INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES & TURBINES

B.E. (Mechanical Engineering)

Academic Year (2010-11) Theory :- 100 Marks Term Work :- 50 Marks

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Study of Carburetors Trial on Diesel Engine Test Rig Morse Test Apparatus Valve timing diagrams Trial on Petrol Engine Test Rig Study of Lubrication Systems Study of Different Fuel Injection Systems Study of Ignition Systems (Assignment)

Experiment No. 1
Carburetors Aim: Dissembling and assembling of one automotive carburetor. Theory: A) Solex carburetors: The Solex carburetor is famous for ease of starting, good performance and reliability. It is made in various models and used in Fiat and Standard cars and Willys jeep. The unique feature of this carburetor is the bi-starter for cold starting. The various circuits of Solex carburetor are described below: i) Normal running: The Solex carburetor has a conventional float -1 in a float chamber for normal running, the fuel is provided by the main jet -2 and air by the choke tube or venturi -3 .The fuel from the main jet passes into the well of the air bleed emulsion system -4 is the emulsion tube which has lateral (strokes) holes. The correct balance of air and fuel is automatically ensured by air entering through & being calibrated by the air connection jet -5. The metered (jet) emulsion of fuel and air is discharged through spraying orifice of nozzles -6 drilled horizontally in the virtual stand-pipe in the middle of choke tube or venturi -7 is the conventional butterfly valve. ii) Cold starting & warming: - The unique feature of Solex carburetors is the provision of bi-starter or a progressive starter. The starter valve is in the form of a flat disc -8 with holes of different sizes. These holes connect the starter petrol jet -9 & starter air jet sides to the passage which opens into a hole just below the throttle valve at -11. Depending upon the position of the starter lever -12 either bigger or smaller holes come opposite the passage. The starter lever, which rotates the starter valve, is operated from the dashboard control by means of a flexible cable. Initially, for starting richer mixture is required & after the engine starts the richness required decreases. So in the start ignition bigger holes are the connecting holes. The throttle valve being in the closed position the whole of the engine suction is applied to starting passage -11 sucking petrol from jet -9 & air from jet -10 .The jets & passages are so shaped that the mixture supplied to the carburetors is rich enough for starting. After the engine has started, the starter lever is brought to the intermediate state position, bringing the smaller hole in the starter valve -8 in to

The circuit thus reducing the amount of petrol. Also in this position the throttle valve is partly open, that the petrol is also coming out from the main jet, the reduced mixture supply from the starter system in this situation is however sufficient to keep the engine iii) running, till it reaches the normal running temperature, when the starter is brought to normal position. Idling the slow running: - From the lower part of the well of the emulsion system a hole leads off to the pilot jet 13. At idling the throttle is almost closed and hence engine suction is applied at the petrol jet. Fuel is drawn there from & mixed with small amounts of air admitted through the small pilot air blood orifice 14 & forms an emulsion which is conveyed down the vertical channel & discharged into the throttle body past the idling volume control screw-15. The slow running adjustment screw allow the speed of the engine to be varied. The volume control screw -15 which permits variation of the slow running jets delivery of petrol, allows the richness of the mixture to be corrected with accuracy. To ensure the smooth transfer from idle and low speed circuit to the main jet circuit without the occurrence of flat spot bypass orifice -17 is provided on the venturi side of the throttle valve. As the throttle is opened wide, the suction at idle port -16 is decreased, but suction is also applied now at the slow speed opening -17 which more than offsets the loss of suction at the idle port and thus flat spot is avoided. iv) Acceleration: To avoid flat spot during acceleration a diaphragm type acceleration pump is provided. It delivers spurts of extra fuel needed for acceleration through pump injector 18. Pump lever -19 is connected to the accelerator so that when the pedal is pressed, the lever moves towards left, pressing the membrane towards leftthus forcing the petrol through pump jet -20 & injector -18. When the pedal is left free, the lever moves the diaphragm back towards right creating vacuum towards left which opens the pump inlet valve -21 thus admits the petrol from chamber into the pump.

B) S.U. Carburetors: In general the carburetors are of "constant choke" type but the S.U. carburetors differ completely from them being "constant vacuum or depression" type with automatically variable choke. The basic components of (S.U.) horizontal S.U. carburetors are shown in fig. The carburetor has a conventional system of float chamber which feeds fuel into a virtual channel in which is situated the jet sleeve-1. The sleeve bears a number of holes in its side so that the fuel will enter the sleeve & thus stand at the same level as in the float chamber. Into the jet sleeve -1 fits the tapered metering needle -2 which is secured by a (group) grub screw into the choke piston or piston assembly -3. This part of the piston slides up & down in air passage, one end of which is connected to atmosphere through air cleaner & the other to the engine through a conventional throttle valve-4 The upper portion of the choke piston is formed into a suction disc-5 which is sliding fit in the suction chamber -6 the whole assembly being located by a hardened hollow steel guide rod -13 which has its bearing in the long boss in the center of the suction chamber as shown. The upper side of suction disc is connected to the air passage through a suction hole-7 & the lower side to the atmosphere through an atmosphere hole -8 Working: By means of suction hole, engine depression is transmitted to the upper face of the suction piston, while atmospheric air pressure is admitted to the lower chamber through the atmosphere hole. (The engine depression depends on engine demand adjusted by the degree of throttle opening.) Thus, the position of choke piston at any instant depends upon the balance of its own weight and a light spring -9 if provided (down) against the vacuum force (up). As the weight of the piston is instant, the vacuum variable choke (i.e. variable c/s area of air passage) is obtained. Due to constant vacuum an approx constant air velocity is maintained with the vertical movement of the choke piston the metering needle also moves up & down conventionally in the petrol jet orifice -10 thus, varying the effective area of the jet. As the piston rises under the increased suction, the tapered needle also moves upwards & increases the effective jet area, allowing a greater amount of petrol to flow into the main air steam & vice versa, this approx constant air fuel ratio is maintained. The unique feature of this jet is that it has only one jet. There is no separate idling jet or acceleration pump. Since, a constant high air velocity across the jet is maintained even under idling condition, the necessity for a separate idling jet is obviated.

For cold starting a rich mixture is provided by an arrangement to lower the jet tube away from the needle by means of (air) the jet lever, there by enlarging the jet orifice. The lever is operated from the dash board in the car. There is also an arrangement providing a slightly rich mixture on acceleration. For this purpose an oil dashpot -12 is provided in the upper part of the hollow piston of guide rod13 In this a small piston - 14 is suspended by a rod from the oil cap nut 15. This arrangement also prevents the flutter of choke piston. In tuning the carburetors, variation in mixture strength is obtained by relating needles having different tapes, & a wide range of different needles available. The idling speed is adjusted with the help of adjustment nut, which moves the jet sleeve up & down. This carburetor is used in many British cars and was used in Hindustan Ambassador car.

Experiment No. 2
Valve timing Diagrams Aim: To study the valve timing diagrams of 2 stroke and 4 stroke petrol and diesel engines. Theory: Valve timing is the regulation of the points in the cycle at which the valves are set to open & close. In the ideal cycle inlet & exhaust valve open & close at dead centers, but in actual cycles, they open or close before or after dead centers as explained below:There are two factors, one mechanical & other dynamic, for the actual valve timings tot be different from the theoretical valve timing. a) Mechanical factor:The puppet valves of the reciprocating engines are opened & closed by cam mechanisms. The clearance between cam, tappet and valve must be slowly taken up & valve slowly filled, at first, if noise and wear is to be avoided, for the same reasons the valve cannot be closed abruptly, else it mill bounce on its seat. (Also the cam counters should be so designed as to produce gradual and smooth changes in directional acceleration.) Thus, the valve opening & closing periods are spread over a considerable number of crankshaft degrees. As a result, the opening of valve must commence ahead of time at which it is fully opened ie before dead centers.) The same reasoning close after the dead centers. b) Dynamic factor: Besides mechanical factors of opening & closing of valves, the actual valve timing is set taking into considerations, the dynamic effects of gas flow.

Valve timing Diagram for 4 stroke S.I. Engine:1) Intake valve timing:Intake valve timing has a bearing on the actual quantity of air sucked during the suction stoke, i.e. if effects the volumetric efficiency. From the actual valve timing diagram for both low and high speed S.I. engine it is seen that the intake valve opens 10 0 before the arrival of the piston at TDC on the exhaust stock. This is to ensure that the valve will be fully open the fresh charge starting to flow into the cylinder as soon as possible after TDC. As the piston moves out in the suction stroke, the fresh charge is drawn in through the intake valve. When the piston searches BDC and starts to move in the compression stroke, the inertia of the entering fresh charge tends to cause it to continue to move into cylinder. To take advantage of this, the intake valve is closed after TDC so that maximum air is taken in.

This is called ram effect. The time the intake valve should remain open after TDC is decided by the speed. The charge speed is low and so the air inertia is low and hence the intake valve should close relatively early, after BDC for a slow speed engine as compared to a high speed engine. 2) Exhaust valve timing:The exhaust valve is set to open before BDC (say about 25 0 before BDC in low speed engines & 550 before BDC is high speed engines). If the exhaust valve did not start to open until BDC, the pressures in the cylinder would be considerably above the atmospheric pressure during the first portion of the exhaust stroke, increasing the work required to except the exhaust gases. But opening the exhaust valve earlier, reduces the pressure near the end of the power stroke & thus, causes some loss of useful work on this stoke. However, the overall effect of opening the valve prior to the timing the piston reaches BDC results in overall gains in output. The closing timing of exhaust valve effects the volumetric efficiency. By closing the exhaust valve a few degrees after TDC (after 150 for low speed and 200 for high speed), the inertia of exhaust gases tends to scavenge the cylinder by conveying out a greater mass of the gas left in the clearance volume. This results in increased volumetric efficiency. The period when both the intake & exhaust valves are open at the same time is called as valves over lap. Actual valve tuning diagram for a stoke C.I. Engine: The valve-timing diagram for C.I. engine is similar to that of S.I. engine. Instead of producing spark, fuel is injected into the cylinder through fuel injector and only air is taken inside cylinder during suction stoke in C.I. engines. Actual part timing diagram for 2 stroke S.I. Engine.:In case of 2 stroke engine, the exhaust port is opened near the end of the expansion stroke. With piston controlled exhaust and inlet port arrangement, the lower port of the piston stroke is always wasted so as far as the useful power output is concerned, about 15% 40% of the expansion stroke is ineffective. The actual percentage varies with different designs. This early opening of the exhaust port during last port of the expansion stroke is necessary to permit blow down of the exhaust gases & also to reduce the cylinder pressure so that when the inlet port opens at the end of the blow down process, fresh charge can enter the cylinder. The fresh charge which comes from the crank case for scavenging pump, enters the

cylinder at a pressure slightly higher than the atm. pressure. Some of the fresh charge is lost due to short circuiting .For a petrol engines this means a loss of fuel and high unburnt hydrocarbons in the exhaust. By comparing the valve timing of 2 stroke and 4 stroke engines, it is clear that the time available for scavenging and changing of the cylinder of a two stroke engine is about one third that available for the 4 stroke engine. Actual port timing diagram for 2 stroke C.I. engine:The port timing diagram for 2 stroke C.I. engine similar to that of 2 stroke S.I. engine. The 2 stroke C.I. engine does not suffer from fuel loss and idling difficulty. In C.I. engines there is no loss of fuel as the charge is only air and there is no difficulty at idling because the fresh charge is not reduced.

Experiment No. 3
Morse test Aim: To study Morse test Theory:Morse test: In the Morse test, which is applicable for both petrol and diesel engines, the individual cylinders are successively cut off and the brake horse power is determined. This gives the indicated power developed by each cylinder and hence by the full engine from which B.P. is subtracted. F.P. can be obtained. Morse test is applicable to multi cylinder engines only. The engine is first run at a required speed and the o/p is measured, then one cylinder is cut off by short circuiting the spark plug or by disconnecting the injector as the case may be under this condition all other cylinders of motor are running except cut out cylinder. The output of this condition can be measured by keeping the speed constant at its original value. The difference in the output is a measure of the indicated power of the cutout cylinder. This technique is used for every cylinder one by one, thus for each cylinder, the I.P. is obtained is added together to find the total I.P. of the engine. The I.P. of n cylinders is given by, I.Pn = B.Pn + F.P. I.P(n-1) = B.P(n-1) + F.P. (2) Since the engine is running at same speed it is quite reasonable to assume that F.P. remains constant subtracting equation (2) from equation (1), we get, I.Pn- I.P(n-1) = B.Pn- B.P(n-1) I.Pnth = B.Pn- B.P(n-1) Similarly, we can find out the I.P. for each cylinder putting the values of all variables in eqn (1) we can obtain valve of F.P. This method gives reasonably accurate results is liable to errors due changes in mixture distribution and other conditions by cutting out one cylinder. In gasoline engines, where there is common manifold for two or more cylinders, the mixture distribution as well (1) I.P. for (n-1) cylinders is given by,

as the volumetric efficiency both change. Again all the engines have a common exhaust manifold. For all cylinders and cutting out of one cylinder may greatly affect the pulsations (system) in exhaust system which may significantly change the engine performance by imposing different back pressures. For a four cylinder engine, we can write eqn as, IP1 + IP2 + IP3+IP4 = BP1234 + FP IP2 + IP3 + IP4 = BP234 + FP IP1 + IP3 + IP4 = BP134 + FP IP1 + IP2 + IP4 = BP124 + FP IP1 + IP2 + IP3 = BP123 + FP Subtracting Eqn (2) from Eqn (1) We get, IP1 = BP1234 - BP234 Similarly , values of I.P2 , I.P3 & I.P4 can be found out. By putting all the values we can get the value of F.P. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Experiment No. 4
Aim: To study the methods of exhaust gas analysis. Principle:Exhaust emission control values for automobiles are expressed in gm/km or gm/mile to obtain these valves. Volume of exhaust gases is measured and when concentration of gas has been determined, chemical formulae can be used to calculate the standards values. 1) Measurement of CO and CO2 concentration: Principle : NDIR (Non Dispersive Infrared) light is used in this method. principle used in this method is that when infrared light is passed through a mixture of CO, CO 2 and other gases infrared light of spritic wavelength is proportional to concentration of CO, CO2, etc. Construction of operation: Infrared rays from a light source pass through a measuring cell and a comparator cell. When concentration of gases bearing measured charges in measuring cell and a comparator cell when concentration of gases being measured charges in measuring cell a portion of infrared rays is observed and energy of that says that reaches the sensor charges accordingly since comparator cell consist the gas that does not absorb infrared rays, it sends a constant amount of energy to sensor all the time, thus cause a different in the strength of infrared rays propagating through each cells. When infrared rays in each cell are intermittent the blocked by a revolving chopper. The energy of infrared rays obtained by sensor is converted into pressure and causes vibration of this diaphragm of capacitor microphone that is built into the sensor. The vibration is converted into an alternating current signal. 2) Measurement of HC concentration: Principle: A FID (Flame Ignition Detector) is used for this measurement the principle behind this is that is minute quantities of hydrocarbons to separate in proportional to concentration of hydrocarbons. Construction & operation:

A sample gas and a fuel gas are mixed as part A of the muzzle. The mixture is then mixed with air is combustion chamber. A ve high voltage is applied to the nozzle and a +ve high voltage is applied to the controller. The sensor detects size of current (ion current) that flows between the two electrodes (the nozzle and the collector) by counting the change in no of ions being generated in hydrogen flame. accordingly and the result sent to the recorder. 3) Measurements of NO concentration: Principle: In this measurement of NDIR or CLD (chemical burning sense elector) is used here. Here we will describe the principle used by CLD when NO in contact with O 3 i.e. ozone a chemical reaction takes place. Also a light of particular wavelength is emitted the wavelength of light emitted is proportional to the NO concentration. Further more, at high temperature, NOx is resolved into NO resulting in the same chemical reaction as above. The amount of light generated at this time is measured. Construction & Operation: NO & O3 are supplied to retain tube and a chemical reaction is created, light generated at this time passes through a filter and is detected by photo multiples where it is amplified and measured to determine the concentration of NO in the exhaust gas. The ve concentration is calculated

Experiment No. 5
Testing of diesel engine at constant speed and varying load. Aim: To carry out test on diesel engine at constant speed and varying load. A) Diesel engine test at constant speed: Introduction: Diesel engines are widely used as a source of mechanical power of their application ranges from prime mover to a driver, a centrifugal pump or a flour mill and automotive engines of trucks and buses to a diesel generally set as a stand by unit in industries. The diesel engines can range from few large power to thousand horsepower. Virtual and horizontal single cylinder diesel engines are very popular in farm & after stationary applications. Procedure:The diesel engine are tested for performance calculations. 1. 2. 3. Start the engine earlier 10-15 min earlier to obtain temperature at appropriate level. Adjust the engine speed and engine load at some suitable values. At the values of speed, take the readings of spring balance, exhaust gas temperature, cooling water outlet temperature, time required for certain drop of fuel level in burette, manometer reading and water flow rate. 4. 5. After taking first set of readings, change the speed at some suitable value keeping load constant and note all readings. In all take the readings for three different valves of speed.

B)

Diesel engine test at constant load:

Procedure: 1) 2) 3) Start the engine 10-15 min earlier to obtain engine temperature at appropriate level. Adjust the engine speed and engine load at some suitable values. At this value of load take the reading of spring balance, exhaust gas temperature, cooling water outlet temperature, time required for certain drop of fuel level in burette manometer reading and water flow ratio. 4) 5) After taking 1st set of readings, change the load at some suitable. Value keeping speed constant and note all reading Plot graph B.P. vs mf

Engine Specifications Rated power output Rated RPM Stroke (L) Bore (d) Brake Drum Dia. Rope Diameter Burette Diameter Diameter of Orifice Density of Fuel Cd = = 5 HP = = = = = = 28 mm = = 855 kg/m3 0.64 1500 110 mm 80 mm 320 mm 20 mm 19.5 mm

Observation Table Sr .N o Spee d RPM Net Load (W-S) Kg Time to Mano drop 10cm meter readin Jacket cooling water inlet temp Jacket cooling water outlet temp Time for Exhaus Exhaus 1 water collectio n t2 sec lit t inlet t outlet temp Tgi temp Tgo

fuel level g Hw

1) B.P. = 2 NT/60 Where T = 9.81 X (W-S) X Rmean Nm Rmean = (D + dr ) / 2 2) mf =f { (/4 d2 X 50/1000)}/t1 3) Heat supplied by fuel Q in = C.V. X mf 4) BSFC =(mf / BP) X 3600/1000 5) Heat carried away by jacket cooling water (Qc) Qc = Mw X Cpw (Two Twi) W Mw = mass flow rate of cooling water ={ [ 1/1000] X 1000) /t2 Cpw = 4.187 Kj/kg0 K From Heat balance of Calorimeter Heat gained by water = Heat lost by exhaust gases Mw Cpw (Tco-Tci) = Mg X Cpg(Tw-T) From this Cpg can be calculated Where Mw = Mass flow rate of cooling water through calorimeter Cpg = Specific heat of exhaust gases Mg = (Mass of fuel + Mass of air) mass flow rate of exhaust gases Mass of air (Ma) = Va X density of f Where: Va = Cd X Ad X (2gHa)1/2m3/s Ad = Area of orifice meter in m2 = /4 X (Od)2 Ha = Hw X 1000 /1.2 Heat carried away by exhaust gases = Mpg X Cpg X (Tg Tatm) W Where Tatm = Atmospheric temperature Mechanical Efficiency = B.P. / I.P. X 100 = % Kg/sec

Thermal Efficiency a) Indicated thermal Efficiency = I.P. / Qin X 100 = % b) Brake thermal Efficiency = B.P./ Qin X 100 = % Volumetric Efficiency = Va / Vs X 100 = % Where Vs = /4 X d2 X L X R.P.S./2 m3/s Heat Balance: Credit KW/min 1. Heat supplied by fuel Debit % 1. Heat in B.P. 2. Heat water 3. Heat in exhaust gases 4. Heat unaccounted in cooling KW/min %

Experiment No. 6
Study of alternative fuels for I.C.Engines. Theory: The crude oil & petroleum products, sometimes during the 21 st century will become vey scarce & costly to find & produce. Although fuel economy of engines is greatly improved from the past & will probably continue to be improved, numbers only dictate that there will be a great demand for fuel in the coming decade. Gasoline will become scarce & costly. Alternate fuel technology, availability & use must & will become more common in the coming decades. Because of the high cost of petroleum products, some third world countries have for many years been using manufactured alcohol as their main vehicle fuel. The reason motivating the development of alternative fuels for the I.C.engine is concern over the emission problems of gasoline engines. Some alternative fuels which can replace conventional fuels in I.C.Engines are: 1) Alcohol (Methyl & ethyl) 2) Hydrogen 3) Natural Gas 4) LPG & LNG 5) Biogas Advantages of alternative fuels 1) Alcohols can be produced from highly reliable & long lasting raw material sources like sugercane, starchy materials, corns etc. Thus they are renewable energy sources. 2) Biogas plants can be conveniently & economically installed in village & farms. 3) Manufacture of biogas from cow-dung will give, as a byproduct. 4) Natural gas is available in plenty. 5) Coal gas is produced by coal gasification. Alcohols, biogas & natural gas have higher octane number, & are suitable for use in S.I. engine with some modificatio. 6) Exhaust from engines using gaseous fuels contains less pollutants, Disadvantages of alternative fuels

1) 2) 3) 4)

Social problems due to prohibition of alcohol, as it can be consumed as liquor by human beings. The carburetor would need modification as the stoichiometric air fuel ratio with alcohols is quite low. The calorific value of alcohol fuels is low as compared to that of diesel or petrol. Hydrogen is highly explosive & its handling is risky.

Experiment No. 7
Assignment on study of cooling system. Students are expected to study various cooling systems in automobile and compare the same.

Experiment No. 8
Assignment on study of ignition system. Students are expected to study various ignition systems in automobile and compare the same.

Experiment No. 9 Assignment on study of any one automobile engine with reference to characteristics. Students are expected to go through the details of any one automobile engine