Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Robbins (2003) defines learning as any relatively permanent change in behavior that
The learning process therefore, enhances the knowledge, skills and attitude of
individuals, to increase their willingness to adopt those newly acquired knowledge, skills
The very basic form of learning is called conditioning. This connotes the process of
process that involves repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus with a response – producing
neutral because dogs do not normally salivate to the sound of a ringing bell. He would
After several repetitions the dog began to salivate on hearing the sound of the bell.
This means that the dog had learnt a new association between the sound of the bell and
the presentation of the food.the sound of the bell is a conditioned stimulus because it was
originally neutral but comes to elicit a reflexive response, the dog’s salivation to the
Skinner in 1954; operant conditioning is based on the law of effect. The theory explains
when a stimulus or an event follows an operant and increases the likelihood of the
Operant conditioning is most effective in shaping behavior through positive and negative
Another theory of learning is social learning this theory was proposed by Albert
observational learning rather than through trial and error or direct experience of the
others, including the consequences that occur, influences the likelihood that behavior will
be imitated.
imitation will occur. First you must pay attention to the other person’s behavior. second
you must remember the other person’s behavior so that you can perform it at a later time.
That is, you must form and store a mental representation of behavior to be limited. Third,
you must be able to transform this mental representation into actions that you are capable
of reproducing. Fourth, there must be some motivation for you to imitate the behavior.
One is more likely to imitate a behavior if there is some expectation that doing so will
PERSONALITY.
feeling and behaving (Pervin, 1997). According to Allport (1937), personality is the
stress. From Freud’s psycho analysis theories, traits theories and social cognitive as well
as humanistic theories, major factors that influence personality include the following.
Heredity is one factor that greatly influence personality basing on heritability estimates
viz; the numerical estimate of the degree to which differences within a specific group of
people are due to genetics, it has been universally agreed that traits like physique, eye
color, hair color, height, temperament, energy level, intelligence and reflexes. Taking the
example of twins reared apart investigations it was noticed that; many identical twins
The evidence for genetic influence is particularly strong for extraversion and neuroticism,
two of the Big five personality traits (plomin 1990). Openness to experience and
culture, family, social and situational factors. Taking agreeableness as an example, this is
more strongly affected by shared environmental influences. Research stress the fact that,
both identical and fraternal twins raised together were more similar on the trait of
agreeableness that were twins raised apart. Another additional evidence that under scores
this point is that identical twins are most alike is early life. As twins grow up, leave home
and encounter different experiences and environments, their personalities become more
different (McCartney & others, 1990) it is there for 1:1 ratio for both genetics and
environmental factors.
Culture is another determinant of personality. Culture sets standard norms, altitudes and
values that are passed on from generation to generation and this endures time every
culture trains its members to behave certain acceptable ways and expects every member
of the group to follow suit. People from similar cultural background have similar attitudes
compared to people from other cultures. However, within similar cultures, people
which they grow. Culture is more relevant in forming people’s belief systems towards
The family background also determines some one’s personality. This is most common
with the person’s immediate family. Family influences the behavior of a person especially
in the early stages of life. The nature of such influence will depend upon the socio-
economic level of the family. Family influences the behavior of a person especially in the
early stages of life. The nature of such influence will depend upon the socio-economic
level of the family, family size, race, religion, parent’s educational level and geographic
location. This however forms the entire environment under which a person grows.
Children born to families where domestic violence is common, where seen to be more
violent in their later years compared to children form respectable families. Care extended
to children also formed their traits on attachment. Children raised in poor quality day
cares were seen to develop insecure attachment and also this affected their academic
Situational factors also form individual personality. For every individual goes through
different types of experience and events in his/her life. Some of the events and
experience, which and individual goes through can determine his/her personality.
Children who grew up in war ravaged areas and internally displaced camps tend to
espouse similar personality go on for most of their lives unless proper rehabilitation is
established.
3. DISCUSS DIFFERENT THEORIES OF EMOTION.
pleasurable emotions such as happiness and pride. And we are motivated to avoid
experiences that produce unpleasant emotions such as anger or fear (Ekman & Davidson,
1994)
Theories to explain the cause and nature of emotions have been debated throughout.
These theories tend to differ in terms of which component of emotion receives the most
The James –Lange theory of emotion. The theory was developed by William James and
Carl Lange in disagreement with the common sense view. According to this theory, feed
back from physiological aroused and from the muscles involved in your behavior cause a
subjective feeling of emotion. Thus the theories believe that emotion follows a sequence,
i.e. one perceives a stimulus, - behavioral and physiological changes occur; and we
the theory, we don’t tremble and run because we are afraid, we are afraid because we
This theory has been criticized by research on several grounds. Walter Cannon (1871-
1945), pointed out that bodily reactions are similar for many emotions, yet our subjective
experience of various emotions is very different. For example, both fear and rage are
accompanied by increased heart rate, but we have no difficulty distinguishing between
the two emotions. Cannon (1927) also noted the fact that our emotional reaction to a
The other theory is the Cannon- Bard theory of Emotion. The theory was proposed by
Walter Cannon (1927) and later joined by Philip Bard. According to the theory, when an
cortex in the brain and to the sympathetic nervous system. The activation of the cortex
causes the subjective experience of emotion and the activation of the sympathetic nervous
system causes the physical response, which takes a few seconds longer. Thus, according
to Cannon and Bard, subjective experience and physiological arousal are triggered at the
Another theory of emotion is the two factor theory of emotion. The theory was proposed
by Stanley Schechter and Jerome singer in (1962) According to this theory, emotion is a
result of the interaction of physiological arousal and the cognitive label we attach to
explain the stirred –up state. If one of these factors is absent, emotion will not be
experienced under normal circumstances, the two factors, cognitive labeling and
physiological arousal are interrelated. For example, the cognition (strange man is
following me) triggers a state of physiological arousal. The arousal is interpreted in terms
of the situation or condition that triggered it (knowledge about dangers of strange men).
At that point, according to Schachter and Singer, the state of arousal is labeled a an
emotion-fear.
The theory has been criticized for, research has identified little evidence to support the
claim that arousal is a necessary condition for an emotional state and the idea that
Cognition appraisal theory of Richard Lazarus (1980) is yet another theory of emotion.
This theory emphasizes that the most important aspect of an emotional experience is out
components of emotion including physiological arousal follow from the initial cognitive
appraisal.
For Lazarus, all emotions are the result of cognitive appraisals of the personal meaning of
experience emotion. Thus, such appraisals are closely tied to motivation. The more
personally important the out come, the more intense the emotion.
Critics of this theory object that emotional reactions to a stimulus or event are virtually
instantaneous – too rapid to allow for the process of cognitive appraisal. Instead, they
Weiner’s attribution theory certain attributions produce specific emotions. Once the initial
evaluation has been made, the individual looks at what caused the event. These
attributions of causality can modify the emotion felt. It is the interaction of the perceived
internal and external causes, controllability and out come that will determine the
emotional responses.
4. DEFINE POWER AND EXPLAIN THE FORMAL BASE OF POWER
Power is the ability to influence others. Power involves making others d things in a
manner best appreciated by the person exercising the power. Managers derive power
form both organizational and individual sources. These sources are called position power
and personal power respectively. Power is witnessed when particular people depend their
2003)
There are several bases of power and for this discussion we shall dwell our attention on
the formal base of power. This is power based on the position of an individual in an
organization. Formal power is derived from either one’s ability to coerce or reward others
or is derived from the formal authority rested in the individual due to his/her strategic
position in the organizational hierarchy. Formal power is categorized into various types
Coercive power is one type of a formal base of power. This is power dependent on fear. It
is based on the application, or the threat of application, of physical sanctions such as the
exercise power over another if they have the power to dismiss, suspend, demote another
assuming that the job is valuable to the person on whom power is being unleashed.
Another formal base of power is reward power. Reward power is the extent to which a
manager can use extrinsic and intrinsic reward to control other people. Examples of such
managers have some access to rewards, success in accessing and utilizing rewards to
There is also legitimate power among the formal bases of power. This stems from the
extent to which a manager can use subordinates’ internalized values that the boss has a
right of command to control their behavior. Legitimate power represents a special kind of
power a manager has because subordinates believe it is legitimate for a person occupying
the managerial position to have the right to command. This type of power is premised on
the various elements like positions of authority, and the acceptance of the authority of a
Information power is another base of formal power. This is derived form access to and
control over information. When people have needed information, others become
dependant on them.
For example, managers may have access to specific information which subordinates may
not access. The higher the level of a manager in this power base, the more access to vital
Stress is defined as a negative emotional state occurring in response to events that are
The definition emphasizes the important role played by a person’s perception or appraisal
Stress comes as a result of our cognitive appraisal of an event and the resources we have
If we have adequate resources to deal with a situation it will probably create little or no
stress in our lives. But if we perceive our resources as being inadequate to deal with a
effects of stress.
Life is filled with potential stressors- events or situations that produce stress. Virtually
any event or situation can be a source of stress if you question your ability or resources to
deal effectively with it. Below, we look at the most important and common sources of
stress.
Environmental factors are major sources of stress. The environment both internal and
external keeps on changing the conditions within the organization. Researchers Thomas
Holmes and Richard Rahe (1967) believed that any change that required you to adjust
organization. Other changes may be external within the business cycle, political
uncertainty and technology uncertainty all these form the environment under which
employees in he organization perform their duties. Such factors are cognitively appraised
Organization factors also influence stress. The organization creates an environment with a
lot of work load pressures. The targets that are supposed to be achieved within a specific
Role demands create conflicts; work over load, ambiguity, interpersonal demands all of
which may not do well with people’s expectations and the time limit within which they
should be achieved.
Organizational structure is also a potential cause of stress. This defines the power
structure in the organization. It also stipulates the degree of rules and regulations and
The structure also clarifies the leadership and managerial style of the organization’s
organizational cultural which reflects tension, fear and anxiety. They over emphasize
tight control, hire and fire policies which keep organizational member on hot seat and
Other factors that cause stress are individual factors. These include factors in the
employee’s personal life. These range from family issues, personal economic problems
and inherent personality characteristics. Individual stressors manifest them selves in daily
hassles. Stress researcher Richard Lazarus and his colleagues suspect that such ordinary
irritations in daily life might be an important source of stress. These daily hassles. A
Over suspicious anger and hostility increases a person’s stress and risk of heart disease.
These individuals with high level of mistrust for other also cause stress for them selves.
Conflict is also a common source of stress. Conflict in terms of feeling pulled between
two opposing desires, motives or goals. These conflicts are described in terms of
The most stressful are approach-avoidance conflicts. Here a goal has both desire able and
undesirable aspects. When faced with an approach – avoidance conflict, people often
vacillate, unable to decide whether to approach or avid the goal. Such people often find
them selves stuck unable to resolve the conflict. The result is a significant increase in
The human process interventions aim at the social processes occurring within
T-groups are some of the Human process interventions. These are designed to provide
members with experiential learning about group dynamics, leadership and interpersonal
relationships. The basic T-group training or sensitivity training is to change the standards,
such training there is group confession where the individual’s problems become the
problems of the group, which in turn tries to find a solution. The main objectives of such
training is to increase understanding, in sight and self awareness about one’s own and
other’s behavior and its impact on self and others, it gives a better understanding of the
group, improves diagnostic skills and also increase the ability to transfer learning into
action.
activities on the part of the consultant that helped the client to perceive, understand and
act upon the process of events that occur in the client’s environment in order to improve
the situation as defined by the client. It deals the most important group processes like
communication, he functional roles of group members, ways through which the group
solves problem and make decisions, development and growth of group norms and the use
of leadership as authority.
Third party interventions, this focuses on interpersonal or inter group conflicts. Conflict
can arise from various sources. From substantive issues like work methods, pay rates and
personality, task orientations, perceptions among group members and competition over
scarce resources.
Team building is another human process intervention. This is a very effective approach
useful to develop and nature a team culture in an organization, which helps the group
members to enhance their interpersonal and problem solving skill. It also helps group
members to enhance their interpersonal and problem solving skills. It also helps group
members to develop a higher level of motivation to carry out the group decision by over
coming specific problems like apathy, general lack of interest among members, loss of
productivity, increasing complaints within the group, confusion about assignments, low
those out side the group about the quality timeliness, effectiveness of services and
products.
Such an intervention is useful for groups reporting to the same supervisor, groups with
common organizational goals, temporary groups formed to form a specific, one-time task,
among others, the success of team building depends on the length of time allocated to the
activity, the team’s willingness to look at the way I which it operates, length of time the