A project of Volunteersin Asia

E Des . for &xter G. Ovens Kks.l.8

by: William

Published by: Volunteers in Technical Assistance 1815 North Lynn St. Suite 200 P.C. Box 12438 Ariington, VA 22209 USA Paper copies are $ 4.95. Available froi?: Volunteers in Technical Assistance 1815 North Lynn St. Suite 200 P-0. Box 12438 Arlington, VA 22209 USA Reproduced by permission Technical Assistance. of Volunteers in

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A DESIGN MANUL PP FOR WATER WHEELS

with for

details village

for

applications

to pumping dater small machinery

use and driving

William

G. Ovens

c\ VITA,

Inc.

1975

TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES PART ONE:

I
iii ii

THE WATER WREEL Introduction Formulation Design

A.

1 1

II III TV

of the Problem - Advantages for and Disadvantages Design Flow Rates Considerations Torque vs. Speed; Required Design Design Considerations Considerations for Design

2 6

Limitations

Theoretical Stall Bucket Bearing Shafts Minor B. C. D. E. F.

7
7

Power Output

10 21
24 28 31 32 32

Practical A. 8. C.

Materials Construction Maintenance Techniques

33 35 36 36

PART Two: I

APPLICATIONS Water Pumping A. 8. c. Pump Selection Attachment Piping Applications Sample Calculation Criteria to Wheel

36 46 55 57 60

II

Other

An Easily
by Richard

Constructed Burton

Piston

Pump:

65

69

LIST OF TABLES Table Table Table Table I II III IV Stall Torque per Foot of Width Torque 12 14 15 (hp.) 16

Horsepower Output for a Constant Wheel per RPM per Foot of Width

Water Power Input to Wheel per RPM per Fact af Width to Maintain Constant Torque Flow Rate in Imperial Gallons per RPM per Foot of Width of Wheel Required to Maintain Constant Torque Estimated Constant Maximum Output Horsepower for Input Water Flow Rate Condition Flow Rates for by Each Bearing Required for

Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table

V VI VII VIII I? X XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI

19

Upper Limits on Useable Various Size Wheels Approximate Weight Carted

20

27 28

Maximum Bearing Diameter Various Loadings

Standard Pipe Sizes for Use as Axles with Bearing at 12 inches from Wheel Edge Estimated Friction Factors Velocities for Pump Rod to a Crank on the Wheel

31 39
40

Peak Pump Piston Attached Directly

Peak Force on the Pump Rod of a Piston Pump for Various Bores and Heads Volume of3Water Pipes (ft ) in Various Sized Delivery

41

42

Inertial Force per Inch of Stroke for Various Volumes of Water at Various Pump Cycle Speeds Horsepower Required for Water Pumping at Various Flow Rates and Heads Quantities of Water Pumped per Stroke Various Bore and Stroke Sizes for

43

45

47

LIST OF FIGURES Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure 1 2 3 4 5 6 Schematic Schematic Schematic Side View of Bucket Shape on Wheel Mechanism Pump

9 11 48 51 52 54

View of Water Distribution View of a Slider-Crank

Schematic View of a Trunnion-mounted and Crank Schematic Sc).ematic Pump Rod View of a Scotch Views of a Suitable

Yoke Mechanism Cam-activated

- iii

PART ONE:

THE WATER WHEEL

I.

INTRODUCTION Supplying power to many remote customary distribution locations methods in the world is either from central economically will

generators unfeasible therefore

using or will

be many years

in coming. locally.

Power,

where desirable, machinery

need to be generated but the required

Various expenditure

commercial

is marketed, cost

capital

or maintenance/running users. Some effort has

is beyond

the capability

of many potential

been expended

at the Papua New Guinea University modest

of Technology

to devise locations. of low

low cost means of generating This cost paper reports machinery

amounts of power in remote involving power. the power is put the natural categorized. the development

on one such project mechanical use to which

to provide

Regardless of energy them:

of the final which

sources Among

can be utilized

are fairly

readily

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Sun, wind and water them we do not alter cost considerations,

Falling Animals Sun Wind Fossil Nuclear Organic are free their

water

fuels fuels waste and renewable in the sense that From continually is attractive. by using operating From

future

usefulness.

a choice

from among these -l-

capital

cost

consideration natural

hydro-power limitations

may be very

unattractive. weather reasons, the energy

Sun

and wind have obvious conditions.

based upon local and economic utilizing require

Furthermore,

for limited

technological to applications Animals

solar

power use is presently directly continuous is being the world. Whatever formed, if as part food

of a heat sources. with,

cycle. Conversion with

specialized to useable

care and energy of

of organic success,

waste

experimented

varying

in several

parts

the form of the naturally necessary, into useable

occurring

energy,

it

may be transof ways. of too many con-

power in a wide variety interaction

The choice siderations 1. 2.

of method depends to enumerate fully

upon a complex here,

but among them are: be put; This into the

the use to which the form in which generally, broad

the power will it will

be utilized. falls

but not exclusively, of mechanical

categories

and electrical; available; facilities; or not.

3. 4. 5.

the economic availability whether

and natural of suitable

resources maintenance

the machinery

must be portable

II.

FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM In the absence of a specific was taken request from government on the obvious the design of mechanical is the generation "Other Applications" or any outside abundance of for One

body,

the decision water

based primarily broadly amounts

available

power to investigate to produce potential small

possibilities power.

low cost machinery immediately power, but obvious for

application under

of electric in Part Two

reasons

mentioned

-2-

this

has not been pursued. at some distance intended

However,

in many places, source

villages of drinking

are water. disdis-

located

from the traditional use for

The principal cussed tribution of a simple discussed Limits in this

the power generated

by the machine water for

manual has been the pumping of potable The project, also. thus, Several

to a village.

has included other potential

construction uses are

pump attachment later.

on the scope of the project

were decided

based upon numerous

considerations: 1. Minimum of capital which could expenditure indicated a device

be constructed with no specialized, required. suggested requiring

locally

of inexpensive components

materials

expensive

or machinery 2. Local design

construction details

the desirability simple construction

of

only

techniques. 3. Since cating the installation a probable if was likely shortage any, would of local to be remote skilled (indi-

tradesmen) and

maintenance, simple. 4. The device be carried light 5.

have to be minimal

should

be such that with

repair,

if

any,

could tools

out on-site

parts easily

and necessary to the site. mcst apply could

enough to be carried considerations that the village

The usual knowledge be kept

of safety children

with

the not

not/would

away from the device. -3-

I decided water the ubeel, criteria

to conecratrare it set being out the

on investigating device There from simple which

the

feasibility likely

of

using

the

seemed most types

to optimize suitable to me,

above. power such

are other hydro

of machines
but none,

for creating

mechanical with

sources,

known

can be constructed of trade skills

techniques wheel.

requiring

so low a level

as the wooden water

Water

wheels

are

in use in various on an -ad hoc basis

parts

of

the in

world

now.

Many have efficiency is so simple

been constructed and ingenuity that desire from a vorkablo to tr 4. inadecltire of

and vary

complexity, device anyone which sufficient a relatively

design wheel

and construction. can be constructed the subtleties those

The basic by almost of design

who has the separate technical short than fashion of life adequate

Wwever, models

may escape of projects

without after often problem manual

training. attests skill. with proper features to It

The number the fact

abandoned

that

designers/builders to attack the

have more pluck in a systematic for the selection out the

seems desirable of

an objective sizes

establishing to meet a engineering objective.

a design specific

required

need and to set I offer

design following

based

on sound to et

principles.

as an attempt

that

The wheel arranged which designs undershot wheel. edge of in the

consists SP that

of buckets-to buckets

hold

the

water-fixed rotate water

in about flow.

a frame a centre Traditional

and axis

and frame to

tagether the inlet

is oriented employ wheel, In the the the

perpendicular undershot, inlet

overshot water flows the or fully water

or breast tangent is to

configurations. the bottom in bucket. tangent It the

In the edge of to the is carried point the top

the overshot

wheel,

brought the

wheel, until

partially

filling before

buckets

dumped out

somewhat -4-

reaching

lowest

on the wheel. less radially,

bottom of the

The breast wheel has water entering filling

wheel.

the wheel

more or

the buckets and then again being dumped near the Typical efficiency
50% for

values vary from a6 low as 15%

the overshot with

for the undershot wheel in-between. We shall

to wei1 over

the breast

concentrate
power of

on the overshot
output per time is the dollar

wheel

a6 being
or per expected

the

most

likely

choice or

to give Blax
per manhour gating against

cost, upon for

pound

of machine, Miti-

construction this choice the

based need

efficiences. earthworks be guided of the

a more complex

and race at a level wheel. the

vay with
at least

overshot

wheel the

where outlet

the water
as the

must diameter set

in

as far wheel,

above of

The undershot vith the virtually rise

course,

may be merely

down on top of But in

stream

no preparation and fall with heavy

of raceway
local

necessary. is

many streams so flood

rainfall for

spectacular, of device.

protection flood vith stream.

would protection

be a major is the

consideration leading

any type

The simplest installation, in the main the

a channel channel

from the river

to keep flood

to the
water

inlet

to

controlled channel would

Since

a diversion good that for is most

probably to

be required employ an

-Fay, overshot the the

odds are very

a suitable installations.

location

&eel

can be found
installation channel is

In the event wheel

that

overshot diversion

impossible, to use.

the undershot

straddling

simple

Another ease vit shoots race

consi

eration ich it

which can handle

makes the trash

overshot

wheel

attractive First, off

is

the

in the stream.
tends to get flung

the water
into the tail-

over witbout

the

wbee1 and so trash in a bucket. race and wheel

catching

Secondly, in vhich

there trash

are not can jam.

usually

the

tight

spaces between

Somewhat

-5-

closer

fitttig

arrangements are required

with breast and undershot

wheels to get good efficiency. III. LIMITATIONS - ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

The wheel is a slow
6peed

device this limits

limited its high

to service usefulness

roughly as a power

between
source

5 and 30 rpm.
for electricity

Consequently
generation

or

any other Although gearing

speed operation problem

because from an

of

the step up in speed required.

engineering devices bearing viewpoint, adequate

not a great or other in terms

speed multiplying of money, potential

involve problems,

increasing

complexities

and maintenance. when the wheel is utilized for powered require driving by only

The slow speed is advantageous certain hand. fractional lished course, placement villages be adapted course, where. Devices of this types Coffee of machinery
hullers

already

in use and currently are two which

and rice

hullers

horse-power, at virtually directly "bucket normally for

low speed input.

Water pumping can be accompof a wheel cannot of dis-

any speed.

Slow speed output or axial lift under with

power a centrifugal pump" or suction operates at well

pump.

The positive

pump already 100 cycles

in use in various per minute and can This of else-

use in conjunction hundreds

a wheel

at slow speed. - of years

has been done for

- maybe thousands

type have relatively

low power output of the wheel,

capability.

The

power output the useable structed side flow

depends flow rate wheel and with

upon the dimensions of water installed bucket feet

the speed and a reconout-

to the wheel.

As an example,

breast

in a museum in America depth of 12 in. per second operating

of 16 ft.

diameter rate

at 7 rpm, with power

of 28 cubic

of water -6-

had an estimated

output output

of

18.5

hp (14 kv) vheel

(calculated

at

an efficiency but would

of

100%). than

Actual 10 hp is

on that

has not OD, I l/2

been measured ft. wide model

be less

(7.5
in

kv).
the

A 3 ft.

constructed

by the

author

fractional

horse-power

range.
is worth emphasizing that a stream skills. that will a useable allow, water with the

Already wheel crudest

mentioned can be built of tools

once, almost

it

anywhere

and elementary

carpentry

Iv.

THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Stall Torque torque capacity of the machine, ignoring

A.

The stall

the velocity is easily due bucket.

effect

of the water

impinging

on the stalled

buckets,

calculated

by a simple of water will

summation

of moments about or partially

the shaft filled

to the weight Obviously this

in each filled in part

depend

on the amount of spillage on bucket century design. varied Bucket depending

from the bucket configurations on the skill on the criterion in the buckets criterion Buckets also

which

in turn

depends

used in the 18th and 19th of the builder. of maximizing while required recognizing increased

They were empirically torque that by maximizing optimum design

determined water retention

on this

construction

complexities. Fig. 1,

of shape shown schematically overshot are less and breast efficient

in a side view, configurations. but simpler

were used for sided width buckets

The straight to construct. l/4 The

of the bottom

of the bucket

was typically

of the width Purely

of the annulus radial buckets

where that

configuration

yeas chosen. wheels.

were used in undershot -7-

convenient . calculation of radius, annulus r; the

It

is

to use the torque

three

of

the of

wheel's the from

dimensions wheel: side to the side;

for outside and the

capacity

wheel
t,

width,

w, i.e.,

width,

defined
1.

as t = (outside

diameter

- inside

diameter)/2.

See Fig.

The ratio important

of

the

annulus design

width,

t,

to are

the

outside

radius,

r,

is

to wheel values

as there

practical

limits paper ratios, only

to the ratios

useful 0.05 output

which

may be employed.

In this

<t/r
per

< 0.25 are considered. foot

l

For smaller

the potential too low to

of diameter For larger

time

of the wheel values, to fill

is considered

be practical.
there is

the buckets

become so deep that passes under the

insufficient

each one as it

race

exit.

Also, of water

since

the torque

and power depend upon having possible increases The result distance total is from the wheel that weight if more

the weight wheel faster axis, than

at the greatest annulus depths

increasing it increases

power output. to increase exceeding t/r

power is needed it the annulus wheel weight remain width

is better to values

the O.D. than = 0.25.

to increase way the weight

In this that

and the structural

components for

to support a given values

economically wheels

most advantageous have tended

power output. around 0.1 to

Historically, 0.15. Upper limits

to have t/r

on wheel

width

have tended problems

toward with wheels

approximately wider operate full. wheels. with That the is,

l/2

the O.D. because It

of structural that

can be estimated

the overshot l/4

-8-

equivalent

of approximately

of the buckets

the

Figure

1.

Schematic side view of bucket Upper: Flat bottomed bucket. Lower: Straight sided bucket.

shape.

-9-

total the the

weight total that

of water would O.D.,

doing

useful

work in

on the

wheel solid

is of

l/4

of

be contained I.D.

an annular of the

dimensions

same as the distribution 2a because

and width is

wheei.

The actual in

weight Fig.

of the water
of spillage

as shown

schematically

from the buckets

as they

approach in the can be estibe applied were con-

the tail annular

race. quadrant

If

we assume the water shown in Fig. A suitable

bucket 2b,

isconcentrated torque factor that

the stall

mated more easily. to account sidered for actual

correction
design,

could

if

refinement

necessary.

Results Blank

for
spaces

wheels
are

of various left for t/r

dimensions ratios

are given

in Table given users

1. above. of

outside

the limits trained ability Both will

Experience this data sented

has shown that will

many non-technically of their form.

information given

be more confident than in graphical

to use be pre-

in tabular

here when appropriate.

B.

Power Output Power output the rotational is sufficient keeping with inlet is the product of the torque on the output shaft that and

speed of the shaft. inlet water constant, flow

On the assumption full,

there thereby

to keep the buckets the power output

the torque

increases

linearly

speed. water

In a location supply, that this

where calculation

there

is virtually will give

an unlimited limit to

an upper

the power output

can be expected.

- 10 -

Schematic view of water Figure 2. hatching indicates water remainin in this paper.

distribution in buckets.

A) Approximate actual static on wheel. 1 Approximation of weight distribution

distribution. C,-oss used for calculations

TABLE I Stall Torque Per Foot of Width (ft./b) (No Allowance .05 < t/r c 0.25 for Voiume Consumed,b+BucketWall Thickness;

only)

Outside Annulus Width t (in.1 I 15 I 2 3 4 6

8

Diameter 8

(ft.) 10 14 20

20 30 40

40 55 70 95

95 ?30 160 240 300 235 300 435 555 655 775 365 485 695 905 1080 1270 1435 1850 2220 2620 3300 4000 2910 3840 4660 5560 7190 8750 10100

10 12 16 20 24

19

12a -

The horsepower II.

output

per rpm per fobt

of tidth

is shown in Table will be

At any given speed, the actual

horsepower output

the Table IT entry appropriate

actual

to the size vheel used times the

speed in rpm times the width of the wheel in feet. is the maxlaam power which the wheel could
It the

The water pouer input

achieve of is the given per

if

it we&

100% efficient.
weight, for

is calculated
rate, is

as the product and head and

also flow in Table in horse-

waters
in

specific III foot

volume flow
This entry

Table

comparison.

power that
As

rpm per

of width the buckets

of wheel. full

The volume given the

rate IV.

is

required in Table I,

to keep

and is

no allowance wall thickness.

has been made for This

volume for

occupied
later if

by the bucket desired. The lower tailrace datum. that ciently wheel side

can be corrected

The head is assumed here edge of the wheel water

Tnlet

to be the diameter elevation the wheel with

of the wheel.
permission for

is the highest with

without
raceways

interfering

and is a logical slope so

are seldom found of raceway water

a significant It

velocity

effects

are small. elevation will

seems suffitop of the

accurate 2.~3~error

to estimate thereby

the inlet introduced

as the

be on the conservative

anyway. efficiency values for the wheel the ratio power input using the assumptions

Theoret ical a&;-ted so far

can be found

by taking

of the power output of Table IIl. These

from Table values, 502 for

the wider

11 and the corresponding the water

weight

for

distribution wheels and drop

assumed before, to just under a well

than

are about 15% for designed

this. This

the narrow
annulus

annulus
wheels.

As mentioned
give efficiencies

previously,
better

and constructed

wheel

will

- 13 -

TABLE Ii wer Output for a Constant Torque-Wheel +mtz RPM per Foot of Width

Outside 3 4 6 8

Diameter

(ft.1 10 14 20

0.0042 0.0053 0.0070 .Oll .Ol3 .018

.018 .024 .03O .045 .057

-044 .057 .082 .105 .123 .137

.0690 .0920 .13? .171 .204 .238

.269 .347 -416 .490 .618 .750

0.545 0.720 0.872 1.05 1.35 1.64 1.90

1 :1*-j:

- 14a -

TABLE III Water Power Input Horsepower to Wheel per RPM per Foot of Width to Maintain Constant Torque.

Outside 4 6

Diameter 8

(ft.1 10 14 20

2 3 4 6 8 10 12 16 20 24

.0086 .0118 .Ol58

.0154 .0226 .0288 .0416

.0364 .0510 .0646 .0980 . 128 .092 0.119 .176 .230 .277 .316 .143 .189 .280 .368 .448 .537 .568 .740 .900 1.08 1.39 1.73 3.13 1.52 1.85 2.23 2.94 3.64 4.26

a.--

-,-t

-.

- __ ---

15a

TABLE IV Flow Rate in Imperial Gallons per RPM per Foot of Width of idheel Requi.red to Maiataia Constant Torque

Outside Annu I us Width tiin.1 3 4 6

Diameter 8

(ft.1 10 14 20 r

2 3 4 6 8

10 14 18

13 18 24 34

20 28 37 54 70 39 50 74 96 118 137 48 62 93 123 149 177 123 175 216 255 342 404 190 254 312 373 488 600 706

to
12 16 20 24

- 16a -

comparatively sidering horizontal assumption and suddenly accuracy and 2) it almost is

modest value

is primarily still the full is not

the result

of not

conthe

the effect centerline. that

of the water It reflects remain water

in the buckets fact half that the

below

simplifying

the Suckets their because

way down the wheel That in-

dump all tolerable slightly

accurate.

1) it

makes the analysis figures of getting for power

so simple so that power

gives

conservative be assured

every

reader

will

sufficient

even from wheels When the water completely

of relatively flow is less

amateurishconstruction. than the required a stream in that to fill of limited the torque each bucket size, the

as may be the case for are altered Using

power characteristics function working, of speed. but not full,

v =

now is a quadrant is

the assumption

of one annular

the volume of water,

V, in the quadrant

Q/4N

where

Q = volume N= speed

flow (rpm)

rate

(ft3/min)

The weight pgV where

of water

in the annular

quadrant

at any speed is

then

P = density

of water acceleration the horsepower to be expected

I3 = gravitational With units from this in feet, annulus pounds, working is and minutes,

hp = 2,~ NT 33,000 where x is the distance T = pgvz = PeQ;Z 4N of the annular - 17 quadrant from the

to the centroid

rotation

axis.

It is equal

to average

diameter,

Dav,

of

the

annulus

Therefore

hP = 2nHPgQDav = PgQDav
QirrNx33,OOO The power is independent of It 66,000 the is speed. because that outside under the The efficiency the the output is power drops Potential of water to the constant input outside the is a off for same

as calculated
function wide output of

previously. the average

wheels a wheel of

diameter, a fixed

efficiency

annulus from

diameter. conditions for

power flow power,

operating

may be estimated ass-g diameter.

most easily efficiency

by the equation and head equal

50% nuiximm

Power under is

constant

flow V for

conditions likely

for

various

diameter rates.

wheels

shown iu Table
for t/r

attainable

flow

The values Table various

shown are

= 0 and should

be corrected

by multiplying table t/r for

entries practical

by factors t/r values.

as shown at the bottom The author's

of the with

prototype

= .17 tested .06 hp V. the various I by the

at approximately in reasonable Blank wheel wheel practical spaces size sizes

150 gpm, gave output agreement with where the values flow rates

power of approximately predicted in Table for for

are left

are impractical flow rates

given. are upper

Upper bounds

to practical the entry for

found by multiplying limit VI.

from Table

of speed and width Lower bounds that

the O.D. and are to considerably be uneconomical more to

shown in Table guesswork.

are subject it would

On the assumption

- 18 -

TABLE V Estimated Maximum Out@ Horsepower from Wheel for Constant 50%. efficiency of Input. wheel) Water Flow Rate Corkition (based on

Outs i de D I ameter Ifi-. 1 3 4 6 8 10 14 20

Flow 100 200 500

rate 1000

(G;prn) 2500 5000 10000 30000

0.045 0.060 .091

0.091 .12 . 18 .24 .30 .42

.23 .30 .45 .61 .76 1.06 1.51 .60 .91 1.21 1.52 2.12 3.0-S 2.27 3.03 3.79 5.30 7.58 6' . I 7.6 10.6 15.2 21.2 30.3 91 .o

Correction

factors

for

various

values

of

t/r:

to

be multipl

ied

by above

values

to yive

correct

power

ratings

t/tcorrection factor

2.05 0.98

0.1 0.96

0.15 0.94

9.20 0.92

0.25 0.90

RATE (IMP. GAL/MN) ADJUNCT TO TABLE V Be sure to refer to Table V and the text instructions on use. - 19a FLOW

for

TABLE VI Upper Limits on Useable wheel width Flow Rates for Various Size Wheeis velocity in Imperial Gallons Per Minute (assuming

= 3 IO.D.1

and peripheral

Is 5 ft/sec.)

Outside 3 4 Rk%4at 32
I z I

Diameter 8

(ft.

1 10 14 20

6 5 ft/sec 16

peripheral 12

velocity 10 7 5

24

2 3 4 6
8

500 700 900

625 900 1150 1650

1000 1400 1800 2600 3400 1900 2400 3500 4500 5500 6500 2500 8000 4500 6000 7500 9000 6000 8500 10500 12500 17000 20000 9500 12000 15500 18500 24000 30000 35000

construct less speeds mated. than

a wheel

of width

less

than 1 ft. arbitrary

lower

and to operate
choice) for

it the

at

25% capacity in are Table

(completely

quoted These

VI the useful by blank V.

bounds may be estithe 100 gpm and w

indicated

under

200 gpm columns

in Table

The upper

limit

to the speed at which upon the rate off so that it at which

the wheel the wheel

will

operate

de-

pends primarily coming water

slings

the inprimarily

is not utilized. of the wheel relation

This

depends

upon the speed and radius bucket configuration quoted x-locity based

and secondarily to the inlet

upon the

and its in Table

water. of thumb this wheels

is

The figures peripheral bit high,

VI are based on the rule With smaller With wheels

of 5 ft/sec. on prototype tests.

the larger

the

peripheral In summary,

velocity the

may be as high

as 8 ft/sec. speed cur.ve that for fixed flow one can expect Linearly the buckets flow, then are

type of power vs. is as follows

from a waCer wheel increasing

rates:

from zero

speed up to the speed at which filled by the prevailing significant action, of the

can no longer constant rejected

be completely

up to the speed at which from the wheel (roughly) by slinging to the

amounts thereafter speed.

of water decreasing

in proportion

square

C.

Bucket

Design bucket design is taken shaft. to be that The upper which limit produces to this the condition

The optimum
greatest

torque

on the wheel

- 21 -

is that water there.

the buckets weight There with

fill

completely

at the

top,

carry

the

full loads maximum. from

no spillage

to the bottom

and dump their this spillage

is not a practical the best travel

method of achieving we can do is minimize

With fixed the buckets

buckets, as they

from the top, should be empty

where

they

are filled, losses

to the bottom incurred

where they water

(so as to limit of the wheel).

by carrying

up the back side of bucket

There are broadly straight with gential process respect emptying bucket sided

two styles

as shown in Fig. the bucket

1.

In the

bucket

the limits

on the angle (See Fig.

makes

the tangent (O") is

at the O.D. or I.D. (9OO).

1) are from tanbuckets, shallow the filling angle with the

to radial

With tangential of the very

slow at the top because

to the incoming(nearly process passes at the bottom dead centre.

horizontal) is not

water. until

Furthermore after the

complete carries

bottom

This

some water

up the

back side extreme, l/4 turn

and consequently radial buckets

reduces are nearly

the efficiency. empty by the time wall

At the other they have gone

from the top because the optimum

the bucket angle

is then horizontal. that the greatest at the of various the its cen-

We can estimate effect greatest angles will

by assuming whose weight By drawing

be due to the bucket from the shaft.

is acting buckets

distance

we can estimate, bucket carries

graphically, the greatest

the optimum.

While

tangential troid angle

amount of water,

distance (to the still

is not a maximum. tangent retained at the I.D.)

The maximum occurs of about 20.

at a bucket the amount bucket

While

of water

at 9Oo after

top dead centre

by this

- 22 -

shape is ly

is

about

20% less for the bucket than in

than the

for

the filling

tangential and early is a major edge

bucket,

the

loss Especialthe is more

compensated

early

emptying. since edge)

on emptying,
of the

20

inclination from

factor to O.D. With

length than

(distance the capacity tangential, for

I.D.

30% shorter carrying 65% of

tangential at 90'

bucket. after top which

a 30'

bucket, is that down it

the weight
to about cannot
such as

dead ccntre is so low

the

a figure secondary

be compensated
filling

by the

effects

on efficiency while also of

and emptying. value in designing

This

graphical

technique, wheel,

no additional that

any individual of water

shows

the assumption

of the distribution one for wall angle

rive- an upper

quadrant

is a reasonable

estimating be kept

tor+c. between 20 and 250 to

I recommend the bucket the I.D. tangent. bottomed capacity

The use of flat water carrying

buckets for gall

does not angles

significantly

chrnee

the is to

of 20.

The purpose
t:i2 iucket.

decrease
Its

the distance increasingly

the water beneficial that

must travel at large

to empty t/r ratios

use is

but

the

builder cated

must accept than that

the construction sided

is somewhat more complibucket. Bottom widths t. This will c-It should

25%

of the straight l/4

be approximately off the side width

of the annulus with the attendant The significance

width, saving

in travelling is that carried figures buckets

but

distance less water up the for

ii

to empty the bucket. carried

of this

is

up the back side lowers

of the wheel.

Any water give

back side improvement

the efficiency. using

I cannot flat

the

of efficiency

bottomed

seems

23 -

f,~

,,a,

.I

_.

8.1

_I

hard

to

imagine

as much as ten

percentage

points.

Historically, as far

bucket

shapes

have chosen for

varied

considerably.

They were,

as f; can determine, is a euphemism time

emperically.

(In a historical
or "by educated guess-

sense this
work").

"arbitrarily" rather the than

By the

engineers,

carpenter-craftsmen,

were considering already on the

the problem
decline). circa bucket 1850, side

water

wheel's

usefulness recent still

was for use

Even in relatively while

angles

manuals in general

construction, in the U.S.,

wheels
of 45'

were
were efficient

recommended than

- a choice angles.

which

can easily

be shown figure that is,

to be less however, still

smaller

The 2Qo - 25* of two wheels

in close
in use

agreement
in the

with

the design

I know are

U.S.

The number the bucket

buckets by is of that

of

buckets

to use depends The ideal thickness.

upon the volume consumed by wheel has closely spaced to design

wall
very not

material. thin
over

wall

A reasonable volume should size

figure

10% of annular

be consumed in discussed wheel and here

bucket would

material.

Typical in.

values thick

for

the

wheels

be 25 - 30 - l/4 4 in. thick

buckets

on a 3 foot wheel.

buckets

on a 14 foot

eel wear, earing wiz.

itself
the

has only
bearings

one rubbing upon which in almost

or sliding

part

subject

to Standard

the axle

is supported. design here, Fully text.

esign

is covered

any machine

In

e mnufacture of such "standard"

of such a device bearings

as is discussed

the value

is questionable.

weather-proofed

- 24 _

ball

or roller

bearings criteria. with

are too expensive

and complicated

to satisfy

the initial

Bronze bushings
but

suitable

shaft both

material present

would

be satisfactory The use of several reasons:

lubrication

and replacement is, I think,

problems. for skills.

wooden bearings 1. 2. 3.

the best

alternative with local

Simplicity Availability Negligible

of manufacture of replacement cost.

parts.

Wooden bearings machine wringer the wheel-

are used commercially bearings under lignum

for

such applications simulating those species

as washing proposed of oak are of widefor

conditions vitae,

kock maple,

and various

used commercially, intended spread use,

but when these

are not native

to the country fairly

substitutes others

may be found. which

Among woods with

distribution,

may reasonably Forestry

be expected departments,

to be when

satisfactory they exist

are beech and red mangrove. in a country,are generally

in a position

to make useful

suggestions. In the absence harder, of any specific knowledge, the general rule is "the

the better". of allowable wooden bearings vitae) for loading would based on experience be around with 75 psi (for with oak) surface for commercially to 150 psi parallel use. to

An estimate available (for lignum

orientations

the sliding

to the grain If

and about

150 to 300 psi

respectively properties safe

end grain comparable would

the wood used has strength mentioned above, it is

and density likely that

those

loading

be about

- 25 -

100 psi remains be, but Length

parallel

to the grain

and ZOO-250 in end grain at these

usage. pressures

It will

to be seen what the wear resistance structurally to diameter the figures ratios given

can be used with in this application

confidence. would the at itself

of bearings to be about

reasonably sizes

be expected

unity for

and on that wheels

basis

of the bearings

can be estimated for

operating

maximum output.

An allowance that

the weight

of the wheel

is made on the basis equal gravity Table width product of course the shaft attached the Table from Table attached. different different, VII to the volume

the volume of wood required carried at stall in water and that is about

is approximately the specific unity. per foot is then in feet. of the This

of water

of wood operating

constantly weight carried

shows the approximate Total weight entry

on each bearing on each bearing of the wheel supported loads significant

of wheel.

of the Table assumes that

and the width is simply additional that

the wheel for

at each end of imposed by the loads bearing due size is

to

and does not allow machinery. VII VIII values for

It

is

important

for

the purposes

of determining where

the side event

of the wheel will

the machinery

In this sizes.

the bearings unless

apparently

need to be of sizes are very load.

In practice, make both longer required than

the indicated indicated

we usually

the size it

by the larger

Thus one is really Bearing Table diameters VIII for lb.

needs to be. the various loads ar'e given useage to in and

to support

calculated end grain to allow

on the basis useage for

of 100 psi

in parallel are given

200 psi 20,000

and L/D = 1.

Values

the largest

reasonable

bearing

loads.

- 26 -

TABLE VII Approximate W&k&t (per foot of width Carriedof the by- Each.Bear.ing wheel) (lb.1 Excluding Loads Due To Attached Machinery

Outside 4 t(in.1 2 3 4 6
8

Diameter 8

(ft.) 10 14 20

I tG w I

24 35 44

32 47 60 86

50 70 89 140 180 95 125 185 240 290 330 120 160 235 305 370 445 335 440 530 635 820 1020 470 675 765 920 1215 1500 1760

10 12 16 20 24

TABLE VIII
-imum Bearing

Diameter

Required

for

Various

Loadings

(in.)

Load (lb.) 100 Parallel End Grain Useage Useage 1 l/2 200 l-1/2 1 500 2-l/4 l-314 1000 3-l/4 2-l/4 2000 4-l/2 3-l/4 5000 7 5 10000 10 7 20000 14 10 event larger may be location bands in (sum

These bearings that, especially

are assumed to be steel in larger shaft sizes,

on wood.

In the likely is considerably bearing

the bearing

than the required used.

size,

a "built onto

up and banded" the shaft size.

A wooden cylinder the cylinder and fastened

is built O.D.

at the bearing Then steel for design width

such that are bent this

is the necessary

to the cylinder.

The criterion

case is that

the product widths) VIII

of the diameter

and the total or exceeds load

of the individual of the entry orientations. If it is possible a steel

of the bands equals for the corresponding

the square

in Table

and grain

to arrange shaft (available

for

and be certain bushings

of,

suitable

main-

tenance,

in bronze

mounted suppliers)

in commercial is probably but the

plummer blocks best fairly expense regularly choice.

from hardward

Proper

alignment This only

may be a minor choice if involves

problem additional

is usually initial

easy to overcome. and is justified and frequently.

maintenance

can be guaranteed

E.

Shafts Shafting may be wooden or steel. material The diameter is of course of the wheel. dependent Minimum

upon which

is used and the dimensions - 28 -

permissible for stress

shaft

diameters
metal

d, may be estimated
shafting

from the equation

for solid

In

this

equation sidwall
of

H is the maximum bending moment occuring attaches

bearing to load the

where

the wheel the priate centre small product

shaft.
in the

It can be estimated
Table VII side for wall the the to shaft the that

as

the

(entry from interest

approthe as bearings in most load VIII. the load

wheel) of the

and the bearing. it side

distance In is of the

wheel of

keeping

as possible, to it is the not

therefore the to in when from load bearing wheel include

desirable as possibJe. the

to locate (Note

as close cases,

critical discussed only shaft bearing the

additional with the machine of application VII times where

machine use of load Table times of the the

on the bearing, It

connection the the external point

must be included along than shaft the the

distance is larger the

the

from to

Table the

distance wheel 1s

along

from

point

attached.) T is is It the torque from acting Table 15,000 used in I. psi the on the S is for shaft the and a conservative shear shafting 1.) stress estimate of the metal.

found is

allowable steel

around is

.ordinary

and pipes.

(13,000

example

in Appendix

For meter

solid of

wooden the

shafts

two equations is chosen

are as the

used

and the of

larger the shaft.

dia-

two results

diameter

- 29 -

d3 = 16T

where S, T and Hhave the same meaning 88 before. of s is

typically

However, the value B is the allowable hardwoods. cracks. the out-

150 to 300 psi for hardwoods.

bending stress
If

and has a value of about 1SOO psi for typical

wood is used it must be sound and free from longitudinal like a pipe, the equation to determine

For hollow shafting

side diameter

is:

d3 - 16 12M + T2 aS (1 - k4)
where R = Ratio of inside to outside diameter.

The values loads the sixes

of

0-D.

and I.D. VIII,

are

standardized on the edge of

for

pipes. that the Table the

For

bearing of

tabulated bearing is

in Table 1 foot Table that the

assumption the wheel,

centre pipe

from

the

standard

shown in for a size

IX should would bearing

be satisfactory. be reasonable load would since to

IX automatically from a wheel VIII. be given pump only to be size Table for IX of

allows
such

torque
that

expect

be given exact values due to should against of than

in Table cannot the

The values until

are approximate the details

are known. decision

only

all
ine

concerning The values should

the,loads given

attached as a guide equation

serve the

and the sure. another, bei not

final

be checked

When making

substitutions, to use

in assembly, larger pipe

one pipe shown in

it

is penaissable
pipe.

smaller

- 30 -

TABLE IX
Minimum Standard Pipe Sizes

for

Use as Axles

with

Bearings

at 12

inches
Bearing Pipe load (lb) (in)

from Wheel Edge 200 500 2l/2"

the required

100
I."

1000 c II 3

2000 4"

5000 * 6"

lOOO0 8" of Table the

Diameter

11/2"
with

Comparing VIII, bearing bearings. according it

these is will

figures that

bearzng or solid

diameters steel

obvious need

when using the build is

of

pipe

shaft, wooden is

to be of

up type

when using whose size It will

An alternative
to

to use a shaft
size.

selected

the

needs

the bearing

be much stronger With wooden

the required

(and heavier)

than required

necessary
shaft

but may save some work.

diameter will usually exceed

shafts, bearing diameter bearings. with

the

diameter

and then

one has the choice (but only

of reducing there)

the shaft larger sleeved wear

at the bearing
In

location

or of using steel, against

either of pipe

case the shaft or given

must be banded with protection

a piece

some similar

in the bearing.

F.

Minor

Considerations all the major theoretical All aspects of selection of

We have considered sizes etc.

to meet specific

requirements. which

have been based on an achievable consideration affect onto the the wheel of in

assumed efficiency practice over which effiency slightly with

of 50% - a figure wheel.

is readily

an overshot

There

is one minor which may

the design/builder slightly. before The raceway top dead centre.

has control exit should

put water location

The exact

is a function

- 31 -

1.

flow

rate

and raceway water velocity;

in, Lination and

which

affect

the inlet 2. the bucket which onto Exact its calculations nature

sidewall

angle

and peripheral the inlet water

velocity comes

affects the wheel. hardly

how smoothly

seem justifiable and (relatively) the designer-builder

for

a machine inefficient

which

by

very

is as crude that to,

as this. in

Let it

be sufficient tangent

get the water the wheel.

approximately

and at the top edge of,

V. A.

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS Materials Most wheels are wood, for cost, or course, selection availability choice though they need not be. material Among

the considerations ease of working, carpenter latter. information probably Builders as a likely varies widely

of the proper

are the The average

and durability. on all these except

can make a proper Forestry departments

perhaps this

the

in many countries useful species. in the

can provide which

on potentially be suitable of water

Others section

would design. plywood the quality have

are mentioned wheels It may naturally

on bearing a "marine" but

consider

material. around

is convenient Because

to work with

the world.

even the best

grades

a doubtful painted,

durability plywood should

when operating be chosen only life

continuously when it

in water can be well

unless cared for

or when a relatively

short

is anticipated

- 32 -

Regarding logical it

the choice

framework

to mount

the but long

wheel the term for

on, durability care the

bamboo might is such

seem a that than

in many countries require more

probably

would

and replacement bearings in section

other

materials. fairly

The species

listed

IV D are all should be the

durable

under

constantly

wet conditions

and

first

to be considered.

B.

Construction Any person also

Techniques sufficiently skilled knowledgeable is intended to build a water wheel will probably

be sufficiently This manual

to work out to give size water suggestions

most of the construction groundwork

details. necessary

the engineering of wheel supplies

to select

the proper that

overall

to meet a given are, in fact,

need and to make sure adequate. avoid However,

prevailing

a few general

may help

the reader

some pitfalls. of the wheel sides to the shaft, whether the sides If a steel (if are shaft

Attachment

spoken or solid, is used, facilities ment. a thin

can be accomplished flange plate

in many ways.

can be welded greatly

to the shaft facilitates

such

are available) With a solid are used, side

and this plate there

the attachproblem but if

is no further

the spokes

the bending

in the spokes

at the flange should be

must

not be so great attached required diameter joint the

as to break with

the spokes.

The spokes

to the flange between

two or more bolts holes to support

and the distance varies with wheel

the bolt

bending joint.

and the rigidity required

of the spoke/wheel would

For a flexible l/10 to1/12

a distance

be approximately For example,

of the outside

diameter

of the wheel. - 33 -

on a 12 foot

&eel,
and to

when using radial

the wheel

spokes

attached
ring)

to a flange
by one, spoke.

by the

2 bolts
flange

side plate
a foot

(annular apart

bolts

should be about
if the

on each

Alternatively
annular

spokes

are as with to

quite

rigid

and firmly the of

attached bolt hole

to

ring of the wheel

can be reduced

2 or more bolts,

separation
the flange.
A of

l/20 of the diameter

the wheel

at

simple spoke arrangement

each

to use is of the shaft)

pairs

of

spokes, at and

(one right

spoke angles symbol.

pair on each side

like runs are the through

crossing or noughts

to make a shape The wheel of the axis

tic-tat-toe the to centre

crosses

square annulus.

and the extremities

lines

attached

the wheel

Any glue reasons.

used should
Resorcinol

be highest glue is

quality probably

waterproof the best

glue

for

obvious

choice.

Bucket

attachment wall

to the side

wall

may be made by either edge or by attaching the buckets wall This in that to. the

grooving strips There inside off to is an of the

the side the inside advantage the bucket inside

to receive

the bucket wall to fasten

of the side to the annulus is accessible

shape of side from the I.D. because Giith solid before

makes closing pieces

of the bucket rough

simpler

the necessary sidewalls,

can be must

the I.D.

the buckets

be made complete

and non-leaking

the sidewall

is attached.

is is by no means impossible If a solid the bucket to let sidewall bottom is used, into water

but may be more difficult. holes should be drilled the bucket side wall adjacent to

the space between out. A solid

and the shaft not commonly

any leakage

would

- 34 -

be used.

Spokes offer

several

advantages. to give helpful hints on various

Numerous books construction

are available for

techniques

the truly

amateur

builder.

C.

Maintenance The wood used may be painted This will obviously if desired, extend or varnished the life for a protective Periodic coating. re-

of the wheel. out. If If

painting,

can be carried economic painting

The decision a very

on painting wood has durable early

must be made on purely been used initially, species is used,

grounds. is a luxury.

durable

a somewhat less and easier than

painting

is probably

cheaper

replacement The only

or repair major

of the wheel. problem figures drop block is is in bearings. in Table the wheel will VIII from its for Generous but allow-

maintenance

ances have been made in the will still wear. This will the bearing

the bearing position. Bearing

original this.

Shimming under replacement, matter. Lubrication processed such a flat is maple,

compensate

when the block

completely

worn through

is a simple

totally if

unnecessary available. Generally

with

lignum

vitae species,

or commercially we can not make should Oils be made and the wear help.

With the other speaking and lubricated probably would

statement.

the bearing

from the hardest grease rate. in small Pig grease

wood available amounts will and tallow

as needed.

do no harm and may slow certainly be harmless

and might

- 35 -

PART TWO: APPLICATIONS

I. A.

WATER PUMPING Pump Selection The only type of pump which is a positive is reasonable displacement pump, lift to use at the slow speed pump. They are called by

of the wheel various

names such as bucket

pump, piston

pump, windmill

pump and occasionally PumpNumerous models for

even simply are available small

by brand

name such as "Rocket" and vary in cost hundred Unitq for

commercially

from a few dollars high capacity, high

capacity well in the II.

pumps to several manufactured simplest units.

head,

durable,

can be manufactured Details are given

at low cost in Appendix in bore limit

of workshops.

Such pumps may vary There This is a practical is usually

size,

stroke

length

and head capacity. they can operate. A

to the speed at which of the fastest

above the frequency

of wheels.

frequency

of speed multiplier but these

such as a multi-lobed more complicated

cam or a gear

set may be used, while increasing

pumps and mechanisms, contravene not

the efficiency II, Part

of the pumping process, One for only very acting simplicity simple

the criteria be discussed. Even with problems.

of Section We will single

and will pumps.

discuss

simple

or double acting

pumps there

are certain will cause

One single

pump attached - 36 -

to the wheel

speed surges
takes the place cylinder. is

on the wheel
only half During the this

because
time. filling

of the fact The other

stage

that

actual

pumping filling
wheel

half

is spent
less

considerably

torque

required

than when actually overcome

acting

pumping.

The speed surge

can be partially 1.
two single

by using pumps 180 out of phase so that doing useful work; same effect as 1. one

of the pumps is always 2. a double but 3. best acting

pump which

has the or

is built of all

in one unit: two double simple

acting

pumps 90 out of phase. also improve the overall

Such use of multiple efficiency

easily

pumps will (In general

of the system.
to a crank

one unit shaft).

can be attached

at each end of the wheel variations As long in the delivery

There are pressure on several the capacity wheel,

factors.

line

which do not

depend exceed the peaks or smoothed

as the peak pressures mechaniss,

of the pump and related will an air

nor stall

such variations

cause no harm. chamber

The pressure line

can be damped with by using paragraph. sufficiently pump expert ideas given

in the delivery

two or more simple The possibilities complex that

pumps as mentioned are so numerous they cannot all

in the preceeding and the details here. if A

be included be consulted

or pump design here

manual

should for

the design

seem insufficient peak will size,

the user's

needs. of the peak piston size, the length of

In general velocity,

the pressure the pump bore pipe

be a function pipe used.

the delivery type of pip?

of the delivery

and the

When speaking

- 37 -

pump performance encountered sures involved often.

and design It

requirements,

the term "head" visualizing pipes. It the fluid

is pres-

is a means for

in the pump or attached pipe necessary being referred

means the height at the bottom is an

of water

in a vertical

to produce, to.

of the pipe, actuql

the pressure not, it

The'pressure just it

system will but

in general, will often

be produced

by a static It's The head

column of water just

be the same as if used by fluids will

were.

a handy shortcut

engineers.

The head required components: 1. the actual exit, 2. friction equation: friction where Table i.e.

at the pump outlet * change the loss in elevation

be made up of two main

to the delivery of the hill; is given

pipe and

(vertical)

height

in the pipe which

by the

loss

2 = f li v D 2g factor obtainable from handbooks or

f = friction X of pipe diameter

L = length D = inside V = velocity

of pipe in the pipe

of water

g = gravitational (Yote: for Units Eor dimensions

acceleration must be consistent. equation). See Appendix I

an example

of the use of this

- 38 -

TABLEX Estimated Friction Water 1 Old Iron New Irun Plastic It Pipe Pipe Pipe that ,045 .030 .O25 this pipes, pipe Factors Velocity .5 .040 .023 .017 becomes a major or with for Cool Vater

(ft/sec.) I_10 .038 .Q21 .015 factor in very long pipes, velo.

is evident

in small city

diameter

high velocities.

The water

in the delivery and the ratio Peak piston is given XI,

is a function

of the peak pump piston and the delivery directly and wheel to the speeds. pipe

velocity she. wheel

of the pump bore size for pumps attached various strokes

velocity

in Table

XI for line

From Table simply bore times area. As a rule

the delivery

velocities XI entry area.

can be estimated by the ratio of the pump velocity pipe bore

by multiplying

the Table pipe velocity

area and the delivery piston area = water

That

is,

piston pipe

in delivery

times

of thumb,

this

resulting in short

delivery runs,

pipe

velocity

should for be the change

be a maximum of 10 ftjsec. very long pipes.

two

and even smaller of the pump will i.e., elevation

The peak head required different heads mentioned

sum of the plus friction

loss (piston the

head. area) force and peak head occurring during pumping on an

The bore will area

size

determine

required

at the pump rod since and the pressure acting

force on that

is the product

of the area

- 39 -

TABLE XI Peak Pump Piston Velocity (ft/sec:) for a Pump Rod.Attached.DirectIy to a Crank on the Wheel

Wheel Speed (R.P.M.1 28 5 I s I 6 0 10 12 15 20 0.048 .059 .078 .097 . 117 .147 .195 4 0.087 .104 ,138 .173 -208 .260 .345

Stroke 6 0.129 . 156 .207 .259 .312 .390 .518

(in.

1
8

10 0.216 .259 .345 .432 .520 .650 .865

12 0.260 .310 ,414 .518 .624 -780 1.04

0.172 .208 .276 .345 .416 .520 .690

TABLE Peak ror~e on the Pump Rod of a Piston

XI- I for Var ,ious Bores and Heads (lb.

Pump Required

Peak ?ump I * c I Bore fin.1 50

Head

(f-l,)

change 200

in

elevation

and 300

friction 400

loss 500

100

1 l/4

30 40 60 70 110 185 315

60 80 110 140 220 370 630

110 160 220 270 440 740 1260

370 240 320 420 660 1120 1890

220 320 430 560 880 1480 2520

280 400 540 700 1100 1850 3150

1 l/2
1 3/4 2 2 l/2 3 l/4 4 l/4

area.

Figures

for

force

at the rod are given

in Table given available.

XII.

No

allowance servative.

is made for Bore sizes

rod diameter quoted

so the figures

are con-

are commercially such parts

These figures (if used)

are required

to design that, if

as clevis

pins directly

and to determine that exceed the crank

the pump rod is attached times the entry

to the wheel, XII does not I. if

arm length capacity

in Table by

the torque

of the wheel

as given

Table

Of

course,

levers

or other

torque/force at the wheel as given for

multiplying

devices

are

used,

appropriate

calculations remains

can be made. XII.

The force

at the pump rod still given ment. Additionally, if in Table

in Table

The velocity arrange-

XI must be adjusted

the change

in crank

the line

is very

large

so that

a large forces forces

mass of water can become can be

must be accelerated greater estimated than with

on each stroke, forces.

the inertial The inertial XIII and XIV.

the pressure

the aid of Tables

TABLE XIII Volume of fluid in various sized delivery (ft.)

500 3 11.6 24.6 43.8 23.2 49.1 87.5 1000 6

pipes

(ft3)

Pipe Nominal pipe 1"

2" 3 11 4"

length
200 1.2 4.65 9.82 17.50

size

50
l3
1.16 2.46 4.38

100
-6 2.32 4.91 8.78

42 -

wY-

.
L

Pi

. a,

. M

0;

0 Y-

L 2.

c i aI c

ln

u-3 E 2

0 M

- 43 -

This

inertial

force At

is

at

its time is will

peak the zero.

just friction

as the loss the

piston is total

starts zero rod due to

its

pumping the the static the rod

stroke.

this

because force the with comat

delivery start of

pipe velocity
the plus stroke the

Hence to It is

be equal force. loss the

the

force

head force

inertial friction

should

be compared

when the

a maximum and the of the two.

ponents

designed

to withstand

larger

We can calculate various are given conditions in

the

power

required

to accomplish

pumping

under

of head, XV for

flow steady

rate flow

and pump type. and are adjusted

These figures for unsteady

Table

flow This under

explained

below.

is the theoretical steady conditions.

minimum power input

required

to the pump

Under the unsteady water 2 l/2 wheel for

conditions

of a piston required,

pump, to estimate the table one double entry acting 2 double

the by pump acting

power capacity one single acting acting

multiply

pump, by 2 for

or two single pumps 90 apart. and flow rate

pumps 180 apart give

or by 1.5 for

This will required

an estimate

of the size

of wheel

to the wheel. of this which section, there will be

As mentioned

near

the beginning in the wheel

speed fluctuations wheels working near

may be pronounced This is no particular

in smaller disexceeds

their

capacity. torque

advantage

so long

as the stall necessary

capacity

of the wheel

the minimum torque

to keep the pump moving. with double acting

The magnior multiple

tude of the fluctuations

decreases

- 44 -

V in -u (0 al I

0 P 8 N-l 8 d

in 5 .

-0 Fi

Ln 6.

In 7 .

i .

P-l .

In P M

L!? u .

2.

Ln .

u-l z. s.

Lrl c .

N.

2.

Ln .

2 5 .

UT N 0
Y

0 z

s: F 0

Ln .

K .

In

5:

G 0

Ln P v-$ . .

2 a 0

F 0

2 2 . .

t; AZ<
30 0 LL
V

in
. E .I

?I

0 Ln

0 0

0 ln

0 8

0 2

45

pumps installations a flywheel action

and where begins to

the take

mass of place.

the

wheel

is

such

that

The volume the

pumped per the

stroke bore

varies and stroke which

slightly sizes.

with

the

design

of

pump and with quotes given

One commercial as representative.

manufacturer

figures
XVI.

can be taken

These are

in Table

B.

Method of attachment In activating straightline

to wheel pump, it is done ideally,

rod is achieved.

any piston motion

such that Any bending head seal and

of the piston loads

in the rod puts on the piston cribed

undue side

on the discharge motion so I will

bucket.

Straightline in textbooks,

mechanisms not

are desto

and discussed

endeavor

give details however,

of the common mechanisms. problems which usually

Ihe books seldom mention arise compare when trying advantages along to use and diswith

the practical

such mechanisms. advantages. the advantages A slider device prevent justable plate through with I will

Nor do they mention

some possible problems. (See Fig.

3)

mechanisms

and potential mechanism

and crank with

is attractive

as a simple to ad-

the advantage

of requiring

no special

techniques is .easily via

bending

moments on the pump plunger. the crank pin

Stroke shaft

by attaching holes drilled

to the wheel distances

a flange axis,

at various pin

from the rotation Unless stroke a double will acting

which

the crank the pumping

can be fixed. and return

pump is used, ent forces

stroke

have differrotational

on the crank

pin

resulting

in non-uniform

wheel

- 46 -

TABLE XVI
Qsanrit;es

ot

Water

Pumped per

StroKe

for- Single (imperial

Acting Pumps of Gallons)

Various

Bore and Stroke

Sizes

Stroke

(in.) a
10

Bore

'jn.)

2$

12

* 4 I

1;

.009 .013 .023 .035 .052 .070 .092 . 143

.016 ,023 .040 .064 .092 .125 . 163 .255

.023 .035 .062 .095 . 139 ,187 .245 ,382

.032 ,045 .082 . i27 . 184 .248 .227 .510

.040 .057 .I02 .159 .230 .312 .410 .638

.049 .069 . 122 .191 .278 ,276 .489 .765

1;

2 2; 3 3;
4

- 40 -

speed single motion

(unless acting

compensated

for

by other

means - such as attaching This non-uniform

pumps operating

180 out of phase). by attaching It then

can be alleviated offset

to an extent axis.

the slider becomes a form of the side load on the

(pump axis) quick return

from the wheel This,

mechanism. during

however, stroke,

increases

the slider slider

the return apart bearing

which the slider

necessitates length)

moving to maintain

bearings

(increasing pressure

the same slider if bearing

as with

the

symmetrical

arrangement slider slider somethat the

pressure enough

and the resulting to cause a problem. Although

frictional Lubrication precautions it

drag on the of the can limit

become large bearing

presents

a problem. to water

what the exposure bearing using Packing

in the bearing, protected. grease with rely oily

is unlikely grease prove or rags attention, the crank alignment

can be completely a suitably box style

Pressure might felt

fittings

wash-resistant lubrication Both methods frequency.

suitable. could also which pin could be

be successful. of an intolerable pin ially at the slider tricky

on periodic are also Finally,

There

and clevis

to be lubricated. because shaft crank

is a potentallowable on

problem

of the narrow and crank

tolerance pin

parallelism of the plane One major since

of the wheel of the slider

and on perpendicularity the wheel discussed shaft. is that

mechanism with the next if

advantage

compared with

method

the pump body can be fixed the connection with

the alignment pipe

is sufficiently can be rigid. an

accurate,

the distribution is to pivot

A second method axis parallel

of attachment

the pump body about attach the

to the wheel

shaft

(as on trunnions),

- 49 -

pump rod end to the same kind pump oscillate Fig. 4). This side to side

of crank

pin

as before

and let

the (See inbut

as the piston

goes up and down. problem discussed

eases the difficulty of the crank

of the alignment mechanism previously The pu- 1 rod is

volving introduces loads. bucket attached

the plane

new complications. This is ordinarily

subjected the gland

to side and the

intolerable is easily sliding

at both

but fortunately

overcome bearing the crank required linearly

by a simple surrounding pin) then

frame the crank

to the pump with

pin which bearings ation, these slider problems jection connection intends ing this

the pump rod end (at absorb all the side

slides

in.

The

loads

to cause the oscillonly. Side loads loads on

leaving slider in the with to this

the pump rod loaded bearings slider this would crank technique

be smaller mounting

than

the side the sliding

on the

so that

bearing ob-

are somewhat simpler. is the necessity pipe. be likely for

A serious a flexible If if

mounting

method

from the pump to the distribution to build particular with his own pump, which arrangement, the trunnion pipe would

the reader considerof the seal will

plan'to axis.

have the outlet In this

pump colinear to allow suffice.

way a simple pipe

the pump exit This

to oscillate

in the delivery will probably

method &f flexible

connection

be the

most durable. The scotch require allow. yoke mechanism (See Fig. machining is 5) is than simple available danger and direct equipment of excessive This is not but may will

more sophisticated Furthermore, life if there

the potential

wear and short generally

the lubrication for

is insufficient. unattended use in harsh

a suitable

mechanism

conditions.

- 50 -

/ _.. ._ __.. ___._-_. _

_..._., _..-_-..._... \ \

51 -

J u. d. I

0 ::

m u-4
0

52 -

A cam activated eliminates problem designed

pump rod is an attractive any linkage, some parts. small

alternative.

It

the need for and eliminating profile

simplifying Side loads and a sliding easily

the alignment on a properly bearing it. 6. on A Force weighted be for

would be very

the outboard suitable the return

end of the pump rod would is given can easily simplest

absorb in Fig.

cam profile stroke

schemetically be supplied for

by a properly such weight Solid

pump rod and the immediately in this

location plate.

would

above the follower rigid supply

mounting

of the pump directly

case allows

piping

to be attached

to the pump. A pJrnp bought ready made with aligned a handle can be attached on the wheel quite simply

by a rod suitably

between Then force

a crank

and the free must

end of the pump handle. be modified. Various straight line

and velocity

calculations

motion

linkages

are easily

constructed. even under harsh

They

have the advantage working Theory conditions. of Machines technique on machine

of simplicity

and durability

Many such linkages and Machine to achieve design is Design. straight

are discussed

in books

on

One simple in texts that

line

motion over

seldom

seen such with

to run a cable

a pulley

the end of the cable The other provides

attached

to the pump is colinear to the wheel that no solid

the pump rod. and the cable age is needed.

end can be attached sufficient flexibility to this

crank iinkthe wheel

An alternative

approach

is to link

- 53 -

bearing Sl iding top and bottom

Wheel

shaft

Pump rod

Figure 6. by sliding

Schematic bearings

views ef a suitable cam activated pump rod. Straight top and bottom. Other simpler arrangements as described

line motion of the pump rod is assured in the text are generally~preferable.

crank

to a sector

of a pulley rotates.

sheave in such a way that With the cable remains wrapped

the far

sheave enough

oscillates around sector colinear the

as the crank sector so that there,

the cable the free

always

tangent

to the

and fixed with

end of the cable straight rigs. mechanism, line

can be attached motion. This

the pump rod used on oil

to provide drilling

is the mechanism The cable, in order the wheel for

as a part to drive itself.

of the drive

can be made very distance

long

pumps located

at a considerable provides

from

Such a technique a shallow bore

the means to power, of a village using

instance,

pump in the middle some distance away.

power generated

at a stream

C.

Piping
r

For any water ported

distribution elevation,

system where piping

the water

must be transrequired. There but that

to a higher

is usually

are alternatives is outside The choice iron shall pipe.

such as buckets

on an endless

belt,

etc.,

the scope of this will probably fall

manual. between polythene and galvanized to both. to aid I

There are advantages to give some helpful

and disadvantages information

endeavor

the designer

in making Polythene so numbers the iron It

the best pipe

choice. in long (now around are greatly lengths 200 meter) reduced ft lengths to

is available

of couplings which

and joints

compared typically).

pipe

comes in short weaker this

(21 l/2

is flexible

(softer, and for

and more elastic reason

in strict

engineerto damage

ing terminology)

is more susceptable

- 55 -

from bush knives, such that it

rocks,

pig hooves,

etc.

Its

strength normal

is limited working temperis down to in open soil care Sand

is rated

to support

at best The strength

300 foot is

heads at standard ature dependent

conditions. however, It

strongly

and at 120 F head capacity fire resistant.

185 ft maximum. country is very it would

is not

Consequently If the local great

probably the burying

need to be buried. process

rocky,

must be done with (penetration)

to keep the pipe is usually Iron piles 1000 ft that pipe

from suffering

rock

damage.

used as a bed and cover. can generally it simply be laid on the ground It will with rock more than

to support heads with the

through plenty

low spots. of safety will detailed

support

margin.

For heads to get than

high,

system required

be more sophisticated in this manual.

can be made by the techniques Prices grades for the two types but for cheaper. bore this

are competitive low pressure

in the higher systems,

strength may

of polythene

polythene

be substantially Polythene with factor. Weight strength pipe very iron

has a smoother pipe, It although

so that would

friction not likely

losses

are less

than

be a significant feed systems. of high iron

becomes more important length is vastly

in long different.

gravity

of a given

100 ft

2" polythene 357 lb. areas

weighs Therefore,

60 lb while long

100 ft

2" standard transport for

weighs remote

distance

by hand to even

might other

influence shortcomings. - 56 -

the decision

polythene

in spite

of its

II.

OTHER

APPLICATIONS

While

wate'r

pumping

is an obvious

use for

the water

wheel,

other of the to this by the or

machinery wheel. enumerate section preceeding perhaps Generation spring It

can be adapted is not all

to use the mechanical of this section

power output to attempt I include

the intention

the possible

applications. that pumping

Rather,

to offset section only

any impression that water

may have been given is the most important,

use to which of electricity

the wheel may be put. is a possibility reading which this will manual. probably There

to the minds of most people driven but it electric generators

are wheel

in operation and failures

in Papua New testify to

Guinea today the fact rig. for using avoids that

the number of attempts is not a simple,

cheap task

to make a successful required generation

The principal generators readily

difficulties

are the speed step-up Low voltage auto generators Simple for D.C.

and speed regulation. available parts (old problem.

or alternators)

the speed regulation sets Typical size It teeth is, could

starter-motor-pinion/ speed step-up limit at a of 10

flywheel-ring-gear reasonable diametral of about continuous amps for cost. pitch l/2 h.p. output long

be adequate gear sets gives

ring which

have a lower

a Gower rating to expect generator problems. bulbs,

problems

of 10 R.P.M. to produce at, say, 60

therefore,

marginal automobile gear

from a 12 volt

periods

of time without the need for systems bolt-on

The small resistance also mitigate generation

amount of power generated, losses against in long this distribution a useful

12 volt

and other accessory.

being

Electricity

57

is better

left

to the higher

speed devices

which

are more amenable

to speed regulation pum? being Attachment lished machine 1. forced directly

such as the Banki to run as a turbine. to other of coupling mechanical devices

Turbine

of a centrifugal

machinery described are likely be located

can be accompin various to occur: some

by a variety design books.

Two circumstances to be driven will and

the machine distance

from the wheel; shaft with

2.

the input be aligned

of the machine the wheel are overcome shaft.

will

not

easily

Alignment automobile Note that

difficulties drive shafts

simply attached joint input

and cheaply universal will

with joints.

old

and their

the use of one universal sides. faster For a constant and slower

not give

constant is

speed on both alternately angle will cannot between generally

speed,

the output

than the input

depending

upon the and

the two shafts.

The speed variations If

are small

not be of any consequence. either drive a special automobile) for

the speed variations velocity joint U joints motion of the (as

be tolerated, wheel

constant

from the front must be used, other. Flexible torque Solid require shafts carrying shrifts

or two ordinary the non-uniform

each to c,'mpensatc

are commercially capacity.

available

but are of iimited

can transmit for

torque

over considerable

distance be expensive.

but

bearings

support

and may tharefore

- 58 -

Virtually could

any stationary be run by water would vary

mach-lne which wheel power.

is currently

hand-powered the

The means to aci=omplish to machine of course, are separated

attachment

from machine

but only by long

in the case otihere distances should

the wheel there

and the machine

be any significant

problem.

- 59 -

APPENDIX I Sample Calculation for Wheel-pump set

The following relating

is an example wheel with for

of the use of this use in water placed

manual

to make decisions made

to water

pumping.

The decisions

must be consistent needs supply

the bounds

upon the system by the village's and size of the If by

(how much power is required) stream

and the geography to get

(how much power we can expect is greater than

from the wheel). can be generated is taken from south is of

the power required the wheel, calculations then

the power that work. This

the system cannot Ilauru

example

made for

village,

approximately locations for

15 miles a wheel

Wau, New Guinea. about 350 feet

One of the possible below the level 750 feet drops quite is about

in a stream steep

of the village. of pipe. rapidly 10 ft. There through wide, per

The hill

is quite

and would require where the water

about level

is a place a vertical averages

in the stream distance 6 or 9 inches by measur-

of 8 or 10 ft. depth and flows for

The stream about a leaf

between

1 and 2 ft. a fixed

second

(estimated That

ing the time establishes The village 2 gallons If

to travel

distance).

description size. than estimate. countries per

the conditions has about of water

to determine

the maximum wheel

300 people.

Each person

now consumes less to a rough in other

per day in the village the village, increase.

according experience

the water

were pumped into the consumption is twice sometimes that

shows that

would quoted

A minimum of

10 gallons

day per person calculate sumption. for

as a minimum viable for expansion

scheme.

Let us or of con-

to allow

of population

- 60 -

1.

Total

water

requirement
X

in gallons x

per hour day 24 hr = 250 gal/hour to allow larger

20 gal person-day assuming

300 people facilities

storage

at the village

draw at peak hours. 2. Power required 250 gal/hour some losses steady 3. to meet this at approx. pumping head rate from Table ft. 4 h.p. XV. rise +

400 ft.

(350 actual about

as yet uncalculated)

requires

under

conditions. on the type for of pump arrangement 2$ times acting that for used, the wheel acting for 2 will pump,

Depending

need to be designed 2 times double acting 4. that acting for

a single that

double

pump or 1% times the simplest

pump.

Assuming

case of

1 single

pump we need a wheel that much power

of l& h.p. from a water The largest

potential. wheel diameter under the stated is - about

Can we get conditioI:s limited 8 feet. (Table

at the stream? by the drop An 8 ft.

possible distance

in the stream will

in a useable at about rate =

wheel

operate

12 rpm or less

VI).

The stream 10 ft

has a flow x $ ft

of at least 5 ft3 set

x 1 ft set

or 5 ft3 x 6% gal set ft3 At 1800 gal/min from an 8 ft. we should wheel (Table be able x -60 set min to produce less = 1800 gal min

2 h.p.

at least upon

V) or slightly

depending

- 61 -

the exact Therefore

t/r

values

finally that for

chosen. the job, example, in theory, only is possible. per

we conclude rafe been,

Had the flow minute, would 5.

500 gallons

the task probably

of pumping

250 gal per hour

to the village

have been impossible. 12 rpm and 4 ft. width (maximum usually the annulus width used neces-

At an estimated is half sary

the diVameter) II).

we can estimate

(Table

1% h.p. needed I2 rpm x 4 ft wide In the entry lus widths under listed

= 8 ft. will

0.025

h.p.

per rpm per ft wheels

of width all annuWe desired

diameter provide

we see that that 4 ft.

at least less than

much power. wide if

now know we can make the wheel and the annulus It width

can be between established will at that

3 in.

and 12 in. diameter water

is now completely in this location operates there instance,

an 8 ft. required.

wheel 6. If

do the job

the wheel

12 rpm and the pump is directly per rpm with connection no added suggested per revo-

coupled leverage in Part lution.

so that (for

is one stroke as with IB), there

the wire will

Two, Section To accomplish

be one stroke

250 gal/hr x

we need: = .35 gal/stroke 12" stroke

250 gal hr Prom Table

hr 60 min

min 12 strokes

XVI that

means we need 3% pump with etc.

or 4" pump with

9" stroke

- 62 -

7.

If we limit pipe size

the velocity with

in the pipe

to 10 ft/sec because it

then

the

the 3%" pump (chosen

is cheaper velocity velocity pipe at cross and

c

than the 4" pump) is related the pump size. 12" stroke section From Table

to the peak piston XI the peak piston The delivery

12 rpm is

.624 ft/sec.

area must be approximately .624 x 11 (3Q2 -104 x 1 = Pipe area 1" diameter iron = .64 in2 pipe. to withstand 1" pipe the presis used,

This 8.

would

require

a nominal

The pipe

would

need to be galvanized 350 ft. is would 0.022 about If

sure of heads exceeding the actual The friction friction Thus the total peak velocity head loss loss =

a nominal 7 ft/sec.

be (Table x 750 l/12 x

X) 7' 2 x 32.2 = 150 ft

peak head causing

forces =

on the pump rod 500 ft. pipe outlet

would be 350 (elevation) Commercial holes and if

+ 150 (loss) with

3% m. pumps are fitted 2 in. pipe is =

2 in.

is used the loss less 0.028

is much less is greater. = 8ft of doubling

.
I

because

the velocity loss

and the diameter x 750 x 22 2/12 2 x 32.2 but

friction The saving the pipe 9. Assuming force crank

is obviously size

substantial

the cost

may be unattractive. we find the required pump rod a

we use the 1" pipe XII is about

from Table length

1850 lb.

For a 12" stroke on

of 6" is required

and so the peak torque

- 63 -

the machine From Table of the wheel 10. To allow adding annulus. about fairly shaft for

is 925 ft/lb. 1 we see that if it this is well wide. expansion of needs without I would loads select are a 4" VII) within the capacity

is 4 ft.

reasonable weight

future

unnecessary Having 500 lb. close size d3 =

to the wheel the bearing

done that, Assuming

(Table

each.

the bearings

can be located the solid 8steel

to the wheel, required 16 d 1.65 in is

say 6" away, from:

found

(6 x 5oo)2 + (925 x 12)2-;.' F (13,000)

d Any solid

steel

shaft

larger

than

this

will

be satisfactory.

- 64 -

APPENDIX II An Easily Constructed by R. Burton This pump was designed by P. Brown (of the Mechanical of Technology) Engineering with a view Workto up Piston Pump

shop at the Papua New Guinea University manufacture using fittings To avoid pipe in Papua New Guinea.

Consequently

the pump can be built are standard pipe

a minimum of workshop available having

equipment.

Most parts

at any plumbing

suppliers. a length of copper and

to bore and hone a pump cylinder, Provided care is not is taken to select

is used.

an undamaged length this

to see that has proved

the length quite

damaged during

construction

system
c c

satisfactory. diagram, silver the ends of the pump onto the pump but avoids

As can be seen from the cross-sectional body consist cylinder. of copper This pipe reducers

soldered

does make disassembly

of the pump difficult,

the use of a lathe. If a lathe is available, a screwed for end could simple be silver soldered to the

upper

end of the pump to allow of the pump consists it (see diagram). with

disassembly. P.V.C. bucket flange with holes above valve. leather, bar is a die.

The piston drilled

of a $'I thick A leather serves

through

is attached

the piston In this

and together

the holed

as a non-return soft steel

type

of pump the bucket leather bucket

must cbe made of fairly suitable. cut Bright at its

a commercial

is not

used as the drive

rod and has to be thread - 65 -

ends using

2 DELIVERY PIPE

LE 4 TO 2 COPPER PIFE REDUCER I

OLDER

4 DIA. X 12 COPPER PIPE /2 BRIGHT M/S DRIVE ROD

.---I
6

Wl-ilT

NUT

6x36

tiOLES

Sl LKR

SOLDER

ii

. BRASS PEGS II-; GALVAdlZE FLANGE

G RUBBER RING

66

A galvanized pump to allow An '0' seal it with for ring

nipple

is silver

soldered pipe

to the top copper

reducer

of the

the discharge seal of the type valve. the lower centre

to be attached. P.V.C. pipe is used as a any fixing A &" screwed the foot valve. since flange This brass plate. plate

used to join seal

the foot into in its

This

does not pipe

require

push fits a plug

copper forms

reducer. for

the plate

must be restrained pegs fitted

from rising the side

up the bore of the pump by three wall of the pump above the valve in to prevent pump is leakage

in through

These pegs must be silver A parts with Parts 1 only 2 only 1 only 1 only 1 only 1 only 1 only 1 only 1 only l/8" list for list.

soldered

or movement. together

a 4" bore x 9' stroke

set out below

a tool

12" x 4" dia.

copper

tube

4" to 1%" copper 1%" galvanized +x" screwed %" plug Q" P.V.C. Rubber piece '0' flange ring

tube reducers nipple

flange

4" dia. leather steel bar

of 4%" dia. bright

15" x is" dia. dia. brazing rod

- 67 -

Tools -Handi Silver gas kit solder

Hand drill %" Khitworth $" Whitworth Hacksaw Hammer die tap

- 68 -

BIBLIOGRAP'HY Village Technology B Water Supplies: Avenue, Mt. Rainier, Maryland, Areas and (1959) Canada

Village Technology Handbook Publ. by VITA, 3706 Rhode Island 20822, U.S.A.

Wagner, E.G. and Landix, J.N., Water Supply for Rural Small Communities, Geneva: World Health Organization Handbook of Appropriate Publ. by Brace Research Technology Institute, McGill Univ., for

Montreal,

Handbook of Homemade Power Bantam Books, N.Y. (1974) (Complete Paperback) Cloudburst Cloudburst Historical: Banks,
Kees,

Drawings

Water Wheel -

Manual Press, Vancouver,

B.C.,

Canada (1973)

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Longman, (1815)

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Burton, R. (James Renwick, York: G. & C. & H. Carvill

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Evans, O., Young Millwright & Miller's Guide, 13th ed., Philadelphia: Lea & Blanchard (1850). Reprinted by Arno Press, cjo Aris & Phillips, Ltd., Teddington House, Church St., Warminster, England Ewbank, T., Hydraulics and Other York: Bangs, Platt & Co. (1851) Ferguson, J., Lectures Optics and Astronomy, Machines for Raising Water, New

on Mechanics, Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, London: Sherwood & Co. (1825) Calculator, Hartford, Conn.: Summer Sturbridge,

Grier, W., The Mechanic's & Goodman (1848) Hamilton, E.P., Massachusetts: Hughes, W. C., Philadelphia:

The Village Mill in Early New England, Old Sturbridge Village Press (1964) The American Miller and Millwright's Henry Carey Baird (1853)

Assistant,

- 69 -

Lewis, P., The Romance of Water Power Sampson Low, Marston & Co. Ltd. London: Nicholson, Philadelphia: J., The Operative T. Desilver,

(Ca.

1925) Machinist

Mechanic and British Jr. (1831) Inventions

Usher, A.P., History Harvard Univ. Press Design Details:

of Mechanical (1954)

Chironis, N.P. ed. Mechanisms, (1965) N.Y., McGraw Hill Tuttle, S.B., Mechanisms N.Y. Wiley (1 967) Black, P.H. & Adams, O.E., N.Y. McGraw Hill (1968) Faires, London, Hoyland, London, Parr, N.Y., for

Linkages Engineering

and Mechanical Design

Controls

Machine

Design

V.M., Design of Machine Elements Collier--Macmillan (1965) J., Engineering Cassell (1968) Construction and Materials Design of Machine Elements

of Mechanical R.E., Principles McGraw Hill (1969) A., Design Design

Doughtie, V.L. & Valiance, N.Y., McGraw Hill (1969)

Rothbart, H.A. ed., Mechanical N.Y., McGraw Hill (1964) Construction: Bayliss, London,

and Systems Handbook

R., Carpentry and Joinery Hutchinson Ltd. (1969) Handbook

- Timber Design and Construction (1956) N.Y., McGraw Hill Durban, W., Carpentry Chicago, Am. Tech. Sot. Keeling, London, (1970)

F., Carpentry and Joinery Cleaver Hume (1963) of Joinery

Eastwick-Field, J., The Design and Practice London, The Architectural Press (1966) - 70 -

Andrews,

H.J.,

An Introduction

to Timber

Engineering

Oxford, Materials:
Miner,

Pergamon

(1967)

N.Y.,

D.F. Wiley

& Seastone, (1955)

eds.,

Handbook

of Engineering Timbers

Materials,

- Properties and Uses of Papua New Guinea Boroko, PNG, Dept. of Forests (1970)

Berzinsh, G.V., Snegovskii, F.P., Skrupskis, V.P. Plasticized Lignum as New Anti-Friction Material" Mashinostroeniya, 1, Jan. 1969, p. 45 O'Conner, J.J. et. al., eds., Engineering (1968) N.Y., McGraw Hill Fuller, D., N.Y., Wiley Theory (1956) and Practice Standard Handbook

"Ammonia Vesnik of Lubrication

of Lubrication

for

Enginer:s Applications" No. 541,

Callahan, J.R., "Lignum Vitae Wood for Processing Chem. & Met. Eng. 51, May 1944, p. 129 Atwater, K. "Lignum 1932, p. 1 Verney, Londcn, Pumping: Southern Cross Machinery Co. Catalogue Industrial Enterprises Ltd., P.O. Box 454, Aust. 4350 Sidney Williams and Co. Catalogue P.O. Box 22, Dulwich Hill, NSW, Aust. - Pumping Manual Trade Morden, Surrey: and Technical 2203 Press Ltd. Vitae Bearings" Trans.

ASME, 54, in Wood

M., Complete Amateur J. Murray (1967)

Boat Building

Toowoomba,

Qld.,

(1968)

Hicks, T.G., Pump Selection (1957) N.Y., McGraw Hill

and Application

- 71 -