cochabamba (Jaihuayco) sample include a radiocarbon date of 13,050 250 BP (Fra-102), an amino-acid racemization date of 13,200 a (Fra-A-7), and uorine content of 1.60e1.73%. The Sacaba specimen only includes results of an amino-acid racemization assay of 18,000 a (Fra-A-10) and uorine content of 2.08% (Berger and Protsch, 1991: p. 266). However, given the uncertainties associated with the application of these methods to materials with unclear depositional histories, and the fact that Protsch was accused of ethical misconduct and fabrication of data regarding other fossil specimens, these results are questionable (see Terberger and Street, 2003; Schulz, 2004; Street et al., 2006). Although portions of these skeletons were exported for research, fragments of both are currently on exhibition at the Museo Arqueolgico de la Universidad Mayor de San Simn, in Cochabamba. Richard MacNeish and Ricardo Cspedes Paz conducted research in the Cochabamba valleys, in the 1980s, and proposed the existence of potential early sites in Kayarani, Mayra Pampa, and Vila Vila. Although this work remains largely unpublished, their excavations in Kayarani produced very crudely made stone tools, which suggested an Archaic Period occupation. In 1997, LizarragaMehringer (2004: pp. 337e347) continued these excavations and collected a sample from the lowest layer of the excavation prole that dated to 2415 50 BP (ETH-19374), suggesting the site was occupied considerably later than anticipated. In Mayra Pampa, located in the Mizque valley, Cspedes Paz found an extinct horse tooth in association with lithic tools, which indicated a, potentially, early human occupation (Lizarraga-Mehringer, 2004: p. 360). However, during posterior excavations of the Formative Period component at the site, Brockington et al. (1995: Table 8) identied three preceramic layers, including Level 12 that produced the Terminal Archaic date of 3905 65 BP (GX-12984). In Chuquisaca and the lower anks of the eastern Andes, Ibarra Grasso (1965b; 1973) reported the presence of early sites in Huerta Mayu, La Candelaria, Quila Quila, and Maragua. For the Huerta Mayu rock shelter (see Ibarra Grasso and Querejazu Lewis, 1986; Lizarraga-Mehringer, 2004: p. 361), he inferred that the presence of
rock art, in the form of human negative handprints, might suggest a connection with Cueva de las Manos, in southern Argentina (but see Capriles et al., 2008). Paja Colorada is another rock shelter, in western Santa Cruz, that also includes similar handprint representations. More recent research in the inter-Andean valleys involved systematic surface surveys that permitted the identication of two Archaic Period sites in the Icla valley (Blom and Janusek, 2005: p. 96) and ten in the Cintis valley (Rivera Casanovas, 2004: p. 49); but follow-up research is required. Virtually nothing is known about the earliest colonization of the Bolivian Amazonian lowlands. Given glacial retreat, following the Late Glacial Maximum, it is assumed that an increased discharge of Quaternary deposits on the Llanos de Mojos and other basins would have made human settlement challenging and preservation of archaeological sites problematic (but see Lombardo et al., in press). However, more research is required, particularly along abandoned levees of paleo-rivers, incidental proles of large rivers, and the Brazilian Shield, where deposits, possibly generated by anthropogenic activity during the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene, might be better preserved (see Kipnis, 1998; Araujo et al., 2005). 4. Well-dated early human occupations Available research results conrm that Archaic Period sites, including Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene occupations, are
present in Bolivian territory (Fig. 2). Unfortunately, the lack of emphasis on research on this period and, more importantly, the absence of radiocarbon dating of potentially early contexts, have caused a signicant gap in the knowledge regarding early human presence in the country. Nevertheless, recent research projects have produced radiometric dates that not only conrm the presence of early sites, but also point to potential venues for continuing research. In this section, calibrations were performed with Calib 6.0 (http://calib.qub.ac.uk/calib/), using the SHCal04 dataset (McCormac et al., 2004) for dates younger than 10,000 BP and the IntCal09 dataset (Reimer et al., 2009) for older dates (Table 1, Fig. 3). 4.1. Chaco lowlands 4.1.1. uapua In 1978, a paleontological mission, organized by the University of Florida, the County Museum of Los Angeles, and the Servicio Geolgico de Bolivia, conducted explorations in the Quaternary paleontological site of uapua (also known as uagapua), in the Chaco lowlands of southeastern Bolivia (MacFadden, 1981; MacFadden and Wolff, 1981). uapua is an eroded creek associated with sedimentary badlands of at least three geomorphological formations deposited in a lacustrine environment that include abundant vertebrate fossil deposits (Hoffstetter, 1968). In addition to recovering numerous specimens of extinct paleofauna, researchers made the extraordinary nding of a partially fossilized
Fig. 2. Map of Archaic Period archaeological sites in Bolivia.
J.M. Capriles, J. Albarracin-Jordan / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e14 Table 1 Radiocarbon dates older than 5250 cal BP and associated information from early archaeological sites in Bolivia. Calibration performed with Calib 6.0 (http://calib.qub.ac.uk/calib/) using the SHCal04 dataset (McCormac et al., 2004) for dates younger than 10,000 BP and the IntCal09 dataset (Reimer et al., 2009) for older dates. The extremes for the 1s and 2s ranges are reported.
human skeleton. The human remains were associated with a lacustrine paleoenvironment that included fauna deposited in silty clay. The mammalian assemblage included remains of the following families: Glyptodontidae, MegalonychoidaeMylodontoidea, Gomphotheriidae, Toxodontidae, Macrachenidae, Equidae, Tayassuidae, Camelidae, Ctenomydae, Capromyidae, and Octodontidae (MacFadden and Wolff, 1981: Table 3). The human remains were identied as those of a 50-year old female. A radiocarbon date, using bone apatite, directly dated these remains to 6600 370 BP, and uorine analysis did not result in signicant differences between the human remains and the associated paleofauna (MacFadden, 1981: p. 9; MacFadden and Wolff, 1981: p. 776). A second radiocarbon date from the uapua human remains provided a consistent date of 7200 400 BP (Marshall et al., 1984: p. 34). In addition, Lynch (1990: p. 16) mentions an additional radiocarbon date from Glyptodon remains that produced the date of 21,000 BP, and two amino-acid racemization dates of 13,000 3000 (AGL-034) and 14,500 2500 (AGL-002-H), citing an unpublished report by Wolff and colleagues. The amino-acid racemization dates might correspond to the work of Davies (1978) and Protsch (1979). The latter, as indicated above, may pose serious problems of credibility. The human remains of uapua are currently curated at the Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, in La Paz. In 1984, Arellano Lpez (1986) conducted archaeological explorations at uapua describing a stratigraphic sequence that corroborated the paleontological ndings. He reported the presence of paleofauna in association with lithic artifacts that included retouched quartzite akes, burins, and scrapers; but no projectile points (Arellano Lpez, 1986: pp. 51e52). Arellano Lpez also reports the presence of a later ceramic occupation in uapua and the very fragmented remains of a second human individual. In addition, Lizarraga-Mehringer (2004) briey visited the site, in 1997, during the research for his dissertation, and collected additional stone tools. More recently, a team of Italian and Bolivian geologists returned to uapua (renaming the site with its proper Guarani toponym of uagapua) and conducted new research to determine the association between humans and paleofauna (Coltorti et al., 2010, 2012). Their work primarily consisted of geomorphological reconstructions based on descriptions and cross-linking stratigraphic sequences from naturally occurring proles at the creek. Here, they found several lithic tools in association with animal fossils beneath several metres of Quaternary deposits. They also collected three samples for radiometric dating. The youngest sample corresponds to a wooden plank dated to historic times (140 50 BP, Beta197971) and deposited below 3 m of alluvium. The two older dates are somewhat consistent with previous dates, and might support the presence of human occupation during the Early Holocene. One sample was AMS dated to 6870 50 BP (Beta-194692) and consists of soil sediment deposited approximately 9 m below the surface in association with pottery and int fragments (Coltorti et al., 2010: Table 1). The second sample was dated to 5980 80 BP (Beta-197969) and corresponds to charcoal from a hearth identied 7 m beneath the surface in a naturally occurring prole (Coltorti et al., 2010: Fig. 3). Additional stone tools and ceramics were collected in association with these dates as well as bone remains of Equus, Vicugna, and other fossil taxa. The site of uapua is signicant not only because of the extraordinary nding of Early Holocene human remains, but also because of its remarkable association with extinct megafauna, including glyptodonts, giant ground sloths, horses, camelids, and even mastodonts. This site has been often cited as the only dated early human settlement in Bolivia (e.g., Lynch, 1990: p. 16; Borrero, 2009: p. 149). The site has been interpreted as a Holocene paleo-
(MacFadden and Wolff 1981: p. 776) (Marshall et al., 1984: p. 34)
(Rivera Casanovas and Calla Maldonado 2011: Table 2) (Mncias 2012; Salvatierra 2012) (Placzek et al., 2006: Table 1) (Placzek et al., 2006: Table 1) (Capriles 2011: Table 7.2)
(Capriles 2011: Table 7.2) 20 92 3690 AA91569 Iroco, KCH20
References
21.7
24.1
23.4
Years BP Error d13C
22.3
19.7
47
45
82
50
80
50
60
370
Altitude Region
570
570
570
570
3660
1860
3660
3050
Beta-194692
Beta-197969
NY Queens College (QC) N/A
ETH Zrich (ETH) OZK824
3880
Salar de Coipasa, AA54456 Site 7 Salar de Coipasa, AA54457 Site 7 Iroco, KCH20 AA91568
3690
Pumiri, URR-001 AA96432
Lab code
San Lucas, SL79
Tarija, San Luis
uapua, uagapua, 2002
Site name
Cueva Bautista, AL03
uapua, uagapua, 1978
AA84158
3930
Chaco 6600 lowlands Chaco 7200 lowlands Chaco 6870 lowlands Chaco 5980 lowlands Inter-Andean 7640 dry valleys Inter-Andean 7041 dry valleys Central 4441 altiplano Central 5444 altiplano Central 5591 altiplano Central 8273 altiplano Central 8105 altiplano Southern 10,917 altiplano
400
45
69
23
Anthropogenic sediment in naturally occurring prole 6658e6858 6508e6954 Conventional Charred material Hearth in naturally occurring prole 8349e8424 8218e8537 AMS Bone-collagen, Open-air site, development human cranial excavations 7745e7925 7687e7937 AMS Charcoal Hearth in naturally occurring prole 4867e5036 4846e5271 AMS Charcoal Rock shelter, occupation level at 1.85 m below surface 6032e6281 6003e6289 AMS Charcoal Top of anthropogenic sediment in naturally occurring prole 6290e6395 6216e6435 AMS Charcoal Bottom of anthropogenic sediment in naturally occurring prole 9032e9288 9008e9424 AMS Bone-collagen, Lama Open-air site, trash feature guanicoe metapodial 8728e9087 8630e9252 AMS Bone-collagen, Cavia Open-air site, trash feature tschudii mandible 12,684e12,878 12,614e13,054 AMS Charcoal Cave, occupation level 1.7 m below the surface
Open air, paleontological deposit
Cultural context
6570e8160
7253e8976
Cal BP (2s)
7007e7786
7613e8362
Cal BP (1s)
7595e7684
7573e7781
Conventional Bone-apatite, human postcranial Conventional Bone-apatite, human cranial AMS Organic sediment
Method
Material
Open air, paleontological deposit
(Coltorti et al., 2010: Table 1) (Coltorti et al., 2010: Table 1) (Delcourt 2001: p. 11)
(Albarracin-Jordan and Capriles 2011: p. 96)
Fig. 3. Calibrated radiocarbon dates from early human occupations in Bolivia (data from Table 1).
refuge and the presence of human remains suggests their ecological role as predators (MacFadden, 1981; Lynch, 1990). The recent study carried out by Coltorti et al. (2010, 2012) supports the interpretation of the role of humans as predators of surviving megafauna well into more recent time periods. Although the new dates and geomorphological research add signicant information on the unique attributes of the site, more research is required, including systematic work for establishing the specic nature of human settlements and activities. Complementary research should include direct dating of extinct megafauna, zooarchaeological studies of animal bones for evidence of human modications, and taphonomic assessments of the site (Barnosky and Lindsey, 2010). 4.2. Inter-Andean valleys 4.2.1. Tarija and San Luis The Tarija Basin located in southern Bolivia is famously known for its thick Quaternary beds that include abundant paleontological remains of extinct fauna (e.g., Echaz, 1905; Hoffstetter, 1963; MacFadden and Wolff, 1981; Marshall et al., 1984; Marshall and Sempere, 1991). Various expeditions from several countries were conducted in Tarija between the 1830s and 1920s, resulting in many collections of Quaternary extinct vertebrate paleofauna. In addition, local people speculated about the association of these ndings and human remains. In 1942, at the request of French naturalist Paul Rivet, geologist Victor Oppenheim explicitly carried out a geological survey of the Tarija Basin to assess the association between fossil beds and human remains. Oppenheim (1943) identied several taxa of extinct fauna but categorically denied the association between these specimens and human occupations. In his words, human remains should be attributed to the late preColumbian or even more recent inhabitants of the region (Oppenheim, 1943: p. 555). Much later, MacFadden et al. (1983), using the magnetic polarity method, dated the Tarija Basin to the Ensenadan Formation (1.2e0.7 Ma), implying temporal incompatibility between the fossil beds and human remains. However, Tonni et al. (2009) have recently cross-dated the Tarija fossil beds and geological units with the well-studied Argentinean Pampean chronological standard, suggesting that the Tarija Quaternary deposits extend over most of the Quaternary, including the
Lujanian Formation (700,000e11,000 a), opening up the possibility for coexistence between humans and extinct megafauna (see also Coltorti et al., 2007). In 1987, a partially mineralized human skeleton was discovered in the Tarija neighborhood of San Luis. A bone sample from these remains was exported by B. Arzqueta and H.J. Siber and analyzed at the Ion Beam Geophysics Lab of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (PSI/ETH Zrich), giving an AMS radiocarbon date of 7640 50 BP (Delcourt, 2001: p. 11). Although the context of the San Luis human skeleton is unclear, this date suggests that humans were occupying the basin during the Middle Archaic and prompts a reassessment of the co-existence between humans and paleofauna. More recently, Philippe Delcourt (2001, 2003) has reported ndings of rock shelters and open-air sites containing Preceramic occupations in western Tarija, including Cerro Cobre, Rejara, Mecoya, Quebrada Honda, Laguna Taxara, Copacabana, Yunchar, and Iscayachi (see also Michel Lpez et al., 2000; Ventura et al., 2010). In addition to different projectile point types, the presence of sh tail points at some of these sites is intriguing. The human remains from San Luis are currently curated at the Museo Nacional Paleontolgico y Arqueolgico, in Tarija, but more research is required to determine the presence of early humans in the valley. 4.2.2. San Lucas Claudia Rivera Casanovas and Sergio Calla Maldonado (2011) have recently carried out a survey of the San Lucas region in the upper Cinti Valley of western Chuquisaca (see also Rivera Casanovas, 2004). As a result, they reported 33 Archaic Period settlements, of which about 58% were located in the high sierra and 42% in lower quebradas. Only two sites were larger than 1 ha, while most consisted of small camp sites. Their work in the valley included cleaning up a naturally occurring prole in a river cut. The prole unveiled evidence of human occupation with a hearth and an associated occupation surface covered by approximately 6 m of alluvium. An AMS date of the hearth produced the date of 7041 60 BP (OZK-824) or 7938e7689 cal BP (Rivera Casanovas and Calla Maldonado, 2011: Table 2). In addition, they provided a typology of projectile points and other stone tools that suggests people in the valleys and highlands shared a similar technological tradition.
4.3. Highlands 4.3.1. Pumiri Javier Mncias (2012) and Dagner Salvatierra (2012) conducted research in Pumiri, near Turco (in the Department of Oruro), and the little known Sora Sora obsidian source (Avila Salinas, 1975; Burger et al., 2000). Here, they excavated a rock shelter (URR-001) associated with a possibly early rock art style and documented over 2 m of stratigraphic deposition, including a substantial Archaic Period sequence (Mncias, 2012). Through collaboration, a charcoal sample from the deepest clear human occupation level of this site (1.85 m below the surface) was AMS 14C dated to 4441 45 BP (AA96432, d13C 22.3) or 4867e5036 cal BP. This level was associated with a large foliated projectile point, manufactured in locally available chert, a small obsidian triangular stemmed projectile point, an obsidian core, and numerous akes. 4.3.2. Salar de Coipasa During eldwork conducted for reconstructing the sequence of paleolakes in the southern and central altiplano (see above), Placzek et al. (2006) identied a rock shelter located on the shores of Salar de Coipasa. Site 7 e of their study e is located at 3660 m asl and is associated with a steep tufa encrusted slope on the border of the salt at. The rock shelter included a naturally occurring prole with coarsely stratied anthropogenic sediments described as brown sandy-silts with abundant charcoal, bone, and stone tool fragments (Placzek et al., 2006: Sup. mat.). Scattered lithic akes and approximately 20 rhomboid and foliated projectile points were found within a 10-m radius. Two charcoal samples from the bottom and top of the anthropogenic layers of the prole were analyzed, producing a date range between 5636 and 5397 BP or 6440e6000 cal BP (Placzek et al., 2006: Table 1). The absence of lacustrine sediments over the dated archaeological deposits suggests neither subsequent lake transgression during or after the human occupation of this site nor a possible regional wetland expansion (Placzek et al., 2006: p. 527). This human occupation is signicant because not only it is one of the few dated sites in this area of the altiplano, but also because it shows that there were human groups occupying this region during the Mid-Holocene, a time of probable increased aridity and environmental unpredictability (see Baker et al., 2005; Nez et al., 2005; Grosjean et al., 2007). 4.3.3. Iroco Iroco is located in the northern margin of Lake Uru-Uru in the Department of Oruro. Here, the authors have been carrying out eldwork research since 2003, rst as part of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study of the Kori Chaca Mining Project and, subsequently as part of a research project focused on early camelid pastoralism (Albarracin-Jordan, 2005b; Capriles, 2011; Capriles et al., 2011). Iroco includes typical highland habitats such as lakeshores, oodplains and foothills, with characteristically open vegetation composed of grasslands and shrublands. During the Holocene, the climate of the area uctuated, producing alternating stages of lacustrine and riverine environments (Rigsby et al., 2005). During systematic high-intensity, full-coverage survey of 38.35 km2, 35 Archaic Period settlements were documented (Capriles, 2011; Capriles et al., 2011). Based on site size and contents, a diversity of settlements was identied, including lithic workshops, home bases, and logistical and stationary camps. Only three sites were larger than 0.5 ha. In 2005, systematic collections and excavations were conducted at one of these sites, KCH20 (Albarracin-Jordan, 2005b). All surface artifacts were collected from 96 (25 m2) plots. As a result, 4439 lithic artifacts were collected, mainly consisting of akes and debitage (91%). However, complete and fragmented stone tools were also present, including several
types of projectile points, preforms, unifacial scrapers, bifaces, knifes, and burins. The most frequent raw material was black basalt (62%), followed by two types of chert (23%), and other less frequent raw materials, including obsidian. Black basalt probably originated at Querimita, a quarry located in the southwestern shore of Lake Poop (see Michel Lpez, 2008). The rst ve excavation units produced interesting stratigraphic information but only a handful of stone tools, mostly deposited within a discrete silt layer of occupation covered by aeolian sandy deposits. However, in Unit 6, located in the northeast of the site, a large and dense feature was identied, containing several stone tools and animal bone remains associated with a silt layer. The feature consisted of a sub-rectangular shaped trash pit or capped hearth surrounded by large cobbles and stains of possible postholes, and measured 1.2 m by 1 m long and 15 cm deep. Lithic remains recovered from this feature included 155 specimens including three projectile points, seven scrapers, a quartzite percussion hammer, and dozens of akes from different raw materials. Two shouldered and stemmed projectile points (Capriles et al., 2011: Fig. 4a, h) recovered from the feature, in Unit 6, suggested the site was occupied during the Early Archaic (Type 1B in Klink and Aldenderfer, 2005: p. 31). The faunal remains consisted of 446 bone specimens, comprising guanaco-sized camelids, deer, wild guinea pigs, ducks, coots, and avocets with clear evidence of burning and breakage, demonstrating they were deposited as a result of human butchery, consumption, and discard activities (Capriles, 2011). Two AMS radiocarbon dates from animal bone collagen recovered from the trash pit feature produced the age range of 8314e8059 BP or 9289e8729 cal BP (Capriles, 2011: Table 7.2). The frequency and distribution of lithic artifacts implies that tool manufacture and maintenance activities were carried out at the site. Moreover, the archaeofaunal evidence suggests an intensive activity area that included in situ food preparation, consumption, and discard (Capriles, 2011). Site KCH20, at Iroco, serves as a baseline for understanding the foraging subsistence economy in the altiplano during the Early Archaic Period. 4.3.4. Cueva Bautista Following up on questions that emerged during the San Cristobal Mining Project Environmental Impact Assessment, survey and excavations were conducted in the Sora River valley (located between San Agustn and Alota, in Lpez), in 2008 and 2010 (Albarracin-Jordan and Capriles, 2011). As a result, 17 Archaic Period settlements were documented, eleven of which correspond to caves and rock shelters. Some of these sites include evidence of Paleoamerican origin (Albarracin-Jordan and Capriles, 2011). In 2008, a 1 m2 test pit was excavated in Cueva Bautista (AL03), situated at 3932 m asl. The unit was located at the center of the cave and produced a 1.8 m deep stratigraphic sequence. The uppermost layers were composed of pre-Hispanic occupations, including a Formative Period ritual cache dated to 3111 54 BP or 3384e3101 cal BP (AA84157). More importantly, at 1.7 m below the surface and beneath approximately 80 cm of culturally-sterile naturally deposited ll, an occupation level associated with lithic artifacts and carbonized wood was identied. A charcoal sample from this occupation surface was AMS dated to 10,917 69 BP or 12,989e12,806 cal BP (AA84158). Lithic artifacts recovered from the Late Pleistocene stratum at Cueva Bautista included ve light brown chert akes, one red jasper ake, one chalcedony ake, ve obsidian akes (one with retouch), and one black basalt ake. Most of the identied lithic raw materials are locally and regionally available, but the closest known obsidian source is Laguna Blanca/Zapaleri, near the Bolivian-Chilean-Argentinean border, and roughly 150 km south of the site (Nielsen, 2004; Yacobaccio et al., 2004; Seelenfreund et al., 2010).
10
Currently, Cueva Bautista is the earliest, archaeologically documented, settlement in Bolivian territory and one of the earliest archaeological sites in the south central Andes (Albarracin-Jordan and Capriles, 2011). The sites early occupation is consistent with a few early settlements such as Tuina and Salar Punta Negra in the Atamaca Desert (Nez et al., 2002; Grosjean et al., 2005) and its importance for understanding human colonization of, and adaptation to, high altitude ecosystems in the Andes, during the Late Pleistocene, cannot be overlooked. The southern altiplano of Bolivia needs much more scientic attention, not just in terms of reconstructive approaches, but also in terms of methodological advances and theory building processes. The authors are currently conducting more research at Cueva Bautista and its surroundings. 5. Conclusions 5.1. Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene archaeology in Bolivia Bolivia is a country with a vast number of archaeological sites, representing a broad spectrum of cultural manifestations through time and space. Unfortunately, very little research has been done to address issues related to the earliest human presence in the diverse regions that comprise the country. This paper presented an overview and assessment of the research framework associated with Archaic Period sites. Although many weaknesses remain, ongoing studies have begun to ll in the main gaps and to provide a clear and robust set of data. Until fairly recently, Archaic Period archaeology in Bolivia, based mostly on typological comparisons with sequences from neighboring countries, was limited to chronological speculation (e.g., Arellano Lpez, 2000). Furthermore, Archaic Period archaeology in Bolivia, in strong contrast with neighboring countries (with the sole exception of Paraguay), has been slow in producing substantial data. Until recently, very little was known about the distant past in this part of the Andes. However, the new generation of Bolivian archaeologists is beginning to redress this situation. Currently, signicant data concerning the Paleoamerican colonization of this part of the Andes is being systematically collected. Moreover, the Early Archaic occupation of various ecological zones in Bolivia is receiving more attention. The archaeological context and radiocarbon dates of San Lucas, San Luis, and uapua suggest the presence of human inhabitants in the inter-Andean valleys and Chaco lowlands of southern Bolivia by at least 8000 cal BP. The possible association of early hunter-gatherers with paleofauna, extending into the Holocene is an intriguing question that awaits resolution (Coltorti et al., 2012). Follow-up research in San Lucas and future work in the valleys of Tarija ought to provide important complementary information with respect to earlier sites. Although some sites might be covered by considerable alluvium accumulated throughout the Holocene, archaeological work in rock shelters and caves, river cuts and fossil beds, should contribute to a larger corpus of information. Additionally, bioanthropological assessment and geochemical testing on the human remains of San Luis and uapua, as well as on the human skeletons of Cochabamba, are other important areas for future research. In the highlands, the abundance of Archaic Period occupations historically documented in surveys and excavations is considerable. Although few of these sites have been radiometrically dated, they point towards signicant human presence beginning as early as ca. 13,000 cal BP. The earliest human groups that colonized the continent already possessed the complex social, symbolic, and technological sophistication that characterizes our species (Dillehay, 2008; Goebel et al., 2008; Meltzer, 2009). In fact, the earliest colonization of the Andes involved complex processes of biological and cultural adaptation to unique environmental
circumstances (Aldenderfer, 2008). These processes along with specic strategic evolutionary responses to challenging environmental factors are susceptible to comparative research. For instance, given that paleoenvironmental research suggests that between 13,000 and 11,000 cal BP, the altiplano was covered by extensive lakes, the earliest human adaptations to high-elevation environments might be related to foraging on lacustrine resources, and not merely limited to the exploitation of relatively large mammals, such as wild camelids or deer. The complex geography of the Andean highlands includes abundant locations with potentially well-preserved evidence of early human occupations. The few available dated sites indicate the presence of human occupations in the Bolivian highlands throughout the Holocene. The dispersion of highland sites calls for more research involving systematic excavations and radiocarbon dating of both open-air sites and stratied rock shelters. As research continues, it is expected that questions related to the development of specic cultural traditions, economic systems, and processes of animal and plant domestication, would certainly be addressed using evidence recovered from these sites. In a recent assessment of the Archaic Period archaeology of the south central Andes, Aldenderfer (2009: p. 81) asked, where is the Bolivian Archaic? This paper, in part, responds to this fundamental question. Three factors that emerged during the 1990s contributed substantially to the growing interest in Paleoamerican and Archaic Period research. First, the growing number of archaeological impact studies, carried out for mining, hydrocarbon, and infrastructure projects, has increased the number and types of archaeological sites known in Bolivia. Work in Iroco (Oruro) and Cueva Bautista (Potos) derived from archaeological impact studies that were part of environmental impact assessments. Second, a new generation of students from Universidad Mayor de San Andrs has successfully renewed interest on much belated research topics. Whereas, between 1952 and 1985, Bolivian archaeology was controlled by state organizations that focused almost entirely on Tiwanaku and other monumental sites, the creation of an archaeology department in 1986 encouraged investigation of a wider range of topics including earlier chronological periods. Finally, increased collaboration between Bolivian and foreign researchers has produced new opportunities for improving academic training, accessing research resources for specialized analyses, and broadening the signicance of carrying out comprehensive archaeological studies. 5.2. Early human settlement in Bolivia: research prospects A number of Quaternary paleontological localities have been described in Bolivia (Hoffstetter, 1968; MacFadden and Wolff, 1981; Marshall et al., 1984; Marshall and Sempere, 1991; Mamani Quispe and Andrade Flores, 2003). Several of these sites date earlier than the Late Pleistocene, but some are younger (i.e., Lujanian) and could potentially include evidence of association between human remains and paleofauna, as in the case of uapua and possibly San Luis (Fig. 1). Unfortunately, most of the paleontological research has focused on collecting and describing specimens with little in situ taphonomic and paleoecological research. However, the location and distribution of these sites in addition to the diversity of animals they contain should provide important information regarding the paleoenvironment, subsistence, and character of the earliest human occupations in Bolivian territory. Well-preserved, yet exposed, Quaternary fossil beds are often associated with geological faulting. Future research near and around recent faults (Lavenu et al., 2000) could be potentially productive for predicting fossil locations in association with early human occupations. The correlation between paleontological fossil beds, geological faulting, and the location of the four known early
11
human skeletons, suggests this might be an interesting venue for further research. It is certain that increased archaeological research in the Bolivian highlands will continue to increase the number of early sites. As Dillehay (2000: p. 182) predicted a decade ago, more searching in the high puna and altiplano of the central and southern Andes may bring to light more rock shelters with early occupation. Nevertheless, along with an increased number of sites, Archaic Period archaeology in Bolivia has to move beyond culture-history systematics and typological work and focus on theory driven and problem oriented research (Lanata and Borrero, 1999; Politis, 2003). For example, economic utilization strategies can be related to evolutionary questions using explicit expectations from optimal foraging theory. Favorably, some of this work is already occurring. For instance, Jimnez (2012) is approaching her research in Markanasa by employing an explicitly ecological approach that addresses the development of ecological adaptations to highland environments. Calla Maldonado (2011) has also approached the Archaic Period occupations of the Tiwanaku valley using an explicit Marxist approach that connects social formations to subsistence strategies. Ongoing research in Iroco and Cueva Bautista involves the analysis of settlement patterns and technological organization in terms of resilient ecological adaptations to climate change, in the context of environmental constraints on social and economic decisions (Albarracin-Jordan and Capriles, 2011; Capriles, 2011; Capriles et al., 2011). Moreover, ongoing and new survey and excavations projects have to be complemented by updated documentation protocols and specialized contextual and artifact analyses. Future work should include specialized zooarchaeological, paleoethnobotanical, and geoarchaeological studies for addressing research-oriented questions. Lithic studies should move beyond describing projectile points to characterize assemblages in terms of technological organization and explain changes in settlement systems. Finally, it is essential to date these assemblages and to compare them to wellstudied complexes from Peru, Chile, and Argentina (Rick and Moore, 1999; Lavalle, 2000; De Souza, 2004; Klink and Aldenderfer, 2005; Nez et al., 2005; Santoro et al., 2005; Aldenderfer, 2009; Aschero and Hocsman, 2011; Hoguin and Yacobaccio, 2012). An important limitation for research in Bolivia is the availability of funds for radiocarbon dating. Only well-funded projects have been able to afford the high costs of radiocarbon dates. This is an area where collaborations with other scholars (including other Quaternary scientists) could make a difference and produce signicant results. The integration between paleoclimatological data and archaeological research has been successful in southern Peru (Rigsby et al., 2003; Craig et al., 2010) and northern Chile (Grosjean et al., 2007; Santoro et al., 2011), but these collaborations, for the most part, are still absent in Bolivia, and therefore, this is an area in which future work should categorically develop. Furthermore, collaboration with paleoclimatologists is essential for understanding longterm processes, such as cultural adaptations to different dimensions, magnitudes, and degrees of global climate change. The archaeology of Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene is an exciting, challenging, and expanding eld in Bolivian archaeology. There are plenty of opportunities for making signicant discoveries and contributing to broader research issues in New World archaeology, including the early peopling of the continent, human evolutionary adaptations to high-elevation environments, domestication of plants and animals, population dynamics in relation to global climate change, early social interaction, and the role of humans in the extinction of megafauna. Learning more about the early peopling of the Andes, the Amazon and La Plata basins will also lead to a better understanding of the sources of cultural diversity that still puzzle scholars from diverse scientic elds.
Acknowledgements Our research in Iroco and Cueva Bautista received funding from the National Geographic Society, the National Science Foundation, the Bartolom de Las Casas Foundation, Monopol, Factumx Ingeniera, and Washington University in St. Louis. The radiocarbon dates from Markanasa, Pumiri, Iroco, and Cueva Bautista were supported by discount fees from the NSF-University of Arizona AMS-Facility. We would like to thank Gustavo Politis, Luciano Prates, Lucas Bueno, and James Steele for inviting us to participate in the South American Radiocarbon Database Project and for their useful recommendations on the paper. We would also like to express our gratitude to Dave Browman, Alejandra Domic, Blaine Maley, Fiona Marshall, and two anonymous reviewers for providing many helpful comments and suggestions on an earlier version of this paper.
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Capriles Et Al 2012 - Early Human Bolivia

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Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e14

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The earliest human occupations in Bolivia: A review of the archaeological evidence

J.M. Capriles, J. Albarracin-Jordan / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e14

J.M. Capriles, J. Albarracin-Jordan / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e14

J.M. Capriles, J. Albarracin-Jordan / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e14

J.M. Capriles, J. Albarracin-Jordan / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e14

J.M. Capriles, J. Albarracin-Jordan / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e14

Fig. 2. Map of Archaic Period archaeological sites in Bolivia.

(MacFadden and Wolff 1981: p. 776) (Marshall et al., 1984: p. 34)

(Capriles 2011: Table 7.2) 20 92 3690 AA91569 Iroco, KCH20

Years BP Error d13C

NY Queens College (QC) N/A

ETH Zrich (ETH) OZK824

Pumiri, URR-001 AA96432

San Lucas, SL79

Tarija, San Luis

uapua, uagapua, 2002

Cueva Bautista, AL03

uapua, uagapua, 1978

Open air, paleontological deposit

Open air, paleontological deposit

(Albarracin-Jordan and Capriles 2011: p. 96)

J.M. Capriles, J. Albarracin-Jordan / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e14

J.M. Capriles, J. Albarracin-Jordan / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e14

J.M. Capriles, J. Albarracin-Jordan / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e14

J.M. Capriles, J. Albarracin-Jordan / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e14

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