ControlSystemsEngineering

APracticalApproach
byFrankOwen,PhD,P.E.
MechanicalEngineeringDepartment
CaliforniaPolytechnicStateUniversity
SanLuisObispo,California
May2012

byFrankOwen,May2012
TableofContents

Preface

Acknowledgements

Chapter1Introductiontocontrolsystems

Chapter2Laplacetransformations

Chapter3Systemmodeling

Chapter4Firstandsecondordersystemresponse

Chapter5Stability

Chapter6Steadystateerror

Chapter7Rootlocus

Chapter8Frequencyresponse

Chapter9DesigningandtuningPIDcontrollers

Chapter10Anintroductiontodigitalcontrol

Preface

Preface1

Preface
Whythisbook?
ThisbookhasbeenwrittenforcontrolsstudentsatCalPolyquitesimplytosavethemmoney.Thereare
many,manygoodcontrolsbooksavailable,buttheyhave,inmyopinion,threeflaws.
1) Theyareveryexpensive.
2) Theyareratherreferencebooksthanabasic,firstbookwhatoneneedswhenfirstapproaching
thesubject.ThuswehavefoundatCalPolythatwebuyabookforalotofmoneyandthenuseonly
asmallpartofit.Itisnotthatthepartsthatwedontusedonthaveanyvalue.Theydo.Butone
doesntneedtobuyacompletereferencebooktounderstandthebasicsandtheessentialsofa
topic.
3) Theyarehighlymathematical.Controlsisaverymathematicaltopic,perhapsthemostheavily
ladenmathematicallyinmechanicalengineering.Therearemanygoodengineersinindustrythat
arenotparticularlyadeptatmathematics,whopracticeengineeringwithasmuchintuitionand
commonsenseasmathematicaladeptness.Amathematicalapproachtocontrolslosessightofthis,
leavesmanypeoplebehind,anddoesnottakeadvantageofthefactthatthistopicalsomakesalot
ofsense,alotofcommonsense.Thustheapproachtakenhereistoincludewhatmathisnecessary
buttoappealtocommonsenseandintuitionwheneverpossible.Withtodaysmodelingtools
readhereMatlab/Simulinkagreatdealofthemathcanbeskippedandreplacedwithmodel
building,toposeandanswerquestionsthatstartwithWhatwouldhappenifwe?
InadditionithasalwaysbeenmyconjecturethatwhatwehavedevelopedatCalPolyinourcontrolslab
wouldalsobeveryusefultocontrolsengineersinindustry.Ourlab,whilenotunique,isveryrare.It
bringscontrolsdowntoearthandteachescontrolsengineershowtodealwithrealsystems,howto
modelthemandthentunethemodels,andhowtosetupandtunePIDcontrollersforrealsystems.
Thesearetheessentialskillsthatacontrolsengineermusthavetooperateinindustry.Inmy
experienceinacademia,theseessentialskillsarenotoftentaught.Controlsstudentshavetheirheads
filledwithmathematics,indeedthemathematicsofcomplexnumbers,butthentheyarenotgiveneven
astartingnotionofhowsuchknowledgeisapplicableintherealworld.Thisbookfocuseseveronthe
realworldofcontrolsinindustry.Ittriesnevertolosesightofthatgoalandtriestoavoidthealluring
trapofmathematicaleleganceandindeedmathematicalsnobbishnessthatseemscommoninthefield
ofacademiccontrols.Sothebookhasalsobeenwrittenforindustrialpractitionersofcontroltheory
whoneedtounderstandthetopicandthenbringintoplaytotheiradvantage.
TheotherinfluencethatledmetowritethisbookwasthethreeyearsIspentteachingcontrolsin
Germany,twoyearsattheMunichUniversityofAppliedSciencesandoneyearattheKarlsruhe
UniversityofAppliedSciences.InGermanytextbooksarerare.Ratherstudentsworkfromascript,a
collectionoftheprofessorsnotesorganizedandprintedforstudentuse.Thisbookisreallyascript,a
collectionofmynotesfromteachingcontrolsoverthepastdecade.Thoughwritingabookisalotof
Preface

Preface2

work,itscommonpracticetohaveshort,directedscriptsatlowcostsforpoorstudents.SoIthought,
whydontwedothesameatCalPoly?Wehavelotsandlotsofexperienceteachingcontrols,sowe
shouldbeabletocomeupwithagoodscript.Besides,withourinvolvementinourlaboratory,wehave
alreadydemonstratedthatwecancomeupwithahighqualitydocumentforteachingthelabportionof
thecourse.
Thusitismyhopethatstudentswillbenefitfromthispracticalapproachtocontrolsjustastheyare
assuredlybenefitingfromsavingalmost$200(in2010).AndIhopethatthisscriptservesasanexample
ofwhatcouldbedoneinothercoursesatCalPolyifprofessorswouldtaketheirhardwonexperience,
collectit,andmakeitavailableatlowcosttothoseeagertolearnbutwithoutalotofmoneytobuy
expensivereferencebooks.Thisdoesnotmeanthatoneshouldntbuytheexpensivereferencebooks.
Maybeoneneedstheminhisorherwork.Butatthatstage,onehasthemeanstobuythemorones
companywillbuythemwhenthereisaneed.
TheuseofMatlab/Simulink
ItishardnowadaystoenvisionpracticingcontrolsengineeringwithoutMatlab/Simulink.The
employmentofthissoftwareinanalyzingsystemsanddesigningcontrollersindeednowinrunning
realcontrollersinphysicalsystemsisderigueur.Thistextdoesnotincludeatutorialinlearning
Matlab/Simulink.Thatsavailableonlineorwiththesoftware.Itisassumedthatthereaderhassome
knowledgeofthissoftware.Problemsareposedinthetextthatdirectlydirectthestudenttousethis
software.Occasionallytipsaregiveninspecificapplicationsthatillustratetheutilityofaparticular
MatlabcommandorSimulinkprocedure.Iftheusersknowledgeofthissoftwareisnotatalevelwhere
thesereferencestoitmakesense,heorsheshouldexplorethesoftwareabit,researchingitshelp
facilityforbackgroundknowledge.ControlsrequiresknowingaboutonlyatinybitofMatlaband
Simulink.Sothereaderisnotrequiredtodoanyextensivefoundationbuildinginordertobeeffective
withMatlab/Simulinkinhisorherstudyofthesubject.
Acknowledgements
Wow,howdidahillbillyguyfromalawyerfamilyinMississippievergettothepointthathecouldsit
downandwriteacontrolsbookalmostdirectlyoutofhishead?Well,ifItoldthatwholestory,thatd
beabookinitself.Lotsofhardwonexperiencebutalsolotsofhelpalongtheway.Itsalwaysbeenmy
contentionthatwhenbestowingthanks,wenevergofarbackenough.SoIwanttoatleastgobackand
thankmyhighschoolmathematicsandphysicsteacher,MacEgger.Hedidntplanttheoriginalseed,
buthewasthereclosetothebeginning.Thentherewerelotsoftwistsandturnstogettothispoint.
Alongtheway:GlenMasadaattheUniversityofTexasatAustintaughtmeclassicalcontrolswhenI
wentandgotamidcareerPhD.JustbeforethatIworkedatoneofthelargestcoalfiredplantsinthe
UnitedStates,AmericanElectricPowersGavinplantinGallipolis,Ohio.Aplantengineertheretaught
mealot,RandyScheidler.Hetaughtmealotaboutpowerplantsbutalsoaboutthelevelofknowledge
ofgoodplantengineersintheUnitedStates.Randyservedasasortofmodeltouseinkeepingwhat
Ivewrittenpractical,oftryingnevertowriteanythingwithoutshowinghowitisused.AndImustback
upfurtherandthankthefolksatTraxCorporationinLynchburg,Virginiafortheirinvitationtocome
Preface

Preface3

workforsevenmonthswiththemin1992onpowerplantsimulators.Ilearnedlotsaboutsteampower
plantsandhowtheyrecontrolledfromthisexperienceatTrax.
SincemyarrivalatCalPolyin1998Ihavebeeninvolvedincontrolsasoftenaspossible.Thecourse
therewashandedofftomebyMikeIanci,EdGarner,andEdBaker.Theyhadbuiltaverypractical,
handsonlab.Thoughwevereplacedmuchoftheequipmentinit,someisstillleftfromthosedays,
andmuchofwhatwasaddedcanbeviewedasrefinementsandimprovementsofwhatthey
bequeathedtous.HereIhavethepleasureofworkingwithverypractical,handonpeoplelikemyself
JohnRidgely,CharlesBirdsong,BillMurray,andXiWu.Allhavecontributedonewayoranothertoour
workinmakingthislaboratorymorepracticalandhandson.Somehavehadeventodealwiththe
consequencesofwhatIregardedasagoodideaatthetime,thatrequiredalotofworkontheirpartsto
implement,toworkthebugsout.Throughtheireffortswehaveatopnotchcontrolslab.Ihaveseena
betteronenowhere,neitherinAmericanorinEurope.Itwastheirsweatthatmadethislabthegreat
teachingtoolthatithasbecome.
MytwosojournsinGermanywereimportantcontributorstothisbook.Ihadthepleasureofworking
withseveralaccomplishedcontrolsengineersthere.Twostandout.ManfredSchusterattheMunich
UniversityofAppliedScienceswelcomedmeintohislabandgavemeaveryconcisescripttoteachout
of.Hisscriptis,infact,amodelformine.AttheKarlsruheUniversityofAppliedSciencesIhadthe
pleasureofworkingwithHelmutScherf,acommittedcontrolsnerd.Helmutisarare,rareexampleofa
practicalcontrolsengineer.HehaspublishedagreatbookinGermanofSimulinkmodelsofvery
common,practicalsystems.Hehasbuiltandisstillbuildingpractical,lowcostsystemsforhiscontrols
labthatserveasusefulplatformsforturningonthecontrolslightinstudentsheads.Manyofhis
perceptive,cuttothequickmethodsofthinkingaboutcontrolstopicshavebeenincorporatedintothis
script.
Sothatsthestoryinbriefofhowthisbookcameabout.Ihopethatyouenjoyitandfindituseful.
FrankOwen
SanLuisObispo,California,U.S.A.
May2012
Chapter1IntroductiontoControlSystems

11

Chapter1IntroductiontoControlSystems
Goals
Thepurposeofthischapteristogiveyouanoverviewofthetopicofcontrolsystemsandtointroduce
youtothebasicconceptsthatyouneedtogoforward.Presentedare
Basiccontrolloopanatomy,thepartsandpiecesofcontrolloopsandhowtheyareconfigured
Positionersvs.regulators,thetwobasictypesofcontrolloops
Aflybywiresystemvs.acruisecontrolsystem,iconicexamplesofthepositionerandthe
regulator
Abeginningdiscussionofblockdiagrams
PIDcontrollers,themostcommonlyusedcontrollersinindustry
Examplesofcontrolsystemsusedinindustry
Controltheoryisarelativelynewfieldinengineeringwhencomparedwithcoretopics,suchasstatics,
dynamics,thermodynamics,etc.Earlyexamplesofcontrolsystemsweredevelopedactuallybeforethe
sciencewasfullyunderstood.ForexampletheflyballgovernordevelopedbyJamesWatttocontrol
overspeedofhissteamenginewasdevelopedoutofnecessity,longbeforethescienceofcontrolscame
intobeing.Figure1.1showsanexampleofthiscontroller.Theflyballsaremountedonashaftthat
turnsandisdrivenbytheenginethroughthepulleyshown.Astheenginespeedsup,theflyballsare
flungoutwardbytheircentrifugalforce.Thisoutwardmovementpullstheleverarmdown,whichraises
itsotherend.Thisistiedtothesteaminletvalve,whichclosesastheflyballweightsmovefurther
outward.Soiftheenginetriestorunaway,theinletsteamvalvewillclose,shuttingoffthefluiddriving
theengine.

Figure1.1Flyballgovernor
ManysaythatthedevelopmentoftheairplanebytheWrightbrotherswasenabledbytheir
understandingofcontrolsthatandthedevelopmentofalightweightenginepowerfulenoughto
Chapter1IntroductiontoControlSystems

12

propeltheirmachineintotheair.Theirdevelopmentofwingwarpingenabledthemtosteertheir
airplane,somethingthathadbeenimpossibleuptothatpoint.Anditiscertainlytruethatmuchof
controltheorygrewupwiththeairplane,asairplanesweredevelopedduringthetwoworldwarsand
alsothroughoutthe20
th
centuryforcivilianpurposes.Asjetenginesweredevelopedandairplanes
becamebigger,itbecameevermoreproblematictopilotanaircraftwithjustmechanicalconnections
betweenthepilotscontrolsinthecockpitandthesurfaceselsewhereontheairplanethatsteerit
throughtheair.Thustheflybywiresystemwasdeveloped,whichcutthisdirectconnectionbetween
thecockpitcontrolsandthecontrolsurfacesontheairplane.Inaflybywiresystem,themovementsof
thestickoryokeandtherudderpedalsinthecockpitaremerelysensedbysensors.Electricalsignals
arethensenttoactuatorsdrivingtheappropriatesurfaces,andthenthesemovetheailerons,the
elevator,ortheruddertosteertheplaneaccordingtothecontrolinputsmadebythepilot.Ofcourse
theforceappliedbytheactuatoronthecontrolsurfacecanbemanytimeswhatahumancouldapply
directly.Andtheforcecanbeappliedatanactuatorfardistantfromthepilot.Soflybywirebrings
withittheadvantageofforceamplificationandremotecontrol.
Inindustryonefindscontrolsystemsofmanytypes.Inarefinery,chemicalplant,foodprocessingplant,
orapowergenerationfacilityonefindscontrolloopsforcontrollingtanklevels,pressuresoffluidsat
variousplacesinaplant,poweroutput,valveposition,pump,fan,orturbinespeed.Moderndayfighter
jetsactuallyaredesignedtobeunstable.Thisallowsthemtomaneuverquickly.Theycanonlyfly
becauseacontrolsystemstabilizestheirflight,makingcorrectionsataspeedthatnopilotcouldmatch.
Ifoneoftheseplanescontrolsystemfailedinflight,theplanewouldbeunflyableandwouldcrash.
Therehasbeenatremendousgrowthofcontrolsystemuseinthemodernautomobile.Thereareeven
nowdrivebywireandbrakebywiresystems,where,likeintheairplane,thedirectmechanicalor
hydraulicconnectionbetweeninputdevicesandwhattheycontrolhasbeencutandreplacedbywish
sensingdevicesandthentransmissionofanelectricalsignaltoanactuatortoturnthewheelsorto
applythebrakes.Likethecontroloftheunstableairplane,skiddetectionandcontroltakeadvantageof
anautomaticcontrolsystemsspeed.Adriverwholosescontrolofhis/hercarmaybesavedbysucha
system.Itspringsautomaticallyintoactionupondetectingaskidsituationandappliesthecorrect
brakingforcestorescuethecarfromtheskidanditdoesthisbeforethedriverisevenawarethata
problemexists.
Besidestheseapplications,controltheoryisusefulevenforanalyzingmanuallycontrolledsystems.A
humanoperatorisinthiscaseactuallyplayingtheroleofthecontroller.Ahumanssensingofand
reactingtoinputswhilemanuallycontrollinganindustrialsystemoravehicleisactuallyastudyin
controls.Hisorherreactiontimes,theforcefeedbackortheangulartravelofasteeringwheeloran
operatinglever,suchhumanmachineissuesarewithintherealmofcontroltheory.Mathematical
modelsofthehumancontrollerhaveevenbeendeveloped,sothatadynamicmodelofamanually
operatedsystemcanbecompletedandstudied.
Muchofwhathasbeendiscussedherecanbeillustratedwiththeexampleofapilotinanairplane.
Takethecaseofanairplanewithoutaflybywiresystem,withdirectconnectionsviacablesandpulleys
betweenthecockpitcontrolsandthecontrolsurfaces,asonefindsinasmall,generalaviationairplane.
Acontrolsexpertmightstudytheeffectofahumancontrollerduringsomeflightmaneuverorcritical
Chapter1IntroductiontoControlSystems

13

situation.Thissystemispurelymechanicalwithahumancontrollerintheloop.Butsomesmallplanes
alsohaveautopilots,soacontrolsengineerhadtodesignasystemthatwouldsenseflightconditions
andoperatethecontrolswithoutinterventionbythepilot.Evenmorecomplicatedisthecaseofa
largerairplanewithaflybywiresystem.Controlsengineersdesignedthesensingandreactionlink
betweenthecockpitcontrolsandthecorrespondingmotionofthecontrolsurfaces.Evenwhenthe
planeisbeingflowninmanualmode,asophisticatedcontrolsystemisengagedsimplytosensethe
pilotsmovementoftheinputcontrolleversandpedalsandtransmitthecommandedmotionto
actuatorsthatwillbringitabout.Nowconsiderthecaseofaflybywiresystemwithanactiveautopilot.
Thecontrolsystemsensesflightconditionsaltitude,heading,andspeedandautomaticallyoperates
theproperactuatorselevator,aileronsandrudder,andthrottletomaintaindesiredvalues.Thus
thesefourvariantsofdoingthesametaskflyinganairplaneshowincreasinglycomplexexamplesof
moderncontrolsystems.
Basiccontrolsystemanatomy
ClassicalcontrolsystemsareSISOsystems,singleinputsingleoutput,asopposedtoMIMOsystems,
multipleinputmultipleoutput,whicharemorecomplicated.Foracontrolsystemtheinputisthe
desiredvalue,andtheoutputistheactualvalue(SeeFigure1.2).

Figure1.2SISOcontrolsystem
Agoodexampleisacruisecontrolsystemforanautomobile.Theuserinputsadesiredvalue,say65
mph.Usuallyonedoesnottypethisin.Onedrivesthecaruptothisspeedmanually,thenpushesa
button.Thespeedometersensesthespeed,storesthisinanonboardcomputer,andthenitisthejob
ofthecruisecontroltokeeptheautomobileatthisspeed.
Thus,wheneverythingisworkingasitshould,theactualvalueisequaltothedesiredvalue.InGerman
thesevariablesareknownastheSollwert,theshouldvalue,andtheIstwert,theisvalue.Incontrolsit
isalwaysgoodtobringthingsdowntoearth,becausecontrolscangetsotheoretical,onequicklyloses
sightofwhatisgoingonorwhyoneisdoingwhatoneisdoing.Iliketorefertothesetwovaluesas
whatyouwantversuswhatyouvegot.Whenwhatyouvegotisntwhatyouwant,then
somethingswrong.WhenSollwertIstwert0,thenthecontrolloopisnotdoingitsjob,and
somethingisbrokenorsomethingneedstobechangedtomakethisdifference0.
Actuallythisdifferencehasaname,theerror.Thatsnoterrorinthesenseofamistake.Ratherits
errorinthesenseofdeviation.Inaperfectlyfunctioningcontrolsystem,theerrorshouldbe0,and
whatyouvegotshouldbewhatyouwant.
Letslookinsidethecontrolloop,attheanatomyofacontrolloop.Almostallcontrolloopsarethe
same.Theyareallmadeupoffivecomponentsarrangedalwaysthesame.Sometimesitisnoteasyto
Chapter1IntroductiontoControlSystems

14

recognizetheseelementsinanactualsystem.Butitsalwaysagoodideatotry.Thisstructureis
fundamentaltocontroltheoryandrepresentstheunderlyingfunctionsthatareneededtomake
feedbackcontrolwork.Asyouprobablyhavealreadyconcluded,thebasicstructureofafeedback
controlsystemisaloop(seeFigure1.3).

Figure1.3Basiccontrolloopanatomy
Thefiveelementsare:
1. thecomparator
2. thecontroller
3. theactuator
4. theplant
5. thesensor
Letsdiscussthesecomponentsonebyone.Illpresentthemintheorderthatseasiesttouseto
identifytheminarealsystem.Usuallytheeasiestelementtoidentifyisthesensor.Foracruisecontrol
system,thesensoristhespeedometer.Thesensoralwaysmeasurestheactualvalueandthenfeedsit
backtothecomparatortocomparewiththedesiredvalue.Thecomparatorisjustthesummingblock
thattakesasinputthedesiredvalueandthemeasuredvalue.Thatsthenatureoffeedbackcontrol,
andthatswhyitscalledfeedbackcontrol:theactualvalueisfedbacktothedesiredvalueand
compared.Anothercommonexampleisthethermostatinyourhouse.Athermometerinyourhouse
measurestheinteriortemperatureandthencomparesthatwiththedesiredtemperatureyouhave
somehowenteredonthefaceplateofthethermostat.
Theerrorsignalistheoutputofthecomparator.Itisalsotheinputtothecontroller.Asyoucansee,all
oftheseblocksintheblockdiagramofFigure2areSISOblocks,andeachoutputbecomestheinputof
anotherblock.Thecontrollertakestheinputfromthecomparator,theerror,anddecideshowthe
systemshouldrespond.Iftheerroris0,thenwhatyouvegot=whatyouwant,andthesystemshould
donothing.Iftheerrorisnot0,thenthecontrollershouldtakesomeaction.
Chapter1IntroductiontoControlSystems

15

Nowadays,withdigitalcontrols,thecontrollerisusuallyjustapieceofsoftwarerunninginacomputer
somewhere.Foracruisecontrol,thereisacomputeralgorithmrunninginanonboardcomputerthat
performsthistask.Soifsomeoneaskedyoutopointtothecontrollerinthecruisecontrolloop,youd
haveahardtimedoingthatwithouttalkingwiththeengineersthatdesignedit.Oryoucouldjustpoint
atablackboxinthecarandsay,Thereitis,andmostpeoplewouldhaveahardtimedisputingthis.
Iftheerrorisnot0,thenthecontrollerneedstotakeaction.Eventuallyitwantstoinfluencetheplant.
Thisisafunnytermforthethingthatweactuallywanttocontrol.Butcontroltheorygrewupin
industrialplants,sothatiswhythisblockhasthisname.Theplantcanbehardtoidentify.One
identifiesitoftenbyasking,Whatarewetryingtocontrol?andthentheplantisthethingthatthat
valueisapropertyof.Forexampleinacruisecontrolloop,thespeediswhatwearetryingtocontrol.
Andthespeedisapropertyofthecar.Sothecaristheplantinacruisecontrolloop.
Oftentheactuatoristhehardestcomponenttoidentify,sooftenweleaveitforlast.Oftenitishardto
drawalinebetweentheactuatorandtheplant.Oftenitshardtoanswerthequestion,Wheredoes
theactuatorendandtheplantbegin?Youllseethisdilemmawithexperience.Sogoodquestionsto
askareWhatdoesthecontrollertalkto?orWheredoesthecontrollersenditssignal?orBywhat
meansdoesthecontrollerinfluencetheplant?.Inacruisecontrolsystemtheplantisthecar.The
actuatoristhethrottle.Ormaybeitstheengine.Itsthethingthatcausesthecarsspeedtoincrease
whenthecontrollernotesthatthecarisgoingtooslowandneedstospeedup.Whatyouhaveisless
thanwhatyouwant,sodosomething.
Thusthesefivelogicalcomponentsarealwayspresentinaclassicalcontrolloop.Thoughitmaybe
hard,itisalwaysofvaluetotrytoidentifythephysicalcomponentsthatcorrespondtothelogical
components.
NotealsoinFigure2thatthesignalsbetweentheblocksalsohavenames:
1. rdesiredvalue(rstandsforreferencevalue;thisisalsoknownasthecontrollersetpoint)
2. eerror
3. ucommand
4. fforce
5. cactualvalue(cstandsforcontrolledvalue)
6. bmeasuredvalue
Thesevariablenamesarenotstandardbyanymeans,butoneseesthemoften.Youshouldbeaware
thatoftenvariationsofthemareused.Butweneednamesforthemsothatwecanrefertothemwhen
talkingaboutwhatsgoingonintheloop.
Twotypesofcontrolloops:positionerandregulator
Controlloopscomeintwoflavorspositioners(alsoknownatrackers)andregulators.Botharemade
upofthesamecomponentspresentedabove.Whatdifferentiatesthemisactuallyhowtheyareused,
whattheirpurposeis.ThecontrolloopshowninFigure1.3isapositioner.Thisloopcanbemodifiedto
Chapter1IntroductiontoControlSystems

16

configurearegulator,asshowninFigure1.4.Notethatthedifferenceistheadditionofthedisturbance
betweentheactuatorandtheplant.Thishintsatthedifferencebetweenthetwoloops.Apositioner
hasadesiredvaluethatchangesoften.Auserisoperatingaplantthroughthecontrolsystem.Itisthe
jobofthecontrolsystemtosensetheoperatorswishesanddrivetheplanttothepointthattheuser
desires.Incontrast,inaregulatorsystem,theuserwantsnormallythattheactualvaluestayatsome
preselectedlevel,eventhoughexternalinfluencesareworkingtodrivethesystemoffofthepreselected
level.Agoodexampleisthecruisecontrolsystemofacar.Yousetthedesiredspeedtoafixedvalue.
Butupwardanddownwardgradestendtomakethespeeddeviatefromitsdesiredvalue.Itisthejobof
thecontrolsystemtokeepthesystematapreselectedspeedinthefaceofdisturbancesthattendto
deflecttheactualspeedfromthiswishedforspeed.

Figure1.4Regulatorloop
Itiscommontoarrangecontrolloopssothattheinputisonthelefthandsideandtheoutputisonthe
righthandside.Witharegulatorloop,whenthedesiredoperatinglevelischosen,theloopselectsthis
levelasthereferencelevelandconsidersittobe0.Theloopworksindeviationsfromthisoperating
level.Weshallseelaterhowthisisdone.Atpresentitsufficestonotethatthedesiredvalueisthe0
referencevalue,sotherinputcanbeeliminated.TheloopcanbereconfiguredasshowninFigure1.5.
Heretheinputisthedisturbance,andtheoutputisstillthesamevariableofinterest,c.Thereworking
ofloopsasshowninthisexampleiscommonlydoneincontrolsandisknownasblockdiagramalgebra.
Weshallseemanymoreexamplesofthisinthematerialtocome.
Chapter1IntroductiontoControlSystems

17

Figure1.5Reworkedregulatorloop
PIDcontrollers,theworkhorseoftheindustry
PID(ProportionalIntegralDerivative)controllersarebyfarthemostcommoncontrollersusedin
industry.Thenamereferstothreedifferentactionsthatthecontrollermakesinrespondingtoanon
zeroinput,theerror,aswehaveseenabove.Thuswespeakofproportionalaction,integralaction,and
derivativeaction.Thethreeactionsoccursimultaneously.Theconfigurationofthecontrollerisa
parallelconfiguration,asisdemonstratedinFigure1.6.

Figure1.6PIDcontrollerconfiguration
Noteinthefigurethattheinputsignal,theerror,isfirsttreatedonewayoranotherandthenmultiplied
byaconstant.Thetoppathistheproportionalpath.Heretheoutputisproportionaltotheerror,
hencethename.Thereisnoactiontakenontheinputsignal.ItisjustmultipliedbyK
P
andthenpassed
ondownstreamtotheoutput.Theintegralactionisthesecondpath.Notethattheerror(theinput)is
firstintegrated.Theoutputoftheintegratorblockistheintegraloftheerror.Thusifyouplottedthe
errorcurvevs.time,thissignalwouldrepresentthenetareaunderthiserrorcurvethroughtime.Thisis
thenmultipliedbyK
I
andbecomestheintegralaction.Thederivativeactionisthethirdpath.Notethat
theerrorisfirstdifferentiated.Theoutputofthederivativeblockisthennottheerrorbuttherateof
changeoftheerroratthecurrenttime.ThischangerateisthenmultipliedbyK
D
tobecomethe
derivativeaction.AllthreeactionsareaddedtogetherinthesummingblocktobecomethetotalPID
controlleraction.
Chapter1IntroductiontoControlSystems

18

Whyonewoulddothisisatthispointnotclearatall.Butasweshallsee,eachoftheseactionshasa
specificuseorjustificationandusuallyimprovesthecontrolresponse.ThethreeconstantsK
P
,K
I
,and
K
D
arecalledthecontrollergains.K
P
istheproportionalgain,K
I
istheintegralgain,andK
D
isthe
derivativegain.Itisalsooftenthecasethatoneoftheactionsisnotpresent.Asweshallsee,the
proportionalactionisbyfarthemostsensibleandusefulaction.OftencontrollershaveonlyPaction
thatisK
I
andK
D
=0.WecallthesePonlyorjustPcontrollers.AcontrollerwithnoDactioniscalledaPI
controller.OnewithnoIactionisaPDcontroller.SoweencounterP,PI,PD,andPIDcontrollers.Note
thatallofthesehavePaction.TheremaybeanoddballcasewithoutPaction,butthatiswhatitis,an
oddballcase.
Problems
1.1 Makeaconceptualmodelofabrakebywiresystem.Theforceonthebrakepedalissensedasa
desiredbrakingforce.Thegreaterthepedalforce,thegreatertheforceappliedbythebrakepads
tothebrakediscs.Thismeasuredpedalforceissensedbyaloadcell,whichproducesavoltage
proportionaltothisforce.Thisvoltageisdeliveredtoaninterfaceboard,whichconvertsitintoa
digitalnumberinamicroprocessor.Thecontrollerrunninginthemicroprocessorproducesan
outputsignalthatisthenconvertedintoavoltagethatdrivesanelectromechanicalactuator.This
drivesapiston,themastercylinder,andproducesapressure.Thepressureworksonthebrake
pistonthatappliesthebrakingforcetothediscpads.Thebrakingforceismeasuredusingactually
apressuresensor.Knowingthesizeofthebrakepads,thebrakingforcecanbedetermined.The
forceappliedtothebrakepadsisnotnecessarilythesameforceappliedtothepedal,buttheyare
proportionallyrelated.Makeablockdiagramofthissystem,showinghowallthecomponentsfit
togethertocomposethesystem.Eachblockshouldallcontainthenameofasystemcomponent.
Eachlinebetweentheblocksshouldshowthetypeofsignalbeingtransmittedbetweenblocks.
1.2 Thefigurebelowshowsapartoftheelectricalpowergenerationsysteminaconventionalsteam
powerplant.Fuel(gas,oil,orcoal)issuppliedonthelefthandsidetotheboiler.Therewateris
heatedintosteamandstoredinasteamdrum.Fromtherethesteamflowsthroughacontrol
valveintotheturbine,whichturnstheplantsgenerator.Thegeneratorproduceselectricpower.
ThereareseveralSISOloopsinplayhere.Oneloadsthegeneratorbyincreasingordecreasingits
electricfield.Ofcoursewhenmoreelectricityisneeded,morefuelwillbeneededtosupportthis.
Buttheconnectionbetweenfuelinandelectricityoutisnotdirect.Thethreelollipopsshown
representmeasuredquantities.Thinkaboutwhatthesemightbe.Thenwriteintheblocksthe
quantitiesthataremeasured.Drawdashedlinesfromtheselollipopstotheactuatorsthatcontrol
them.Itisachainofeventsthatleadfrommorepowerrequiredtomorefuelsupplied.Consider
thecaseofadesiredincreaseinpowerout.Writeoutinwordsthesequenceofcauseandeffect
eventsthatwillleadthesteamplanttoanew,higherlevelofoperation.Makeacopyofthe
completeddiagramtocompletethedeliverableforthisproblem.
Chapter1IntroductiontoControlSystems

19

1.3 Sometimesaplantisatwopartplant,andadisturbanceenterstheplantmidwaybetweenthese
twoparts.Drawaregulatorloopforsuchaplantwithanegativedisturbanceenteringbetween
Plant1andplant2.Letthedisturbancebetheinputtotheloop.
1.4 CreateaSimulinkmodelofaPIDcontroller.Forthisyouwillneedtousegainblocksforthethree
controllergains.Useanintegratorblockandadifferentiatorblockfortheintegralactionandthe
derivativeaction.Atfirstjustsetallgainstoavalueof1.Asinput,useaconstantblockandset
itsvalueto0.Allthreecontrolactionsaresummedwithasumblock.Useascopeblockatthe
outputofthesumblocktocapturewhatoutputthecontrollerdeliversovertime.Alsoplace
scopeblocksonallthreecontrolactionstoseehowtheybehave.Ofcourseintherealworldthe
controllerwouldbehookedintoasystemandreceivethesystemerrorasitsinput.Itsoutput
wouldbefeddownstreamtoanactuator.With0asasteadyinput,youhavemodeledthecaseof
acontrolloopwheretheactualvalueisequaltothedesiredvalue.Whatshouldthecontrollerdo
andwhatdoesitdo?Nowmaketheinput1.Whatdoesthecontrollerdonow?

Chaptei 9 Besigning anu tuning PIB contiolleis

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Chapter9DesigningandtuningPIDcontrollers
Goals
ProvideapracticallookatthePID,athowitisthoughtofandunderstoodbypractitionersin
industry
DescribeseveralheuristictuningmethodsforPIDcontrollers
InChapters7and8wehavealreadygottenagoodlookatthePIDcontroller.Inthecontextofroot
locusandfrequencyresponsedesignprocedureswehaveundertakenthedesignofPIDcontrollersfor
variouscommonsystems.Inawaytheseapproachesgiveoneafalseimpression.Theyimplythatone
musthaveasystemmodeltotuneaPIDcontroller.Thatisnot,however,commonpracticeinmany,if
notmost,industrialapplications.Forexampleatanklevelcontrollerneedstobeimplemented.One
purchasesacommercialPIDcontrollerandputsitinserviceonthetank.Onethenfieldtunesthe
controller,startingwiththeproportionalgainandthenaddingintegralandderivativegaintoimprove
systemresponse.Allofthisisnormallydonewithoutasystemmodel.
Indeed,thenormalunderstandingofPIDcontrolbyacontrolstechnicianinanormalplantismuchmore
intuitiveanddowntoearththanwhatyouhavelearnedaboutPIDdesignandtuningviarootlocusand
frequencyresponse.Thosetwotechnicsarepowerfuldesigntechniquesandoughttobeunderstoodby
controlstechniciansbutoftentheyarenot.Thusforthecontrolsengineer,itisimportantalsotogain
thisintuitivegraspofPIDcontrolsimplytobeabletocommunicateeffectivelywithplantcontrols
technicians.ThiscommonsenseunderstandingofPIDcontroloffersyetanotherperspectiveonthis
technology,andthiscomplementstheapproachestakenalreadywithrootlocusandfrequency
response.
ThereareanumberofacceptednonmodelbasedmethodsfortuningPIDcontrollersi.e.methods
usedforfieldtuning.ThemostwellknownoftheseisprobablytheZieglerNicholstuningmethod.That
andothersarediscussedinthischapter.
ThePIDcontrollerinterface
Figure9.1showsthefaceplateofatypicalPIDindustrialcontroller,thisoneusedfortemperature
controlinakilnorheattreatmentoven.

Figure9.1IndustrialPIDcontrollerfaceplate
Chaptei 9 Besigning anu tuning PIB contiolleis

92

Theinterfaceissomewhatsparsebecauseoftentherearemanyofthesecontrollersgroupedtogether,
controllingvariouspartsofanindustrialprocess.
Theuserinputpanelforthiscontrollerconsistsofthefourbuttonsatthebottomofthefaceplate.The
firstbuttonisthemanual/automaticbutton,usedtoswitchbetweenthesetwomodesofoperation.
TheAUTOlightontheleftofthefaceplateindicateswhetherthecontrollerisinautomaticmode.In
manualmodethecontrolfunctionisdeactivated.Theusercandrivetheprocessinmanualmodeby
usingtheupanddownarrowsonthecentertwobuttons.Thisadjuststheoutputfromthecontroller
directly.Thisoutputfromthecontrollerissome(settable)range.Oftenthecontroloutputiscalculated
anddisplayedaspercentageofthisrange,asisshownaboveintheOUTwindow.Inmanualmode,
whenoneclickstheuparrow,forexample,thepercentageoutputwouldincrease.Torunthecontroller
inautomaticmode,onemustsetthesetpoint(andmaybesomeotherparameters,likeK
P
,T
I
,andT
D
).
Todothis,onemustreadthedocumentationthatcomeswiththecontroller.Inthecaseabove,theSET
buttonisusedtoenteraparametersettingproceduretosetthecontrollerparametersforautomatic
operation.
Inbothmanualandautomaticoperation,thedisplayofthePV(processvariable)showstheoutput
comingfromthesensorofthevariablethatistheoutputfromtheloop,thevariabletobecontrolled.
SP(setpoint)isthedesiredvalueofthisoutputvariable.Thisistheinputtothecontrolloop.Inthe
aboveexample,thecontrollerisinautomaticmode(theAUTOlightislit).Theactualvalueofthe
controlledprocessis316F,andthedesiredvalueis325F.Thecontrollerisputtingout12%ofits
outputrangetobringtheactualtemperatureuptothedesiredvalue.
TheALMlightisanalarmlight.Thiscanbesettoindicatethattheactualvalueisoutsideacertainrange
aroundthedesiredvalue.Oftenalarmscanbesetattwolevels,awarninglevelandaseverelevel.The
warninglevelwillhavethelightburnamber.Theseverelevelwillhaveitburnred.IftheAUTOlightis
green,thisgreenyellowredcolorschemeforthelightswillallowanoperatortoscanagroupofthese
modulesquicklyanddetermine
1. whichloopsareinautomaticoperation
2. whetherthereareanywarninglevelalarmsactive
3. whetherthereareanyseverelevelalarmsactive
Quartercycledamping
Controllersaredesignedtoimprovesystemresponseortoachieveadesired,prescribedresponse.
Variousaimsarepossible:
Limitastepresponsetoaspecifiedovershoot.Recallthattheovershootisafunctionsolely
of
`

%0S = c
-_
{n
_1-{
2
_
1uu%
/

.At=1thereisnoovershoot.Butbyspecifyingno
Chaptei 9 Besigning anu tuning PIB contiolleis

93

overshoot,onemustsettleforalongerresponse,alongertimetoreachanewsetpoint.So
oftenacompromiseismadeandalittleovershootisacceptedforfasterreactionspeed.
Specifyaspecificfrequencyofoscillation.Notethatincreasingthisfrequencydecreasesthe
systemsspeedofresponse,sincetheresponseisoftenjustthefirsthalftothreequarter
wavecycleoftheresponsesinusoid.
Limitoreliminatesteadystateerror.
Acombinationofsuchspecifications.
Tomeettheseneedsitisveryhelpfultorememberthegeometryespeciallyofcomplexpolesandthe
meaningofvariousdistancesonthisplot.Figure9.2showsthisgeometryagain.

Figure9.2Geometryofcomplex(oscillating)poles
Sobyspecifyingacertainovershoot,oneislimitingthedominantclosedlooppolepairtoarayleading
fromtheoriginatacertainangle(=arccos)fromthenegativerealaxis.Asexplainedabove,oftena
controllerissettogivealittleovershoot(510%)inordertohavethesystemrespondfaster.
Alternativelythereisaconceptcalledquartercycledamping,wherebyeachoscillationis1/4the
amplitudeofthepreviousoscillation(seeFigure9.3).Forquartercycledamping,turnsouttobe
0.2155.Thisleadstoshorterresponsetimesbutmoreovershoot.Whichtopickdependsonthe
applicationandtheabilitytotolerateovershoot.Iftheoscillationfrequencyisspecified,thenthe
verticaldistancefromtherealaxis,
d
,isknown.Ifboththedesiredortolerableovershootandthe
dampingratioareknown,thenthedesiredlocationofthedominantclosedlooppolepairisfixed.
Steadystateerrorisnotreadilyseenontheplot,sonosuchstatementscanbemaderegardingitandits
placementofpolesontheplotabove.
Chaptei 9 Besigning anu tuning PIB contiolleis

94

Figure9.3Quartercycledamping
ThePIDcontroller
AsexplainedinChapter1thePIDcontrolleristheworkhorseofindustry.Most,indeedalmostall,
controlloopsinindustryareSISOloopswithPIDcontrollers.Sotobeactiveasacontrolengineerin
industryonemusthaveagoodunderstandingofPIDcontrollers.Andbythesametoken,withagood
understandingofPIDcontrollers,onecandoalmostanythingonewantsinindustry.Evenintherare
casethatoneneedssomethingotherthanaPIDcontroller,agoodunderstandingofthisworkhorse
controllerwillstandoneingoodsteadtocompareanexoticcontrollerwithaconventionalPID
controller.
BeforebeginningwiththeexplanationofaPIDcontroller,itisfirstusefultorecallwherethecontroller
isplacedinthecontrolloopandwhatitsinputandoutputare.Thecontrollerisjustafterthe
comparator,thesummingblockthattakesthedifferencebetweenthedesiredvalueandtheactual
value.Thustheinputtothecontrolleristheerrorsignal.Thecontrolleroperatesonthiserrorsignal
andproducesacommandthatisthensentdownstreamtotheactuator.Thepurposeofthecontrol
loopistodrivetheerrorto0,sothattheactualvalue=thedesiredvalue.Ifeverythingisworkingasit
should,ewillbe0andthecontrollerwilltakenoaction.Itwillsimplyput0ontheoutput,theinputto
theactuator.Thisisacommandtotheactuatortodonothing.Whentheactualvalueisnotequalto
thedesiredvalue,thecontrollertakesactionandproducesanonzerocommandfortheactuator.
PID,ofcourse,standsforproportionintegralderivative.APIDcontrollerhasaparallelstructurewith
thesethreeactions(seeFigure9.4).ThethreecontrollerconstantsK
P
,K
I
,andK
D
canbetunedto
adjusttherelativestrengthofeachaction.Theproportionalactionisthemainaction,andtheother
twoactionsareaddonstoimprovethecontrol.OftenoneseesaPonlycontroller,i.e.acontrollerwith
onlyK
P
0.OenonseesaPIDcontrollerwithoneaconintegralorderivativeturnedoff.Thusthe
Chaptei 9 Besigning anu tuning PIB contiolleis

95

mostcommonvariantsareaPcontroller,aPIcontroller,aPDcontroller,orthefullblownPID
controller.

Figure9.4PIDcontrollerstructure
Ofcourseonemightask,howdidanyoneevercomeupwiththisstructure?Theanswerliesinthe
developmentofthecontroller.ItwasdevelopedbyaRussianAmericanengineerNicholasMinorsky.
HewasworkingonanautosteeringsystemforshipsfortheU.S.Navy.Minorskyobservedhelmsmen
steeringshipsandnoticedthattheyactednotonlyontheerroritselfbutalsoontherateatwhichthe
errorwasdevelopingandonthehistoryofthepasterror.ThePIDstructurewasdevelopedfromthese
observations.(SeetheWikipediaarticleonPIDcontrollers.)
Proportionalaction
Asstateabove,Pactionisthemainaction.OnealmostneverseesaPIDcontrollerwithoutPaction.P
actionmakesalotofsense.Thecontrollerseestheerrorasinput.Iftheerrorissmall,thecontroller
shouldsuggestasmallaction,anudge,totheactuatortogettheplantbackontrackandreducethe
errorto0.Iftheerrorislarge,thatmeansthattheactualvaluehasdriftedfarawayfromthedesired
value.Thecontrollerneedstosuggestalargeactiontotheactuatortobringtheplantinlinewiththe
desiredvalue.Suchastrategymeansthecontrolleractionshouldbeproportionaltotheerror,i.e.P
action.
Theproportionalgain,K
P
,canalsoberegardedasthesensitivityofthecontroller,howgreatanactionit
willsuggestforagivendeviationofactualfromdesired.IfK
P
ishigh,thecontrollerwilltakealarge
actionforasmalldeviationofactualfromdesired.Thecontrollerisverysensitive.IfK
P
issmall,the
reactionofthecontrollertoadeviationofactualfromdesiredisgentle.Averycommonsense,seatof
thepantsmethodfortuningK
P
isthefollowing.Onelooksattheactuatorandasks,Howmuchcanthe
actuatorgive?Forexample,takeatanklevelloopwiththecontrollinginletvalveoperatingata75%
valveopeningatdesignsteadystate.(SeeChapter3forthetanklevelsystemdescription.)Thevalve
has25%yettogiveifthelevelstartssinking,75%toclosedownifthelevelstartstorise.Onewould
pickthesituationthathadthemostdireconsequencestocontinueeitheranoverflowingtankoran
emptytankandthenposethequestion,HowfarawayfromdesignsteadystatedoIwanttogo
beforethevalveisgivingallitsgottobringthesituationundercontrol?Ifthemostcriticalsituationis
theoverflowingtankandonedecidestoallowthetankleveltorisethreeinchesbeforehavingthevalve
giveitsfull75%topreventafurtherrise,thenonehastheproportionalgain.Ifthetanksactuallevel
Chaptei 9 Besigning anu tuning PIB contiolleis

96

rises3inchesabovethedesiredsteadystate,thene=3inches.Thedesignerhasdecidedthatatthis
deviationthevalveshouldhaveclosedits75%,sothecontrolleroutputshouldbe75%(recallthatsuch
loopsoperateondeviationsfromdesignsteadystate).SoK
P
=25%valveopening/inch.Thisisa
commonsensewaytoselectK
P
andoftenagoodwaytopickaninitialK
P
.RegardlessofhowK
P
is
selected,itisgoodpracticealwaystoperformacommonsensecheckonit,toseehowmuchofa
deviationwilldrivetheactuatortosaturation(seebelow).
Proportionalactionisbaseduponthecurrentvalueoferror.Thusitisbaseduponthepresent.Aswe
shallseebelow,integralactionisbasedonthepast,andderivativeactiononthefuture.
Integralaction
Integralactionisusedtogetridofsteadystateerror.Asystemstypeisnotgreatenough,sooneusesa
PIcontrollertoaddafreeintegratortotheopenlooptransferfunction.Otherwiseexpressed,wehave
seeninChapter6thatPonlycontrolleadsnaturallytosteadystateerrorinmanycases.Theintegral
termactsnotontheerroritselfbutratherontheintegraloftheerrorthatis,ontheaccumulated
errorproducedovertime.

Figure9.4PIcontrolloop
Itisusefultolookatthisactionupclose.Figure9.4showsaPIcontrollerinaloopwithafirstorder
actuator+plant.Aunitstepisgiventotheinput.Ofcourse,withoutintegralcontrol,theoutputwould
notgoto1,thecommandedvalue.Therewouldbesteadystateerror.(TrythisbysettingKI=0inthe
modelabove.)Noticethetwoactionsovertime.Whenthestepisinputatt=1sec,theerror
immediatelygoestoK
P
e.Theintegralactionis0becausethisactionisbasedupontheareaunderthe
e(t)curve,andnotimehaspassedtoallowtheareaunderthecurvetoaccumulate.Astheclockticks,
Chaptei 9 Besigning anu tuning PIB contiolleis

97

thisareadevelops,andtheIactionincreases.Astheplantmovesclosertothedesiredvalue,theP
actiondiminishes.Intheend,withtheplantatthedesiredvalue,thePactionis0andallnonzero
controlactionisprovidedbytheintegralcontrolaction.
Noteworthyisthattheintegralactionwillcontinuetoaccumulateuntiltheerroris0.Oncetheerroris
0,thereisnoproportionalaction.Notethatwithe=0,theintegralactionisnot0;itjustdoesnt
accumulateanymore.
Controlsengineersinthefieldoftenusethetermresettocharacterizethestrengthofintegralaction.
Resetisalsocalledintegraltime,T
I
.(Intheprocessindustry,thisvariableisoftenexpressedasR.Thisis
notthesameRusedfortheinputorreferencevalueinthestandardcontrolloop.)Thisisacomparison
ofintegralactionwithproportionalaction.IfaPIcontrollerweresubjectedtoasteadyinputsignal,the
resettimeisthetimeitwouldtakefortheintegralactiontoreachtheleveloftheproportionalaction.
Sowithaninputsignalof1,theproportionalactionwouldbeK
P
.Theintegralactionwouldbe
K
I
_1 Jt = K
I
t
Att=T
I
,K
P
=K
I
T
I
.SoT
I
=K
P
/K
I
.SinceT
I
isameasureofhowlongittakestheintegralactiontodevelop,
thehigherT
I
is,thelowerK
I
isandthemoregentletheintegralaction.
Sinceintegralactionaccumulatesovertime,whatisimportanttoitisthehistoryoferrorovertime.
Integralactionrememberswhathashappened,soitisanactionbaseduponpastexperience.
Derivativeaction
Derivativecontrolispredictiveinnature.Itoperatesontherateofchangeoferror,notontheerror
itself.Apracticalexampleillustratesthis.InFigure9.5asupplytankhasalevelcontrolleronit.Asthe
liquidinthetankisneeded,anoutletvalveopenstosupplymoretoadownstreamprocess.Ifthetank
startsoffatasteadystateandthenasuddendemandformoreliquiddownstreamoccurs,theoutlet
valveopensquickly,andthelevelinthetankstartstodrop.Thetroublewithproportionalcontrolis
thatitreallydoesnotreactuntiltheerrorhasdeveloped.Sothereisalagtimebeforetheproportional
actioncomesintoplay,sinceitcanonlyreacttocurrenterror,errorthathasalreadyoccurred.Thisis
unfortunate,because,withthevalveopenandtheerrordevelopingrapidly,itwasentirelypredictable
thattheerrorwoulddevelopbeforeitdiddevelop.Theideabehindderivativecontrolliesinthisphrase
withtheerrordevelopingrapidly.Therateofchangeoferrorishigh.Thatmeanstheerroris
developingrapidly,andthereisnoreasonwhythecontrollershouldntreacttothatbeforetheerror
develops.Soastrongderivativeactionatthestart,beforetheerrordevelops,ensuresthatlesserror
willactuallydevelop.
Chaptei 9 Besigning anu tuning PIB contiolleis

98

Figure9.5Levelregulatorexperiencingsuddenincreaseindemand
Anotherscenariowouldbethefollowing.Youaredrivingacarinmanualspeedcontrol(thecruise
controlisnotengaged)atasteadyspeed.Youcometoasteepincline.Youautomaticallypushthe
acceleratoralittleharder,becauseyouknowthatifyoudont,thecarsspeedwilldecrease.Youhave
justappliedderivativecontrol.Throughvisualclues,thesteepincline,youknowthatthespeedwill
decrease,soyouhavetakenaproactivesteptopreventthespeedfromdecreasingbeforeitactually
decreased.Notdoingthis,usingonlyproportionalaction,wouldplayoutlikethis.Youaredrivingata
steadyspeed,encountertheincline,andatfirstdonothingdifferent.Youapplythesameconstant
forcetotheaccelerator.Afterafewmoments,younoticethatthespeedhasdecreased,soyoupush
theacceleratorhardertocompensateforthedecreasedspeed.Thefirstscenarioseemsentirely
plausible.Thesecondseemslikethedrivingstyleofaninexperienceddriverinmaintainingaconstant
speed.Soderivativecontrolisnotsomethingexoticorbizarre.Itfitsnaturallyintonormalhuman
behavior.
Chaptei 9 Besigning anu tuning PIB contiolleis

99

Figure9.6ComparisonofPandPDcontrol
Figure9.6showsacomparisonofPandPDcontrolappliedtoanunderdampedsecondorder
plant+actuatorsubjectedtoaunitstepinput.Noticethatthesystem,underPcontrol,oscillatesmuch
morevigorouslythanitdoesunderPDcontrol.
Figure9.7showstheseparatecontrolactionsfromthissamesystem.Withaunitstepinput,theerror
immediatelygoesto1.SotheproportionalactiongoestoK
P
.Thesuddenincreaseinerrorgenerated
bythestepinputofcourseproducesaninfiniterateoferrorincrease.Sotheinitialderivativeactionis
verylarge.Thisisknowninindustryasaderivativekick.ThisisthelargespikeinFigure9.7.Also
noteworthyabouttheseactionsisthattheproportionalactionenduresbecauseoftheconstantsteady
Chaptei 9 Besigning anu tuning PIB contiolleis

910

stateerror.Soeventhoughtheerrorisnonzeroattheend,itisnotchanging.Andsinceitisnot
changing,itsrateofchangeis0,sothederivativeactionis0.

Figure9.7Proportionalandderivativeactions
InasecondcommonformofthePIDcontroller,thevariableK
D
isnotused.Ratherthestrengthofthe
derivativeactionisexpressedbythederivativetime,T
D
(seebelow).Intheprocessindustry,thisPID
parameterisgiventhesymbolT.
ThefullblownPID
AfullblownPIDcontainsthethreeindividualelements.Thehighertheerror,thegreaterthe
proportionalaction.ButwehaveseeninChapter6thatsteadystateerrorissomethingthatoften
proportionalcontrolactionalonecannotgetridof.Integralactionisaddedtodothis.Itcontinuesto
actuntiltheerrorbecomes0.Derivativeactionallowsthecontrollertorespondinadvance.Itseesthe
errorcomingandactstostopthegrowthoferrorbeforeitoccurs.
Thisisthecommonsense,intuitiveunderstandingofPIDcontrolthatmostcontrolspractitionershave
whoworkupclose,handsonwithcontrolloops.Talkingtoaplantscontrolstechnicianintermsofroot
locusorBodeplotsisusuallynotveryproductive.Thatdoesnotmeanthatthesetechniquesshouldnot
beusedinaplant.Theyshouldbe.Theyarenotaswellknowninthefieldastheyshouldbe.They
enhanceonesknowledgeofsystemdynamicsandwhatisactuallyhappeninginsidecontrolloops.But
theunderstandingofcontrolstechnologyandthelanguageusedwhentalkingaboutitinthefieldis
moreintuitiveandhandsonthanitistheoretical.
Chaptei 9 Besigning anu tuning PIB contiolleis

911

FormsofthePIDcontroller
ThePIDcontrolstructurecanbeexpressedinanumberofdifferentforms.Threecommonformsare
giveninTable9.1.Noticethateachcontrolstructurehasthreeparametersthatdescribeit.Thatmeans
thateachsetofparameterscanbeexpressedintermsofadifferentset.Noticethatinthefirstform,K
P

isaseparateaction,withnoimpactontheothertwoactions.Inthesecondtwoforms,thegainK
PID
isa
multiplierforallactions.TheKT
1
T
2
formistheformconvenienttouseforpolecancellation,wherethe
polestobecancelledareat1/T
1
and1/T
2
.
Form Blockdiagram Transferfunction
K
P
K
I
K
D

0
PI
(s) = K
P
+
K
I
s
+ K

s
=
K

s
2
+ K
P
s + K
I
s

K
PID
T
I
T
D
0
PI
(s) = K
PI
_1 +
1
I
I
s
+I

s]
KT
1
T
2

0
PI
(s) =
K (I
1
s + 1) (I
2
s + 1)
s

Table9.1FormsofPIDcontroller
Actuatorsaturation
ApracticalproblemthatoftenisnotevidentintheworldofSimulinkmodelsisthatthesizeofaloops
actuatorislimited.Acontrollermaytellapoweramplifiertoputout40volts,butifthatamplifier
cannotputoutmorethan15volts,itwillsaturate.Thusallcommandsignalsfromthecontrollerthat
demandmorethan15voltswilleffectivelybechoppedoff.Onesolutiontosuchaproblemwouldbeto
buyandinstallamorepowerfulamplifierthatcouldputout40volts.Butthismaynotbethecorrect
solutiontothisproblem.Forexample,takeacruisecontrolforacar.Youmayhaveitsetat65mphand
engageitwhenyouaregoing40mph.Thiswillcausethecartoreactandtotryashardasitcantoget
to65mphasfastasitcan.Buttheenginecanonlyputoutalimitedamountofpower,soitmaytake
sometimeforthecartoreactandarriveatthedesiredspeed.Duringthisperiod,whenthecarsengine
isfullyengagedtoreach65mph,thespeedcontrolloopissaturated.Tofixthis,onecouldbuyacar
withamorepowerfulengine.Butthisisexpensive,andhowimportantisitanywaytohaveacar
acceleratefrom40mphto65mphveryquickly?Thecontrolloopwasdesignedtoholdthecarata
speedaround65mph,notasanaccelerationlooptogetacarfromtheentrancerampofafreeway
ontothefreeway.Sosaturation,eventhoughitisanonlinearphaenomenon,isnotbadinallcases.In
theexampleofthecruisecontrolforthecar,saturationwhengoingtodrivingspeedisnotbadandcan
betolerated.Butiftheengineofthecarweresopunythatitcouldnotmaintainthecarsspeedat
Chaptei 9 Besigning anu tuning PIB contiolleis

912

relativelygentleincludes,thenonemustaskthequestionofwhetherthecarsenginewassized
properlyforthecar.
Theoperatingconditionsoftheloopmustbetakenintoaccountwhendesigningtheactuatorforthe
loop.Whatkindofloadwillcausetheactuatortosaturatemustbeconsidered,andtheactuatorshould
besizedaccordinglyfortheloopoperationconditions.Actuatorscanalsobesizedtoolarge.Takethe
tanklevelexamplethathasappearedthroughoutthistext.Iftheinputvalveistoolarge,ithastoobiga
gain.Ifthetankleveldropsslightlyandthisvalveopensalittle,itletsinafloodofliquidsothatthe
levelrisesquickly.Shuttingjustalittlecutsoffsomuchliquidthatthetankleveldropsquickly.Thusa
missized,oversizedvalveleadstoafluctuatingtanklevelandunstableormarginallystableoperationin
theprocessthatitisapartof.
Saturationdependsnotjustonthesizeoftheactuatorbutalsoonhowfartheactualvalueisawayfrom
thedesiredvalue.Thiswasseenabovewiththecruisecontrolexample.Thissamephaenomenon
appliesalsotomotioncontrolsystems.Theyarenormallydesignedforsomewhatfinecontrol,to
maintainpositionaroundanarrowrangeofdistance.ForgrossmotionsfrompointAtopointB,motion
actuatorsoftensaturate.

Figure9.8Saturationresponse
Figure9.8showswhatsaturationlookslikeonastepresponseplot.Thelong,straightclimbfrom0up
toanewvaluedoesnotseemtofitwiththeshapeofthecurvysinusoidaloscillationoncethesystem
getswithinanarrowrangeofthefinalvalue.
Aproblemwithintegralcontrolwindup
AhiddenproblemwithintegralcontrollurksintheblockdiagramofaPIDcontroller,inthatoneisnot
awarethatintegralactionhasassociatedwithitasortofstorehouseofrememberedpasterrorthatcan
continuetoact,evenaftertheloopreachesitsdesiredvalue.ConsidertheexampleinFigure9.8.Ifthis
systemwereunderintegralcontrol,inthesaturatedstate,betweent=0.1secandalittleafter0.3sec
thepersistenterrorwouldcauseanaccumulationofareaunderthee(t)curve.Asthesystemnearedits
goalandtheerrorbecamelessandless,theproportionaltermwouldstarttodecrease.Buttheintegral
Chaptei 9 Besigning anu tuning PIB contiolleis

913

actionwouldcontinuetoactbecauseofthestorederrorundertheerrorcurve,eventhoughthenew
setpointhadbeenreached.Thustheintegraltermwoulddrivethesystempastthesetpoint.Infactthe
onlywayfortheintegraltermtosheditsaccumulatedpositiveerrorwouldbeforittoaccumulate
negativeerror.Andtheonlywayforittodothiswouldbetostayabovethesetpointuntilthenegative
accumulatederrorcancelledthepositiveaccumulatederror.Thistendencyoftheintegraltermto
accumulateerror,evenwhentheactuatorisdoingallitcantoreduceerror,iscalledintegralwindup.
Thesolutiontothisproblemissimple:dontlettheareaundertheerrorcurveaccumulate.Aswitchis
putintotheintegralbranchofthePIorPIDcontroller.Iftheactuatorissaturated,turnoffthe
integrationoftheerror.Sointheaboveexample,whiletheactuatorissaturatedbetween0.1secanda
littleover0.3sec,theintegraltermisturnedoff.Whenthesystemnearsitsdesiredvalueandthe
actuatorbecomesunsaturated,theintegraltermisonceagainturnedon.Thispreventsthe
overshootingcausedbyintegralwindupandallowsthesystemtoreachitsdesiredvaluewithless
fluctuationsenroute.

Figure9.9Integratorantiwindupimplementation
Figure9.9showsaSimulinkimplementationofanantiwindupscheme.Theinputandoutputsofthe
saturationblockarecompared.Iftheyareequal(orclose),thentheintegralisallowedtoaccumulate
error.Iftheyarenot,thentheactuatorissaturatedandintegralaccumulationisturnedoff.
Aproblemwithderivativecontrolnoise
Figure9.10showstheoutputfromapressuresensorinawatertank.Noticethateventhoughthetank
levelremainsconstantatabout17.5inches,thereisalotofnoiseinthesignal.Thispresentsaproblem
forderivativeactioninaPIDcontroller.Recallthatthederivativetermactsontherateofchangeof
error,notupontheerroritself.Withthesignalbelow,thetanklevel,andthustheerror,isnotchanging
inthebigpictureovertime.Butthesignalitself,whenconsideringthenoise,isconstantlychanging.
Thederivativeoftheerroristheslopeoftheerrorcurve.Sointhiscase,eveniftheerroris0,thenoise
isconstantlymakingtheslopeflipflopupanddown,oftenwithaseveremagnitude.Derivativeaction
appliedtosuchasignalcausestheactuatortoactfirstinonedirectionvigorously,thenatthenext
Chaptei 9 Besigning anu tuning PIB contiolleis

914

momentintheotherdirectionvigorously.Themotororvalveorhydrauliccylinderthatisbeingdriven
bythiscontrollerisbeingexercisedbackandforthandfornogoodreason.

Figure9.10Noiseintanklevelsensor
Thesolutiontothisistocleanthesignalup.Thiscanbedonewitheitherahardwarefilter,asoftware
filter,orwithboth.ItiscommontoincludeafirstorderfilterinthederivativepathofaPIDcontroller
tocleanuptheerrorsignalbeforetakingitsderivative.Thetimeconstantofthisfilter,T
F
,isoftenbased
onT
D
,thederivativetime.AcommonvalueforT
F
isT
F
=T
D
/10.Figure9.11showssuchan
implementationofaPIDcontrollerwithfiltering.

Figure9.11PIDcontrollerwithderivativefiltering
TuningmethodsforPIDcontrollers
ThenextsectionsdealwithdifferentmethodsfortuningPIDcontrollers.Thesereflectdifferent
strategiesfortuningcontrollers.Mostofthemareheuristicorfieldtuningmethods.Thereareliterally
thousandsofschemeslikethis.Theonesillustratedherearesomeofthebetterknownschemes.
TuningmethodsReplacementofsystemsnaturaldynamicswithdesireddynamics
Chaptei 9 Besigning anu tuning PIB contiolleis

915

TheKT
1
T
2
formofthePIDcontrollersuggestsaninterestingdesignstrategyforacontroller.Onecan
cancelthedynamicsoftwopolesofanopenloopsystemusingthetwozerosofthePIDandtheninstall
onesowndynamicswiththecontrollersremainingpoleattheoriginandwiththecontrollergain.

Figure9.12PIDpolecancellation
Figure9.12showsthisforasimpleopenloopsystemwithtworeal,stablepoles.WithaPonly
controllerthesystemwouldeventuallystartoscillatingasthegainisincreased.Ifonecancelsthepoles
ataandbbyaddingcontrollerzerosthere,theclosedloopsystembecomesasimplefirstorderthat
neveroscillatesasthegainisincreased.Thusonehascancelledtheoriginalsystemsbehaviorand
installedabehaviortoonesownliking.
Abigcaveattothisstrategyisthatthisreallyonlyworksasdescribedforsystemswhosemodels
perfectlyfitthesystem,andthatisvirtuallyneverthecase.Evenifoneisluckyorresourcefulenoughto
haveaperfectmodel,physicalsystemschangeovertimewithwear.Soasystemthathaspolesata
andbwillseethosepolesdriftovertime.Thusthepolesarenotquitecancelled,andthischangesthe
behaviorofthesystem.Thepolesarenotquitecancelled.Thisproblemisalwaysencounteredwith
zero/polecancellation.Itisoftenrecommendedtoplacethezerosnearthepolesinworkingwiththis
strategytobeexplicitaboutthefactthatthezeroswillnotalways(ever?)exactlycancelthepoles.
TuningmethodsZieglerNicholstuning
TheZieglerNicholstuningalgorithmwasdevelopedinthe1940sprimarilyforregulatorcontrolloopsin
theprocessindustry(powergenerationstation,chemicalplants,refineries,etc.).Asregulators,these
loopspurposeisdisturbancerejection,thatiskeepingadesiredquantityatacertainleveldespite
disturbinginfluencesthattrytochangeit.ZieglerNicholsisprobablythebestknownandmostwidely
usedoftheheuristictuningmethodsfortuningPIDcontrollers.Heuristicsimplymeansbasedon
experimentationorbasedontrialanderror.Suchmethodsdonotdependonthedevelopmentofa
systemmodel.Theyarefieldtuningmethods,inthatonecanapplythemtotherealsystemandtuneit
inplace.
InZieglerNicholstuning,tuningparametersK
P
,K
I
,andK
D
arebasedonK
u
andP
u
.K
u
isthegainthat
causesasystemwithaPonlycontrollertobemarginallystable.("u"standsfor"ultimate".)Youcan
findtheultimategainbyatrialanderrorprocess.OnesetsK
P
tosomelowvalue(K
I
andK
D
are0atthis
stage).TestthesystemwiththisK
P
toseeifitoscillatescontinuously(marginallystable).Ifthe
oscillationsdecay,keepincreasingK
P
.Iftheoscillationsincreaseinamplitude(unstablesystem),reduce
Chaptei 9 Besigning anu tuning PIB contiolleis

916

K
P
.Dothisuntilthesystemismarginallystable.Whenyouarriveatthispoint,youhavefoundK
u
,the
gainthatgotyouthere.P
u
istheperiodofthenondecayingoscillationsatthispointofmarginal
stability.
Oftenyouwillnotbeabletoreachasystem'sultimategainbecausethesystemactuatorwillsaturate.
Thisisasituationwherethecontrollerdemandsmoreoftheactuatorthanitcanprovide.Remember
theactuatorgetsacommandinputfromthecontrollerandsendsa"force"signaltotheplant.The
actuatorislimitedintheamountof"force"itcansendtotheplant.Foravalve/tanklevelcontrol
system,thevalvecannotopenmorethan100%,norcanitclosemorethan0%.
Firststep:FindK
u

FindK
u
byincreasingK
P
untilthesystemoscillateswithoutadecay.Whileyouaremonitoringtheloop
output,monitortheactuatoratthesametimetoseewhetherornotitissaturating.Continueto
increaseK
P
untilyoufindK
u
ortheactuatorsaturates.
Iftheactuatorsaturates,youwillnotbeabletogetK
u
.InthiscaseuseanothermethodtogetK
q
("q"
standsforquarter).AdjustthePonlygainuntilyouhavequartercycledamping.Thisisameasurement
forasecondorder,underdampedsystem.Ontheresponseplotlookatthefirsttwohumps(thefirst
humpiswherethe%OSismeasured).K
q
isthevalueofK
P
thatmakestheheightofthesecondhump
1/4theheightofthefirsthump.Usethefinaloutputvalueasthereferenceformeasuringthehump
heights.NowK
u
canbedeterminedfromK
q
.Itis:K
u
=2K
q
.
Secondstep:FindP
u

P
u
istheultimateperiodofoscillation.YoucanfindthisoutfromtheresponseplotwithK
P
=K
u
,ifyou
wereabletofindit.IfyoufoundK
u
fromK
q
,getP
q
.WeassumethatP
u
=P
q
.Thisiscloseenough.
Thirdstep:Findcontrollergains
NowthesuggestedZieglerNicholssettingsforP,PI,andPIDcontrollersare:
P:K
PID
=0.5K
u

PI:K
PID
=0.45K
u
;T
I
=1.2/P
u

PID:K
PID
=0.6K
u
;T
I
=2/P
u
;T
D
=P
u
/8

TuningmethodsAstromHagglundrelaytuningmethodforZieglerNicholstuning
Chaptei 9 Besigning anu tuning PIB contiolleis

917

OneoftheproblemswiththeZieglerNicholstuningmethodisthatoneturnsuptheproportionalgain
todrivethesystemtothevergeofinstability.Thiscanbeadangerousthingtodowitharealsystem.
ToavoidthisbutstillbeabletocalculateK
u
andP
u
,analternativemethodwasdevelopedbyAstromand
Hagglund.Inthismethodthecontrollerisreplacedwitharelayortwopointcontrollerthatputsouta
positiveconstantiftheerrorsignalisnegativeandanegativeconstantiftheerrorsignalispositive.This
controlleristhenalwayspushingthesystemtowardacentraloperatingpoint(seeFigure9.13).

Figure9.13RelaycontrollerofAstromHagglund
Astepintheloopsetpointisusedtoperturbtheloopfromastableoperatingstate.Kischosentogive
enoughofacontrolleroutputtogetaclearresponsebutnottodrivethesystemtoofarawayfromits
stableoperatingpoint.Forexample,ifthestephasasizeof1,theerrorwillsuddenlybecome+1.
Somethinglikea5%commandedchangefromwhatthecontrollercanproducebeforesaturatingthe
actuatorwouldbeappropriate.
Chaptei 9 Besigning anu tuning PIB contiolleis

918

Figure9.14ImplementationofAstromHagglundrelaycontroller
Figure9.14showsthisrelaycontrollerimplementedinSimulink.Withthissystemithasbeen
determinedthataunitstepinputwouldsaturatetheactuatorwithacontrollergainof5.Therelay
controllerworksasfollows:Iftheactualoutputisbelowthedesiredlevel,theerrorwillbepositive,soa
constantpositivesignalwillbesentoutofthecontrollernudgingthesystemupward.Iftheactual
outputisabovethedesiredlevel,theerrorwillbenegative,andaconstantnegativesignalwillbesent
outtonudgethesystembackdown.Whatresultsisasawwavecomingoutofthecontrollerandan
oscillationfromthesystem.Threeparametersareneedfromtheseplots.Figure9.15showsthese
parameters.
Chaptei 9 Besigning anu tuning PIB contiolleis

919

Figure9.15ResultofAstromHagglundrelaytuning
WithdandaonecancalculateK
u
.
K
u
=
4 J
n o

ThisisthesameK
u
thatisusedinZieglerNicholstuning.
TuningmethodsChien,Hrones,Reswicktuning
Chien,Hrones,Reswicktuningwasdevelopedin1952asanalternativetoZieglerNicholstuning.Its
advantageisthatithasseparatesuggestionstomakeforcontrollergains,dependinguponwhethera
loopisaregulatororapositionerloop.Thetestneededtofindtheresponseparametersisalso
somewhatsaferthantheZieglerNicholstestinthatoneisnotdrivingthesystemuptothelimitsof
stability.
Anopenlooptestisperformedontheactuator+plant.Thisisnormallyasequenceoffirstorderorgain
elements.ThusthestepresponseappearsasshowninFigure9.16.
Chaptei 9 Besigning anu tuning PIB contiolleis

920

Figure9.16Chien,Hrones,Reswicktuningopenloopstepresponse
Withthisstepresponse,oneidentifiestheinflectionpointintheresponse.Atangentlineisdrawn
throughthispointandextendeduntilitcrossesthehorizontalaxisandthefinaloutputlevel.Thisthen
definestheparametersT
u
andT
g
.AlsousedisK
ss
,thesteadystategainoftheactuator+plant.These
threeparametersarethenusedinthefollowingtabletosettheparametersforaP,PI,orPIDcontroller.
Nonoscillatoryresponsewithshortest
timetogoal
20%overshootwithshortesttimeto
goal
Positioner Regulator Positioner Regulator
P K
PI
=
u.S I
g
K
ss
I
u
K
PI
=
u.S I
g
K
ss
I
u
K
PI
=
u.7 I
g
K
ss
I
u
K
PI
=
u.7 I
g
K
ss
I
u

PI
K
PI
=
u.SS I
g
K
ss
I
u

I
I
= 1.2 I
u

K
PI
=
u.6 I
g
K
ss
I
u

I
I
= 4 I
u

K
PI
=
u.6 I
g
K
ss
I
u

I
I
= I
u

K
PI
=
u.7 I
g
K
ss
I
u

I
I
= 2.S I
u

PID
K
PI
=
u.6 I
g
K
ss
I
u

I
I
= I
g

= u.S I
u

K
PI
=
u.6 I
g
K
ss
I
u

I
I
= 2.4 I
u

= u.42 I
u

K
PI
=
u.6 I
g
K
ss
I
u

I
I
= 1.SS I
g

= u.47 I
u

K
PI
=
u.6 I
g
K
ss
I
u

I
I
= 2 I
u

= u.42 I
u

TuningmethodsTietzeSchenktuningmethod
Thisisatuningmethodfromtheworldofelectricalengineering.Theprocedureisasfollows.
1. DrivethesystemwithaPonlycontroller.
2. RaiseK
PID
untilaweaklydampedoscillationisevident.Theoscillationshouldlastbutdoesdie
out.Thisshouldbeatabouta15phasemargin,so0.15,so%OS60%.
3. FindT
S
,theperiodofoscillation.
4. SetT
D
=T
S
/(2).
5. SetT
I
=10T
D
.
Chaptei 9 Besigning anu tuning PIB contiolleis

921

Thisworksverywell,evenwithunstablesystems.Whydoesitwork?TheBodediagramliesattheroot
oftherationale.WeusetheKT
1
T
2
formofthePIDcontroller:
0
PI
(s) =
K (I
1
s + 1)(I
2
s + 1)
s

Soweareaddingagain,twofirstorderleads,andanintegrator.BysettingK
PID
toobtainroughly60%
overshootat
d
fortheclosedloopsystem,wehave
M
15at
d
fortheopenloopsystem.Ifwe
placethesecondleadthere,thisaddsanadditional45tothephasemargintogive
M
60,so%OS
10%.Thusthegainandoneleadhavebeenutilized.Remainingareanotherleadandtheintegrator.
Theintegratorisadded,asalways,tolimitoreliminatesteadystateerror.Butthenegativeeffectof
addingtheintegratorwillbetolowerthephaseangle90everywhere,i.e.forall.Topreservethe
phasemarginat60,thefirstleadisaddedonedecadebefore
d
,soat
d
/10.Atthisbreak
frequencythephasecontributionofthefirstleadis45,butby
d
,thebreakfrequencyofthe
secondlead,thephasecontributionofthefirstleadhasreached90,sothephaselossoftheintegrator
hasbeencompensated.
Summingup,
I
2
=
1

B2
=
1

d
=
I
s
2n

I
1
=
1

B1
=
1
[
1
1u

B2
=
1u

B2
= 1u I
2

ConvertingtotheK
PID
T
I
T
D
formneededbymostcontrollers
0
PI
(s) = K
PI
_1 +
1
I
I
s
+ I

s] =
K (I
1
s +1) (I
2
s + 1)
s

K
PI
_
I

s
2
+s +1 I
I

s
_ =
K |I
1
I
2
s
2
+(I
1
+ I
2
) s + 1]
s

K
PI
I

s
2
+ K
PI
s +K
PI
I
I

s
=
K I
1
I
2
s
2
+ K (I
1
+I
2
) s +K
s

Thus
K
PI
I

= K I
1
I
2

K
PI
= K (I
1
+ I
2
)
K
PI
I
I
= K

Fromthesecondresult,
Chaptei 9 Besigning anu tuning PIB contiolleis

922

K
PI
= K (I
1
+ I
2
) = K _
1u I
s
2n
+
I
s
2n
] =
11 K I
s
2n

So
K =
2n K
PI
11 I
s

Then
I

=
K I
1
I
2
K
PI
=
2n K
PI
11 I
s

1
K
PI

1u I
s
2
(2n)
2
=
1u
11

I
s
2n
=
I
s
2n

I
I
=
K
PI
K
=
11 I
s
2n
= 1u I

Ponlycontrolinaregulatorloop
InaregulatorloopitissometimesthecasethatjustPcontrolsufficesbecauseofauniquefeatureofthe
regulator.Theregulatorissetuptorunoffdeviationsfromadesignoperatingcondition,notfromtotal
amountsoftheloopvariables.Takethecommonexampleofatanklevelcontroller.Theloopissetup
asshowninFigure9.17.Forthisparticularexamplethetanksdesignsteadystateis18withtheinlet
valveopen70%.Iftheuserputsinasetpointof18,thesetpointsenttotheinnerloopis0.This
indicatesnotthattheuserwantsthetanktoemptybutratherthatheorshewantsthedeviationfrom
18tobe0.

Figure9.17RegulatorloopwithPonlycontroller
Chaptei 9 Besigning anu tuning PIB contiolleis

923

Noticewhathappensatthisoperatinglevel.Theinnerloophas0comingin,andeverysignalinthe
innerloopis0,assumingthereisnodisturbance.Soatthisoperatinglevel,thedesignoperatinglevel,
thereisnosteadystateerror.Ifthesetpointischangedorifadisturbanceisinput,therewillbea
steadystateerror,sincethesystemisatype0systemwithonlyaproportionalcontroller.Ifapositive
disturbanceflowisadded,thetankwillrunalittlehigh.Ifanegativedisturbanceflowisadded,thetank
willrunalittlelow.Thisamountstodrainingmorefromthetankthanthenormaldesignsteadystate
flowrate.Theloadonthetankhasbeenincreased,sothetanklevelwilldroop.Butinnormal
operatingconditions,thetanklevelwillremainatthedesignlevelwithoutanysteadystateerror.
ThisisafeatureofPcontrolofatype0system.Itwillhavenosteadystateerroratoneoperatingpoint,
namelythepointwhereallthesignalsinthedeviationloopare0.Anothercommonexampleisacruise
controlonacar.Whenonesetsthedesiredspeedbyengagingthecontroller,oneisalsosettingthe
designoperatinglevelandsettingupthedeviationfromtheloop.IfthecontrollerinthisloopisaPonly
controller,whenoneencountersahill,theincreasedloadwillcausethespeedtodroopalittle.Thatis
thespeedwillremainafewmilesperhourbelowthesetdesiredspeed.Thisistolerable.Indeeditmay
evenbedesirable.BynotaggressivelyinsistingwithIcontrolthatthespeedexactlymatchthesetpoint
speed,oneoperatesthecarlessaggressivelyandsavesfuel.
Problems
9.1 TakethesystemofFigure9.7andworkoutitsclosedlooptransferfunction.Determine
nCL
and

CL
.WhatrlesdoK
P
andK
D
playrespectivelyin
nCL
and
CL
?Thatis,ifK
P
increases,whateffect
doesthathaverespectivelyon
nCL
and
CL
?IfK
D
increases,whateffectdoesthathave
respectivelyon
nCL
and
CL
?
9.2 ItisoftensaidofderivativecontrolthatsomederivativecontrolallowsonetoturnupK
P
without
runningintothesameproblemsonewouldwithoutsomederivativecontrol.Theprimary
problemencounteredwithoutderivativecontrolisincreasedovershootandswingingwithan
inputstep.Toseeifthisadageisso,takethesystemofFigure9.6andincreaseK
P
.Doubleit,for
example,andcomparetheresultwiththatofthesamesystemwithhalfthegainandnoK
D
.What
effectonsystemresponsedoesturningK
P
uphave?Thatis,withthisabilitytoturnupK
P
without
itsnormal,negativeconsequences,whatisgained?
9.3 GivenK
P
,K
I
,andK
D
,whatareK
PID
,T
I
,andT
D
theparametersofthesecondformofthePIDin
termsoftheparametersofthefirstform?
9.4 Bypolecancellation,youhavefoundoutthevaluesthatyouneedofK,T
1
,andT
2
ofthethirdform
ofthePIDcontroller.Thecontrolleryouareusing,however,needsthethreeparametersofthe
secondform.DetermineexpressionsforK
P
,T
I
,andT
D
ofthesecondformintermsofK,T
1
,andT
2

ofthethirdform.
9.5 SetupaPIcontrolloopforafirstorderplantwithunitysteadystategainandatimeconstantof
80seconds.UseK
P
=0.6andarepeattimeof3minutes.
Chaptei 9 Besigning anu tuning PIB contiolleis

924

9.6 Anunityfeedback,openloopsystemhaspolesats=6and10.Ithasasteadystategainof16.
a. Designacontrollertocancelthissystemsdynamicsandreplacethemwithafirstorderwitha
timeconstantof1second.
b. Overtime,theoriginalsystemundergoeswearandtearandtheopenlooppolesdriftto5.5
and9,andthegaindriftsto15.Howwillthisaffecttheclosedloopsystemsbehavior?Give
theclosedlooptransferfunctionofboththeoriginalandthewornsystems.UsingMatlab,
plotonthesameplottheoriginalsystemsbehavior(unitstepresponse)andthenthe
behaviorofthewornsystem.
c. Plottherootlociofeachsystem,showingoneachdiagramthelocationoftheclosedloop
pole.
9.7 Theactuator+plantwiththetransferfunction
0
0L
(s) =
1u4u
s
3
+ 16 s
2
+ 2u8 s

istobeoutfittedwithaPIDcontrollerinaunityfeedbackloop.UsetheZieglerNicholstuning
methodtotunecontrollersforthissystem.InstallaK
PID
T
I
T
D
formatcontrollerinaSimulink
model.OnceyouhavefiguredoutK
U
andP
U
forthissystem,copythesystemsothatthereare
threecopiesofitinasingleSimulinkmodel.SetupinthelooprespectivelyaP,aPI,andaPID
controller.RuntheoutputfromeachloopintoaMUXblockandthentoascope,sothattheunit
responsetoeachloopcanbecomparedagainsttheothertwo.
Tohandin:Showallcalculations,reportK
u
andP
u
clearly.PrintoutapictureoftheSimulink
model.Printoutthescopeoutputthatcomparesthethreedifferentcontrollers.
9.8 ThesystemofthepreviousexamplewasusedtoillustratetheAstromHagglundrelaycontroller,
usedtocalculateK
u
andP
u
.Findthevaluesofthesetwoparametersfromtheplotsgiveninthe
textandcomparethemwithwhatyoufoundinthepreviousproblem.
9.9 Takethesystemshownbelow

UsetheChien,Hrones,ReswicktuningmethodtodesignaPIDcontrollerforthissystemtoreject
aunitstepdisturbance.Showyourwork.Designacontrollerfornoovershootandthenonefor
20%overshoot.Givecontrollergainsforeachcase.Demonstratethereactionofbothloopstoa
unitstepdisturbance.
Chaptei 9 Besigning anu tuning PIB contiolleis

925

9.10 Takethesystem
0
0L
(s) =
Su
u.uuS s +1

u.2S
u.SS s +1

1
u.uSS s + 1

UsetheTietzeSchenktuningmethodwithaSimulinkmodeltodesignaPIDcontrollerforthis
system.GivethevaluesofK
PID
,T
I
,andT
D
thatresultfromTietzeSchenk.PrintoutyourSimulink
modelandaunitstepresponseofthetunedsystem.