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Define depolarization, repolarization and hyperpolarization. Explain the actions of voltageregulated Na+ and K+ channels and describe the events that occur during the production of an action potential.
KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN
explain the significance of the allor-none law Describe the events that occur in the interval between the electrical excitation of an axon and the release of neurotransmitter.
Explain the direct and indirect pathways Explain the functions of thalamus Describe the anatomy of basal ganglia
During development
Spinal and cranial reflexes are first to appear Complex reflexes develop as CNS matures and brain grows
Major Spinal Nerve Tracts Motor tracts Red Sensory tracts - Blue
Spinal nerves contains Afferent (sensory) and Efferent (motor) fibres Afferent (Sensory) neurons enter the spinal cord via the dorsal roots. Their cell bodies are in the Dorsal Root Ganglia. Efferent (Motor) neurons exit the spinal cord via the ventral roots. Their cell bodies KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN are in the ventral horn.
Ascending (afferent) and Descending (efferent) pathways are organised into distinct tracts within the white matter of the spinal cord
KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN
Figure 15.6
Figure 12.31
Figure 15.8a, b
Figure 15.8c
Figure 12.33b
Anterolateral pathway
Carries poorly localized sensations of touch, pressure, pain, and temperature Axons decussate in the spinal cord and ascend within the anterior and lateral spinothalamic tracts Headed toward the ventral nuclei of the thalamus
Spinocerebellar pathway
Includes the posterior and anterior spinocerebellar tracts Carries sensation to the cerebellum concerning position of muscles, tendons and joints
Figure 15.9
Corticospinal tract
Origins: primary motor cortex (MI), premotor cortex, supplemental motor cortex, anterior paracentral gyrus, parietal lobe (including SI) and cingulate gyrus collaterals: small percentage of corticospinal neurons
1. midbrain (primarily red nucleus) 2. trigeminal nuclei 3. pontine nuclei
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Corticospinal tract
Termination in spinal cord: mostly laminae 3-7, few in ventral horn and laminae 1-2; mostly innervating interneurons, although some innervation of alpha motor neurons Neurotransmitter: glutamate and/or aspartate
Corticobulbar tracts
A. control over facial muscles; bilateral input to motor neurons controlling muscles in upper face, but contralateral input to motor neurons controlling lower face (in humans, not sure about rodents) B. control over muscles of mastication: motor trigeminal, and RF C. control over external eye muscles: input comes from frontal and parietal eye fields, rather than from MI; projection to midbrain and paramedian pontine RF D. control over tongue: hypoglossal and RF E. control over swallowing reflexes: nucleus ambiguus and RF
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KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN
Figure 12.34a
Figure 15.10
Figure 15.11
Medial pathway
Primarily controls gross movements of the trunk and proximal limbs Includes the vestibulospinal tracts, tectospinal tracts and reticulospinal tracts
lateral pathways
Lateral pathway
Controls muscle tone and movements of the distal muscles of the upper limbs Rubrospinal tracts
Figure 15.12
Cranial Nerves
12 Cranial Nerves 10 originate from the brainstem Most carry motor and sensory information
Cranial Nerves
I. II. Olfactory : Olfaction Optic: Vision (S) (S)
III.
IV. V. VI.
(M, PS)
(M) (M) (S, M, PS) (S, M)
VII. Facial: Taste, saliva tear secretion, facial expression IX. X. XI.
Glossopharnygeal: Taste, tongue sensations, saliva secretion, O2 and CO2 monitoring in blood (M, S, PS) Vagus: Taste, pharynx epiglottis sensation, innervation of GI tract (glands and muscle), trachea, cardiac muscle (M, S, PS) Accessory: Pharynx, larynx, soft palate muscle (cranial portion). Sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscle (spinal portion) (M)
Pyramidal Tracts
Corticobulbar tract Corticospinal tracts
Extra-Pyramidal tracts
Vestibulospinal tracts Tectospinal tracts
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Extra-Pyramidal tracts Originate from centers in the cerebrum, diencephalon and brain stem not from pyramidal cells (extrapyramidal). Vestibulospinal tracts do not decussate 1. Neurons respond to information from the vestibulocochlear nerve about the position and movements of the head. 2. The tract carries motor commands that alter muscle tone and position the head, neck and limbs to maintain balance and posture.
Tectospinal tracts Cross over in the brain stem 1. Neurons originate in the superior and inferior colliculi in the tectum of the midbrain. The colliculi receive visual (superior) and auditory (inferior) sensations. 2. Neurons of these tracts direct reflexive changes in the position of the head, neck and upper limbs in response to bright lights, KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN sudden movements or loud noises.
Figure 12.34b
Bronchial muscle relaxed Bronchial muscle contracted Peristalsis reduced Gastric juice secreted; motility increased
Kidney
Bladder
4. Describe the origins, pathways and neurotransmitters used in the Autonomic Nervous System.