Preface

Engineering investigation and determination of the causes of structural failures of buildings, bridges, and other constructed facilities, as well as rendering opinions and giving testimony in judicial proceedings, has become a field of professional practice of its own, often referred to as forensic structural engineering. Structural failure does not have to be a catastrophic collapse, it may be a nonconformity with design expectations or deficient performance. Collapse is usually attributed to inadequate strength and/or stability; deficient performance, or so-called serviceability problems, is usually the result of abnormal deterioration, excessive deformation, and signs of distress. In short, structural failure may be characterized as the unacceptable difference between intended and actual structural performance. Well-rounded expertise and success in this field is the result of the combination of many components in an engineers background: a good education in structural engineering and its related subjects; years or even decades of experience in analysis, design, construction, testing, inspection, condition assessment, and trouble-shooting; an understanding of the design-construction process; comprehension of legal implications; good communication skills; a knack for problem solving; a positive attitude to teamwork; a strong sense of ethics; self-confidence without arrogance; credible and confident disposition; and a high level of intellectual sophistication. Some of these traits can be learned but most are ingrained or acquired. In my nearly 40 years of structural engineering practice and university teaching of structural design, analysis, and investigation of failures, I often felt the lack of a comprehensive practical reference on the practice and business of investigating failures. This book is intended to fill the need for a comprehensive and authoritative reference for guidance on forensic structural engineering, addressing technical as well as nontechnical and legal matters on the investigation of structural and construction failures. Some of the most frequently asked nontechnical and legal-related questions by engineers embarking on an activity of forensic structural engineering are: How do I go about it?, How do I start?, What is the right procedure?, What should I watch out for?, How do I deal with my client, with the other parties, with the other experts?, Who are my allies, who are my adversaries?, What are my duties and to whom?, What is my expected, allowable and ultimate behavior?, How do I work with the lawyers?, What are the legal positions I need to be

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aware of?, What is an affidavit, a deposition, a testimony?, What do I do and how do I testify at arbitration, at trial?, and How do I charge for my work? Strictly technical questions by both the novice and the experienced forensic engineer include: What are the applicable codes and standards in this case?, How do I define the applicable standard of care?, What are the critical characteristics of this type of structure?, What are the types and causes of common deficiencies and failures of this type of structure?, What are the methods of observation, instrumentation and testing?, What are the effective methods of analysis for this type of structure?, and What are the workable temporary and permanent repairs for this type of structure? This book has been developed to answer these and many other questions. This is not a what happened or lessons learned book this is a what I need to know, what I need to do, and how I need to do it book. In order for the forensic engineers to intelligently investigate the cause of a failure and subsequently to identify the parties responsible for it, they have to have an understanding of not only loads, strength and stability, but also of the business and practice of design and construction in order to know where, when, how, why, and by whom a cause of failure can originate. They have to know, of course, how to conduct the investigation appropriate to the case. Since nearly all structural deficiencies and failures create claims, disputes, and legal entanglements, forensic engineers need to have some familiarity with the relevant legal process and need to know how to work effectively with attorneys. Complete familiarity with the nature and consequences of loads, and of the critical characteristics and vulnerabilities of structures of different types and materials is the most basic requirement. A special feature of this handbook is its coverage in appropriate detail of the range of these topics that are all necessary for the successful practice of forensic structural engineering. Seventeen chapters are grouped into three parts: Part IDesign and Construction Practices provides the background for understanding the design-construction process, the design and construction codes, standards and regulations, and the legal relationships. Part IIInvestigation of Failures and Resolution of Claims contains six chapters that explain the technical and legal steps both immediately and later after a failure, the engineering investigation and reporting process, the standard of care, the litigation and dispute resolution procedures, and the practice and business of expert consulting and witnessing. Part IIIEngineering Analysis of Structural Defects and Failures begins with a chapter on the magnitude, nature, and consequences of loads and hazards, and then continues with seven chapters on the critical characteristics, most common types and causes of failures, methods of analyzing and testing, and remedial repairs of steel, concrete, masonry, building envelope, timber, foundation, and temporary structures, and presents case studies of nonperformance and failure of each of these seven classes of structures.

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The book is intended for use primarily by structural engineers but also by geotechnical, civil, and construction engineers, contractors, attorneys, insurers, and owners and managers of constructed facilities. (Failure analysis and forensic investigation is an intriguing and stimulating subject, and it is expected that a number of engineers will acquire the book as a useful addition to their reference library even though they are not actively practicing in this field.) Although not written specifically as such, in the absence of a real textbook on the subject and given the logical progression of the topics, as well as the case studies included, it is expected that this handbook will stimulate the teaching of forensic structural engineering and will be embraced as the text in academic and continuing education courses. No single author would have the wide-ranging expertise and credibility to write on all the topics that were necessary for this comprehensive reference book; therefore contributing authors were invited to prepare the individual chapters. The authors are not only experienced practitioners and competent writers but, in most cases, are also nationally and internationally recognized experts in their respective fields. I am grateful to the contributing authors for accepting my invitation to participate in this book and I thank them for their outstanding effort and cooperation. Without their contributions there would be no book. I also owe thanks to the McGraw-Hill people, particularly to Larry Hager, Senior Editor of Civil Engineering and Construction in the Professional Book Division, for his valuable assistance and continuing cooperation in producing the book, to Steven Melvin for his able supervising of the editing, and to the production supervisor, copyeditor, illustrator, typesetter, and others whose work I much appreciate. Robert T. Ratay, Ph.D., P.E.