Define depolarization, repolarization and hyperpolarization

KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN, BASLP, MASLP.

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Define depolarization, repolarization and hyperpolarization. Explain the actions of voltageregulated Na+ and K+ channels and describe the events that occur during the production of an action potential.
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explain the significance of the allor-none law Describe the events that occur in the interval between the electrical excitation of an axon and the release of neurotransmitter.

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Explain the direct and indirect pathways Explain the functions of thalamus Describe the anatomy of basal ganglia

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The Organization of Sensory Pathways

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Classification of central nervous system

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During development
Spinal and cranial reflexes are first to appear Complex reflexes develop as CNS matures and brain grows

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Major Spinal Nerve Tracts Motor tracts Red Sensory tracts - Blue

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Spinal Cord: Afferent and Efferent Pathways

Spinal nerves contains Afferent (sensory) and Efferent (motor) fibres Afferent (Sensory) neurons enter the spinal cord via the dorsal roots. Their cell bodies are in the Dorsal Root Ganglia. Efferent (Motor) neurons exit the spinal cord via the ventral roots. Their cell bodies KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN are in the ventral horn.

Spinal Cord: Ascending & Descending tracts

Ascending (afferent) and Descending (efferent) pathways are organised into distinct tracts within the white matter of the spinal cord
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Sensory Pathways and Ascending Tracts in the Spinal Cord

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Figure 15.6

Gray Matter: Organization

Dorsal half sensory roots and ganglia Ventral half motor roots Dorsal and ventral roots fuse laterally to form spinal nerves Four zones are evident within the gray matter somatic sensory (SS), visceral sensory (VS), visceral motor (VM), and somatic motor (SM)
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Gray Matter: Organization

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Figure 12.31

White Matter in the Spinal Cord

Fibers run in three directions ascending, descending, and transversely Divided into three funiculi (columns) posterior, lateral, and anterior Each funiculus contains several fiber tracks
Fiber tract names reveal their origin and destination Fiber tracts are composed of axons with similar functions KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN

White Matter: Pathway Generalizations

Pathways decussate Most consist of two or three neurons Most exhibit somatotopy (precise spatial relationships) Pathways are paired (one on each side of the spinal cord or brain)

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Ascending Tracts Three major sensory pathways

Posterior Column Pathway Cross in the medulla oblongata Carries sensations of fine touch, pressure and proprioception from peripheral receptors to the sensory cortex of the cerebral hemispheres via the thalamus. Spinothalamic Pathway Cross in the spinal cord Carries messages of crude touch, pressure, pain and temperature from peripheral receptors to the sensory cortex of the cerebral hemispheres via the thalamus. Spinocerebellar Pathway 1. Sensory neurons arise in muscle spindles, stretch receptors in tendons and joint capsules. The overall sensory information is proprioception. 2. The destination of these messages is the cerebellum, specifically the cerebellar cortex.
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Posterior column pathway

Carries fine touch, pressure and proprioceptive sensations Axons ascend within the fasciculus gracilis and fasciculus cuneatus Relay information to the thalamus via the medial lemniscus
Decussation

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The Posterior Column Pathway and the Spinothalamic Tracts

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Figure 15.8a, b

The Posterior Column Pathway and the Spinothalamic Tracts

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Figure 15.8c

Nonspecific Ascending Pathway

Nonspecific pathway for pain, temperature, and crude touch within the lateral spinothalamic tract

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Figure 12.33b

Anterolateral pathway
Carries poorly localized sensations of touch, pressure, pain, and temperature Axons decussate in the spinal cord and ascend within the anterior and lateral spinothalamic tracts Headed toward the ventral nuclei of the thalamus

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Spinocerebellar pathway
Includes the posterior and anterior spinocerebellar tracts Carries sensation to the cerebellum concerning position of muscles, tendons and joints

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The Spinocerebellar Pathway

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Figure 15.9

Visceral sensory pathways

Carry information collected by interoceptors Information from cranial nerves V, VII, IX and X delivered to solitary nucleus in medulla oblongata Dorsal roots of spinal nerves T1 L2 carry visceral sensory information from organs between the diaphragm and pelvis Dorsal roots of spinal nerves S2 S4 carry sensory information below this area
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The Somatic Nervous System

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Somatic motor pathways

Upper motor neuron
Cell body lies in a CNS processing center

Lower motor neuron

Cell body located in a motor nucleus of the brain or spinal cord

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Overview of Motor Systems

Spinal and brainstem reflexes Corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts Cortical-subcortical-thalamo-cortical systems
Involving basal ganglia Involving pons and cerebellum

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Corticospinal tract
Origins: primary motor cortex (MI), premotor cortex, supplemental motor cortex, anterior paracentral gyrus, parietal lobe (including SI) and cingulate gyrus collaterals: small percentage of corticospinal neurons
1. midbrain (primarily red nucleus) 2. trigeminal nuclei 3. pontine nuclei
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Corticospinal tract
Termination in spinal cord: mostly laminae 3-7, few in ventral horn and laminae 1-2; mostly innervating interneurons, although some innervation of alpha motor neurons Neurotransmitter: glutamate and/or aspartate

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Pyramidal tract origin

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Corticobulbar tracts
A. control over facial muscles; bilateral input to motor neurons controlling muscles in upper face, but contralateral input to motor neurons controlling lower face (in humans, not sure about rodents) B. control over muscles of mastication: motor trigeminal, and RF C. control over external eye muscles: input comes from frontal and parietal eye fields, rather than from MI; projection to midbrain and paramedian pontine RF D. control over tongue: hypoglossal and RF E. control over swallowing reflexes: nucleus ambiguus and RF
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Descending Motor Pathways: Direct Pathway

Consists of an Upper Motor neuron arising from the motor cortex and a Lower Motor neuron that exits via the opposite ventral horn. Crossover occurs at medulla or at the level of the spinal cord where the lower motor neuron exits.

Start Action
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The Direct (Pyramidal) System

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Figure 12.34a

Descending Motor Pathways: Indirect Pathway

Involves more than one synapse
Crossover occurs at medulla or at the level of the spinal cord where the lower motor neuron exits Monitor & regulate Action
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Descending (Motor) Tracts in the Spinal Cord

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Figure 15.10

Motor Hierarchy and Loops

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Figure 15.11 The Corticospinal Pathway

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Figure 15.11

medial and lateral pathways

The medial and lateral pathways
Issue motor commands as a result of subconscious processing

Medial pathway
Primarily controls gross movements of the trunk and proximal limbs Includes the vestibulospinal tracts, tectospinal tracts and reticulospinal tracts

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lateral pathways
Lateral pathway
Controls muscle tone and movements of the distal muscles of the upper limbs Rubrospinal tracts

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Centers of Somatic Motor Control

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Figure 15.12

Cranial Nerves
12 Cranial Nerves 10 originate from the brainstem Most carry motor and sensory information

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Cranial Nerves
I. II. Olfactory : Olfaction Optic: Vision (S) (S)

III.
IV. V. VI.

Occulomotor: ciliary muscles

Trochlear extrinsic eye muscles Abducens: Extrinsic eye muscles

(M, PS)
(M) (M) (S, M, PS) (S, M)

Trigeminal Mastication muscles, skin sensation (S, M)

VII. Facial: Taste, saliva tear secretion, facial expression IX. X. XI.

VIII. Vestibulocochlear: Hearing and Vestibular (balance) function

Glossopharnygeal: Taste, tongue sensations, saliva secretion, O2 and CO2 monitoring in blood (M, S, PS) Vagus: Taste, pharynx epiglottis sensation, innervation of GI tract (glands and muscle), trachea, cardiac muscle (M, S, PS) Accessory: Pharynx, larynx, soft palate muscle (cranial portion). Sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscle (spinal portion) (M)

KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN XII. Hypoglossal: Tongue muscles (M)

Descending Nerve Tracts

Name it? corticospinal, or pyramidal tracts, extrapyramidal tracts. The pyramidal tracts descend directly without synaptic interruption, from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord.

Pyramidal Tracts
Corticobulbar tract Corticospinal tracts

Extra-Pyramidal tracts
Vestibulospinal tracts Tectospinal tracts
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Extra-Pyramidal tracts Originate from centers in the cerebrum, diencephalon and brain stem not from pyramidal cells (extrapyramidal). Vestibulospinal tracts do not decussate 1. Neurons respond to information from the vestibulocochlear nerve about the position and movements of the head. 2. The tract carries motor commands that alter muscle tone and position the head, neck and limbs to maintain balance and posture.
Tectospinal tracts Cross over in the brain stem 1. Neurons originate in the superior and inferior colliculi in the tectum of the midbrain. The colliculi receive visual (superior) and auditory (inferior) sensations. 2. Neurons of these tracts direct reflexive changes in the position of the head, neck and upper limbs in response to bright lights, KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN sudden movements or loud noises.

Indirect (Extrapyramidal) System

Includes the brain stem, motor nuclei, and all motor pathways not part of the pyramidal system This system includes the rubrospinal, vestibulospinal, reticulospinal, and tectospinal tracts These motor pathways are complex and multisynaptic, and regulate: Axial muscles that maintain balance and posture Muscles controlling coarse movements of the proximal portions of limbs Head, neck, and eye movement

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Indirect (Extrapyramidal) System

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Figure 12.34b

Extrapyramidal (Multineuronal) Pathways

Reticulospinal tracts maintain balance Rubrospinal tracts control flexor muscles Superior colliculi and tectospinal tracts mediate head movements

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Spinal Cord & Spinal Nerves

Spinal Cord and Spinal nerves are divided into segments:

Cervical (8), Thoracic (12), Lumbar (5), Sacral (5) & Coccygeal (1) KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN Segments

Autonomic Nervous System

The nervous system is divided into the Somatic Nervous System which controls organs under voluntary control (mainly muscles) and the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) which regulates individual organ function and homeostasis, and for the most part is not subject to voluntary control. It is also known as the visceral or automatic system. The ANS is predominantly an efferent (motor) system transmitting impulses from the Central Nervous System (CNS) to peripheral organ systems. Its effects include: 1. control of heart rate and force of heart contraction 2. constriction and dilation of blood vessels 3. contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle in various organs 4. visual accommodation and pupillary size 5. the secretions from exocrine and endocrine glands.
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The Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Systems

The ANS is divided into two separate divisions called the Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Systems, on the basis of anatomical and functional differences. Both of these systems consist of myelinated preganglionic fibers which make synaptic connections with unmyelinated postganglionic fibers, and it is these which then innervate the effector organ. These synapses usually occur in clusters called ganglia. Most organs are innervated by fibers from both divisions of the ANS, and the influence is usually opposing. For example, the vagus nerve (PNS) slows the heart, whilst the sympathetic nerves increase its rate and strength of contraction. In general, the responses of the parasympathetic system are characterized as Rest and Digest and those of the Sympathetic are called Fight or KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN Flight

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Responses

Structure Iris (eye muscle) Salivary Glands Heart Lung Stomach Sympathetic Stimulation Parasympathetic Stimulation Pupil dilation Saliva production reduced Heart rate and force increased Pupil constriction Saliva production increased Heart rate and force decreased

Bronchial muscle relaxed Bronchial muscle contracted Peristalsis reduced Gastric juice secreted; motility increased

Kidney
Bladder

Decreased urine secretion

Wall relaxed Sphincter closed

Increased urine secretion

Wall contracted Sphincter relaxed

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Parasympathetic Nervous System

Parasympathetic nerve messages arise from the cell bodies of the motor nuclei in the brain stem and from the second, third and fourth sacral segments of the spinal cord. For this reason, the parasympathetic is also referred to as CranioSacral. Preganglionic fibers run almost to the organ which is innervated, and synapse in ganglia close to or within that organ, giving rise to postganglionic fibers which then innervate the relevant tissue.

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Sympathetic Nervous System

The cell bodies of the sympathetic preganglionic fibres are in the lateral horns of spinal segments T1 to L2. For this reason, the sympathetic nervous system is also called Thoraco-Lumbar. The preganglionic fibres travel a short distance in the mixed spinal nerve, and then branch off as white rami (myelinated) to enter the sympathetic ganglia. The sympathetic ganglia are mainly arranged in two chains which lie near the vertebral bodies and extend from the cervical to the sacral region. They are called the sympathetic ganglionic chains.
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Autonomic Nervous System

Somatic Nervous System innervates skeletal muscle. It is under voluntary control.

Autonomic Nervous System innervates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands. It is under autonomous KUNNAMPALLIL GEJO JOHN control.

Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Divisions

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The Brainstem, Cranial Nerves, Spinal Cord and Spinal nerves

1. Describe the origin, projections and functions of the 12 cranial nerves.
2. Describe the anatomy of ascending and descending pathways of the spinal cord and spinal nerves. 3. Describe the motor pathways from the motor cortex via the brainstem and spinal cord (Somatic Nervous System).

4. Describe the origins, pathways and neurotransmitters used in the Autonomic Nervous System.

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