1.7. Conduction of Current

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1.7. Conduction of Current

The conduction of current in a semiconductor takes place by: Drift, and Diffusion.
1.7.1. Drift Current

Figure 1.17 shows a crystal lattice wherein the free electrons move randomly in Brownian motion. They collide with the stationary atoms and get deflected in a different direction. The average distance travelled between two collisions is called the 'mean free path'. In absence of any electric field, no net movement in any direction takes place as shown by solid arrows in Fig. 1.17 . With application of the electric field, electrons get accelerated in opposite direction of the electric field and hence, although the motion is still random, the net movement takes place as indicated by arrow from left to right. This movement is called 'drift'. Similarly, holes drift in the same direction of the electric field. The drift velocity is proportional to the electric field and related as,
Figure 1.17. Brownian motion of electrons
The motion of charge particles constitutes electric current. Total charge of moving electrons in a volume ( Ax) of the semiconductor is
Thus, current due to drift of electron as shown in Fig. 1.18(a) can be expressed as
In a semiconductor both electrons and holes act as charge carriers and hence current density of drifting holes as shown in Fig. 1.18(b) can be expressed as
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In a semiconductor both electrons and holes act as charge carriers and hence current density of drifting holes as shown in Fig. 1.18(b) can be expressed as
Figure 1.18. (a) Drift of electrons (b) Drift of holes
Now total current densities due to drifting electrons and holes as indicated in Fig. 1.18(c) is
Figure 1.18. (c) Drift of holes and electrons
The intrinsic conductivity of pure Ge at room temperature is approximately 2.2 mho/m, while the pure Si may approach as low as 4 10
4
mho/m. The resistivity is
1.7.2. Recombination/Generation and Lifetime

Carriers (electrons and holes) are generated in pairs due to thermal agitation or absorption of radiations. Some of the free electrons come near the empty covalent bond (hole) and fall into it. For such recombination, momentum of electrons and holes must be conserved. Since the momentum after collisions is zero, it is imperative that electrons and holes must be moving with equal and opposite velocities before collisions. Such direct method of recombination is a rare possibility and hence, very less amount of recombination takes place. Normally recombination takes place through 'traps' or 'recombination centres'. There are atoms having energy states in the forbidden band. Such condition exists due to imperfection. This condition can also be created artificially by doping the material with impurity atoms. These traps act as third body in collision and absorb the residual momentum. Thus, the rate of recombination increases. The lifetime of carriers denoted by (tau) is defined as the average time elapsed between two generations or recombinations. In fast recovery diodes, the lifetime of a carrier is kept very low by doping with gold. Force on an electron = qE The minus sign is due to negative charge of electron.
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Hence, on integrating, electron velocity comes out to be
Equation 1.7.16 indicates that the mobility of electron is related with its lifetime ( ).
n
The lifetime of the carrier is defined as the time taken by the carrier to transfer the energy from excitation to recombination. The motion of the carriers in semiconductor is retarded by lattice vibration, impurities and crystal defects. At higher temperature carriers are scattered randomly by lattice vibrations, while at lower temperature Coulomb interaction between carriers and impurity ions dominates over scattering mechanism. When an electric field is applied across it, electrons and holes are accelerated in opposite directions till they are scattered by impurities or photons. Special feature of this interaction or collision is that the velocity of carriers after each encounter becomes essentially random once again and their acceleration in the direction of the field starts afresh. Thus, for moderate field intensities carriers never go far-off from the thermal equilibrium. Inspite of the presence of electric field, the carrier energy remains essentially thermal.
1.7.3. Diffusion Current

Let us consider a sample semiconductor material as shown in Fig. 1.19 wherein concentration of carriers (holes) is much high on the left side of the surface YY. Since the holes are in Brownian motion, they cross over the surface YY randomly from left to right and right to left. But as the concentration of holes on the left side is much higher than that on the right side, the average number holes going from left to right is more than number of holes going from right to left of the surface YY. This constitutes a net flow of holes (carriers) from left to right, i.e. a net current flow due to flow of holes from left to right. This is called diffusion current because it results from diffusion of carriers. Thus, diffusion current is due to flow of charge carriers from higher concentration to lower concentration region.
Figure 1.19. Diffusion of holes in Brownian motion
The diffusion current is proportional to the concentration gradient, i.e. rate of change of concentration with distance is expressed as
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Here, negative sign means that the current flows from left to right for decreasing concentration with distance. Similarly, diffusion current density for electrons (negative charge carrier) is
Hence, total electron current density due to drift and diffusion is
These charges can be assumed as gas molecules. For gas in steady state
The pressure gradient that provides force to expand the gas is
The excess density of electrons in a semiconductor with non-uniform excess electrons at a certain distance from the injecting point is n/m . The internal electric field at the same point E provides the force on one electron = qE and hence force on Dn electrons
3
This force corresponds to the pressure gradient of gas = force of the charge gradient and hence Eqns. 1.7.22 and 1.7.24 are similar. Thus,
Hence, total hole current due to drift and diffusion of holes is
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Similarly, total electron current due to drift and diffusion is
Another definition required for the explanation of energy band diagram of solids is Fermi level that is indicated in Fig. 1.20 . Fermi level (intrinsic) of any solid may be regarded as the reference energy level from which all other energies may be measured conveniently.
Figure 1.20. Intrinsic semiconductor energy band
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1.7. Conduction of Current

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Electronic Devices and Integrated Circuits > Physics of Semiconductors...