Department of the Classics, Harvard University

Binary Phrases and the Middle Style as Social Code: "Rhetorica ad Herennium" 4.13 and 4.16 Author(s): Brian A. Krostenko Source: Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 102 (2004), pp. 237-274 Published by: Department of the Classics, Harvard University Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4150041 . Accessed: 14/02/2011 10:38
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BINARY PHRASES AND THE MIDDLE STYLE AS SOCIAL CODE: AD HERENNIUM 4.13 and 4.16 * RHETORICA
BRIAN A. KROSTENKO

"GOOD"AND "BAD" I. INTRODUCTION: MIDDLE STYLES AND THE BINARY PHRASE

HE Rhetorica ad Herennium,like manyancient rhetorical treatises, identifies three genera dicendi or styles of speaking, the "grand"(graue "weighty"), "middle" (mediocre), and "plain" (ex- or adtenuatum"reduced") (4.11-16).l The Authorgives short examples of each and, more interesting in many ways, failed versions of each, respectively the "bloated"(sufflatum),"slack" (dissolutum) or "wavering" (fluctuans), and "thin" (exile), styles produced by warping the flaws of the "bloated"(sufflatum)and the good versions.2The particular "thin"(exile) styles have long been clear: both push too hard for their particularcardinal virtues, grandness and plainness, becoming thereby poetic and absurd,or puerile and solecistic.3
* Versionsof this paperwere presentedat the 2001 conventionof the American Philological Association and at the University of North Carolinaat Chapel Hill. I am grateful for the attentive receptions of those astute audiences, as also for the interest and helpful suggestions of HSCP's anonymous referee. The completion of this work was generously supportedby the National Endowment for the Humanities through a fellowship at the National Humanities Center.To the Endowmentand to the staff of the N.H.C. I express my sincere gratitude. I Cf. George Kennedy, The Art of Persuasion in Classical Greece (Princeton 1963) 278 ff.; Gualtiero Calboli, Cornifici "Rhetorica ad Herennium" (Bologna 1969) 287-288. 2 While the Author has doubtless producedthe warped versions himself, whether the "good" versions are excerpts from genuine speeches or the Author's own productions is not clear.On the issue of the Greek models for the examples offigurae in the fourthbook, see Calboli (above, n. 1) 46-50. 3 For the flaws of the "bloated"style passage, see Calboli (above, n. 1) 295-296 n. 48 with reff.; for the flaws of the "thin"style, ibid. 297-298 n. 52 with reff.

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By contrast, the flaws of the "slack" (dissolutum) or "wavering" (fluctuans)style, which is the faulty version of the "middle"(mediocre) style, have not been fully identified.Partlythis may be because the successes of the "good" middle style passage are so obvious: it features many of the figures of exornatio which the Author recommends, and which the "slack"passage lacks. More important,in my view, is a technique that the Author does not specifically recommend, but which is signally present in the "good" middle style passage and mishandled in the "bad"middle style passage. It is a technique that is importantin the middle style models from which this "good" middle style passage is likely to have drawn inspiration,and hinted at by the normative language by which the Author describes his middle style passages: namely, the use of binaryphrases (a structureI will illustrateby example presently). The binary phrase (in our passage, once a ternary phrase) can be analyzed from two points of view. Examined for its functions in context, the binary phrase proves to be a frame in which the speakercan put on display his sure control over the categories used to analyze social and political life and therebydeclare his fitness to pronounce on the point at issue. The utility of the binaryphraseto perform this function, in turn, is best understoodby examining its evolution in the interactionbetween developing Roman sensibilities about Latin and the panoply of Greek rhetoricalmodels that the Romans were assimilating. In short, I will both analyze the effects of the use of binaryphrases in our passage and speculate about the origins of that rhetoricaldevice. We must begin by reviewing the two passages in question. The object of the passages is to insinuatethat certain allies did not revolt of their own free will but with the collusion of parties at Rome. This alleged fifth column would have been liable to prosecution under the lex Varia de maiestate, and the Author's "good" passage is, or is intended to represent,a speech delivered at the trial.4 Both fragments make the same argument,that military action ought to be preceded by
4 Cf. E. Gabba, "Le origini della guerrasociale e la vita politica romanadopo 1' 89 A.C.," Athenaeum, n.s., 32 (1954) 321; Harry Caplan, [Cicero] ad C. Herennium:De

MA 1968)260-261 notec; Calboli(above,n. 1) 292. The Dicendi(Cambridge, Ratione

lex Variade maiestate, passed by the tribuneQ. Varius Hybridain 90 BC (cf. App. BC 1.37, Cic. Brut. 89, V. Max. 8.6.4), was, accordingto Asconius, aimed at "thoseby whose

the Roman assistance or counselalliestookup armsagainst (de iis quorum people" ope
consilioue socii contra populum Romanumarma sumpsissent, Ascon. Scau: 19, p. 22, 7

Clark).

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careful self-assessment, and that thereforemilitary action by a patently weaker party against a strongercan only have been undertakenif there was hope of assistance from some other quarter. The "bad"middle style passage states the point directly: socii nostri cum belligerare nobiscum uellent, profecto ratiocinati essent etiam atque etiam, quid possint facere, si quidem sua sponte facerent et non haberenthinc adiutores multos, malos homines et audaces. solent enim diu cogitare omnes, qui magna negotia uolunt agere. (Rhet.Her 4.16) Our allies, when they wanted to do battle with us, would certainly have calculated their abilities again and again-if, that is, they were doing it of their own accord and did not have many helpers from here, wicked and daringmen. For everyone who wants to perform great tasks is accustomedto think for a long time. The "good" middle style passage makes the same point at considerably greaterlength. Especially notable are the amplificationsby way of doublets, pairs, and parallelisms, both complementaryand contrastive: the allies are supposed to supportRoman authorityby their "character and hardwork"(uirtus et industria); they would have come to battle "better equipped and better prepared"(instructiores et apparatiores); subject peoples consented to Roman rule "partlyundercompulsion and partly by consent" (partim ui partim uoluntate). I will refer to such structures,the sort of amplificationperfectly familiar to all readers of Cicero and of epideictic pieces generally, as "binaryphrases,"which I will define in furtherdetail below. I have indicated them here in boldface or boldfaced italics where necessary: quibuscum bellum gerimus, iudices, uidetis: cum sociis, qui pro nobis (la) pugnare et imperiumnostrumnobiscum simul (2a) uirtute et (2b) industria (lb) conseruare soliti sunt. ii cum (3a) se et (3b I) opes suas et (3b2) copiam necessario (4a) norunt, tum uero nihilominus propter (5a) propinquitatem et omnium rerum (5b) societatem, quid omnibus rebus populus Romanus posset, (4b) scire et existimare poterant.ii, cum deliberassentnobiscum bellum gerere, quaeso, quae res erat, qua freti bellum suscipereconarentur, cum multo maximam partem sociorum in officio manere intellegerent? cum sibi non (6a) multitudinem militum, non (6b) ido-

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with their neighbors and they thought the outcome of the whole struggle rested on a single battle, they would have come betterprepared and better equipped-say nothing of trying, with such slender forces, to transferto themselves rule over the world, a rule to which all nations, kings, and peoples have assented, partly under compulsion, partly by consent, after being defeated by the Roman people at arms or in generosity. Someone will ask: But didn't the Fregellani make an attempt [at rebellion] of their own free will?6 Then our allies ought to have been that much less willing to make an attempt,since they saw how the Fregellanicame out of it. Inexperienced parties, who are incapable of looking into previous history for parallels to a particularsituation, are very easily led to malfeasance by their lack of foresight: whereas those who know what has happenedto others are easily able to take forethoughtfor their own affairs from the results that others experienced. So they took up arms with no motivation and with no expectation? Who can believe that-that anyone suffered from such stupidity that he would make an attempton the power of the Roman people without any forces at his disposal? There must have been something. What else can it be other than what I've been saying? According to the Author,the first passage is "slack, that is to say, lacking sinews and joints-wavering, so to speak, because it wanders here and there and cannot deliver its point in a confident and manly fashion.... Speech of this kind cannot hold a hearer'sattention;it trails off completely and fails to lay hold of and embrace any idea with finished expressions"(dissolutum,quod est sine neruis et articulis; ut hoc modo appellem 'fluctuans'eo quodfluctuat huc et illuc nec potest confirmate neque uiriliter sese expedire.... non potest huiusmodi sermo tenere adtentumauditorem;diffluitenim totus neque quicquamconprehendens perfectis uerbis amplectitur,4.16). What exactly does the Author mean by that judgment? What is "slack" and "irresolute"about a passage that, had it been preserved among the fragments of Cato, might well
6 Fregellae, founded as a colony in the Liris valley in 328 B.c., revolted against the Romanconfederationin 125 B.C., likely in the wake of the failureof the rogatio Fulvia de civitate sociis danda, and was crushed by the consul L. Opimius (Liv. Per 60, Vel. Pat. 2.6.4). Fregellae is also used as an example to illustrate figures at Rhet. Her 4.22 and 4.37.

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have been considered vigorous and direct? What is "decisive" and "manly"about a passage that, by comparison,looks "padded"?
II. EXORNATIO

The first partof the answer,over which I will not linger, is the obvious one: that, by the early first century B.C.,Roman sensibilities had developed so as to requirespeakers to employ the decorations systematized in Hellenistic rhetoric, so that now only such elaborated speech seemed possessed of itself.7 The whole point of the Rhetorica ad Herennium is to present the "techniques of dignifying speech" and enable the student "to have weight and beauty and attractiveness in [his] speech, enabling [him] to speak as a true orator,and keeping [him] from delivering a bare and undistinguishedidea in ordinarylanguage"
(4.69).8

The passage in the genus mediocre displays many of the techSome Techniques of Exornatio in Rhet. Her 4.13

niques which the Authorsuggests. I summarizesome of them here:

repetitio(4.19): Anaphora non multitudinem militum, non idoneos imperatores, non pecuniam publicam "not a large numberof soldiers, not suitable commanders,not public funds" nulla igiturre inducti, nulla spe freti "influencedby no thing, relying on no hope" subiectio (4.33): The suggestion of a reply to an opponentor to oneself quaeretaliquis: quid? Fregellaninon sua sponte conati sunt? et seq.
7 According to Cicero(Brut.82), the firstRomanto use digressions (egre[ssio]a and commonplaces (compropositoornandicausa), patheticappeals(miserationes), whowasconsulin 144B.C.. munes Galba, loci)wasSer.Sulpicius
8 omnes rationes honestandaestudiose collegimus <e>locutionis: in quibus, Herenni,

et suauitatem si te diligentius et grauitatem et dignitatem haberein dicundo exercueris,

poteris, ut oratorie plane loquaris, ne nuda atque inornata inuentio uulgari sermone

efferatur.

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"Someone will ask: But didn't the Fregellani make an attempt [at rebellion] of their own free will?" ratiocinatio (4.23): Questioningaddressedto oneself quaeso, quae res erat ... "Whatwas it, I ask ..." contrarium(4.25): Argumenta fortiori 9 si cum finitumis ... bellum gererent ... tamen ... instructioreset apparatioresuenirent, nedum illi imperium orbis terrae ... ad se transferre... conarentur. "If they had been waging war with their neighbors ... they would still have arrivedbetterequippedand betterprepared-say nothing of trying to transferto themselves rule over the world." articulus (4.26): A shortclausulalo omnes gentes reges nationes "all nations, kings, [and]peoples" interrogatio(4.22): A question summing up the results of the previous argument quis hoc credet, tantam amentiam quemquam tenuisse, ut imperiumpopuli Romani temptareauderetnullis copiis fretus? "Who can believe that-that anyone suffered from such stupidity that he would make an attempton the power of the Roman people without any forces at his disposal?"
9 One of the Author'sexamples is quos ex collibus deiecimus, cum his in campo metuimus dimicare? "Do we fear to fight on the flat [opponents]whom we've drivendown out of the hills?" (4.25, cf. Cic. de Or 3.207, Quint.9.3.90). "'Articulus renders ic6KgLa (cf. Calboli 335), which refers to a unit smaller than a colon (Demet. Eloc. 9); incisum is anotherrendering(e.g., Cic. Orat. 211, Quint. 9.4.22). The two examples providedby the Rhet. Her. have asyndetic sets (acrimonia unce uoltu <aduersarios> perterruisti; inimicos inuidia iniuriis potentia perfidia sustulisti); the Authorapparentlysaw the effect of an articulus especially well illustratedby such structures.

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sententia (4.24): Moral reflectionI' nam rerumimperiti ... facillime deducunturin fraudem:at ii, qui sciunt ... facile ... suis rationibuspossunt prouidere. "Inexperiencedparties are very easily lead to malfeasance: but those who know ... are easily able to take forethought for their own affairs." The overall tack of the argument,which suggests that collaboration is the only possible cause for the allies' revolt, may be seen as a version of conlatio, a form of argumentin which one argues that "no one else could have accomplished the deed except for one's adversary"(alium neminem potuisse perficere nisi aduersarium, Rhet. Her 2.6; cf. Cic. Inv.2.24). The passage is also rhythmically well structured;the clausulae of the passage are distinctly Ciceronian. There are four examples of the Ciceronian rhythm- u - - u (bellumadministrandum, deducuntur in fraudem, copiis fretus, quod dico potest esse), one example of its resolution - u uu - u (conseruare soliti sunt), and four examples of the common truncation- u - u (iudices uidetis, discessent uidebant, possunt prouidere, arma sustulerunt). In addition there is one resolution into - u - uu u u (existimarepoterant). of the dicretic - u - u_ examples of sentence endings generally These far outnumber the avoided by Cicero (- vu - u in praesto (e)sse uiderent, fuisse necessum (e)st; - - uu u in maner(e) intellegerent); but not only are two such un-Ciceronianendings interrogatory,where rhythmic exigencies may have differed (praesto [e]sse uiderent,maner[e] intellegerent),but two are heroic clausulae, a type commonest in Cicero in his earliest speeches, which are of course closest in date to the Rhet. Her 12The end of the Author's critique of the "bad"middle style passage, which describes it as "failing to lay hold of and embrace any idea with fin" Caplan (above, n. 4) cites parallels to this sentiment at Ter. Haut. 221, Publilius Syrus 60 and 177, Livy 22.39.10, and TacitusAnn. 4.33. For an engaging analysis of the use of sententiae in the Rhet. Her as a declarationof social identity,an analysis to which this article is much indebted,see P. Sinclair,"Sententiain the Rhetoricaad Herennium:A Study in the Sociology of Rhetoric,"AJP 114 (1993) 561-580; on this particularsententia, pp. 574-576. 12Orat. 217 forbids an iamb, tribrach,or dactyl before a final spondee (or trochee), but this strictureis not followed in Cicero's earliest speeches.

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classic form of the complementaryopposition appearsin Cato's prayer for the suouetaurilia in which Mars is asked to fend off morbos uisos inuisosque "diseases seen and unseen" (Agr 141.2). By pairing a concept with its opposite to express a whole (the "merism"),the prayercreates a complementaryexpression for the totality of diseases along an humble posture for postulants, who axis that provides an appropriately of the in the sway god realms beyond their own percepacknowledge sets tion. Complementary may also depend on near synonyms; so again salutem from Cato's prayer ualetudinemque,which the god is asked to and salus are both "health,"but the former in an Valetudo provide. "soundness in body,"and the latter in, as it were, a negorganic sense, or ative sense, "safety" "immunityfrom hurt"(OLD 1). The phrasethus creates a merism for "health"-and binds the god to a broad responsibility. Some of the complementaryexpressions in our middle style passage, both synonymic and contrastive,have precisely the same effect as Cato's phrase: they create the appearanceof completeness by suggestaxis. ing oppositions across a rhetoricallyappropriate not are but identical phrases where conventionPartly overlapping sometimes apparently contrastive or synally juxtaposed elements, in have acquired a single denotation or onymic binary phrases origin, connotation. Individual lexemes may exhibit collocational properties, changing their sense or referencewhen they are connected to other lexemes. A particularlystrong English example is "law and order";while the separate meanings of "law" and "order"are sensible when they appear together, still the pair has a total different from the sum of its parts: it serves as shorthandfor a particularview of the ideal structure of society, especially the duties of citizens and the role of the police, and is partly indicative, at differentpoints in American history, of attitudes towardsthe civil rights movement and the VietnamWar,to name only two examples. The binary phrase is difficult to define more precisely. Synonymy and contrast, the central features of the internal dynamic of the first is rnokko'clK; eCaL`axcT colon" rev iX'; ru.viy)peI; example he gives of a "divided oXUvhave often wondered at those "I oaitroi yuLVtroi);q ayo6vrwov &yvoxvaq mctxoatrldtvrtov

andestablished the athletic who assembled the festivals I); of an (Isoc.Panegyr: games" i vrca EtV i~rE "opposed colon," among others, " EUXeoitVTxaq; KtraXEilVEtV "Will 186).Quintilian's (Isoc. possessduringlife or will leave behindafterdeath"
phrases with internal concontrapositumor antithesis involves juxtaposed clauses, not Panegyr.

trasts or complements 9.3.81). (Inst.Orat.

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type of the phrase, are broad categories with many possible manifestations; furthermore,in the case of the binary phrase the parallelism or contrast may be produced largely by the mechanism of the phrase itself.16The collocational force that attends the second type of phrase may be acquired by many kinds of lexemic pairs. Being difficult to define, the binaryphrase, especially the first type, may also be difficult to detect, in that a given conjunctexpression may admit, but appearnot to require,analysis as a binaryphrase. It is importantto note, then, that one of the best indicatorsof the presence of a binaryphrase (exclusive of the collocational type) is the presence of others (as we will see below in comparingCato to Gracchus):when many expressions admit of analysis as binary phrases-indeed, when paired expressions occur frequently and consistently in a passage or text-that suggests the use of such phrases was an intended decorative device. The "good" middle style passage, on any analysis, is rife with such phrases. IV. PAIRINGS(1): COMPLEMENTARY SETS Several of the complementarysets in our passage resemble the sort of obvious, highly adaptable antitheses common to much ancient rhetoric and characteristicparticularlyof the sophistic and epideictic rhetoricthat are the parentsof the middle style. Indeed, the florid middle style as presented in Cicero's Orator is described as having "made its way to the forum from the fountainheadof the sophists."'7The style of the sophists, of course, is markedby the frequentuse of antithetical structures,on the level both of structureand of the phrase. But in our passage such antithesesare never wholly artless or automatic.One such antithesis is found midway throughthe passage in the expression partim ui partim uoluntate. It is quite true that the Roman subjugationof the Mediterranean rim involved both conquest and capitulation,so that saying foreign peoples consented to Roman rule "partlyundercompulsion and partly by consent" is accurateenough; the contrastis found in other descriptionsof subjugation.'8 The contrastbetween force and free
6 So the pairingof spes "hope"and res "thing,event" etc. in our passage, analyzed in furtherdetail below. 17hoc totume sophistarum fontibus defluxitinforurn, sedslretumna subtilibus(= plain style speakers), repulsuma grauibus (= grand style speakers) in ea de qua loquor me(diocritate consedit (Orat. 96). 18urbis partim ui alias uoluntate imperio suo adiungit (Sal. lug. 3.2), Calents

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will is also an obvious one to make.19But its obvious quality is softened when the contrast is modulated into the immediately following contrastof superati ... aut armis aut liberalitate "defeated... at arms or in generosity,"a pair not found elsewhere and featuring, in liberaliArma et liberalitas, to put tas, a keyword for the Roman social world.20 uis et uoluntas. on is Roman a it anotherway, political gloss in contrast Another such "sophistic" appears nulla igitur re inducti, "So arma sustulerunt? nulla spe freti they took up arms with no motiThe wide range of res is here narwith no and vation expectation?" rowed by inducti "persuaded, convinced, induced,"and probablyrefers, as nulla res usually does, to abstract considerations--"principles," say21-as distinct from some "event"that had taken place; hence my translation"motivation."Where res thus representsthe considerations that might, so to speak, have pushed the allies, its counterpart spes represents what might have pulled them. Again this is an obvious sort of contrast,with re as it were '-py( and spe, X6yp. But where above there was a political gloss, here there is verbal art: res and spes are not really natural complements, much less opposites, but anaphora and rhyme make them so. There is one last such sophistic dualism, or rather,an attemptto use a semantic contrastto create, successfully I think, the appearanceof a
uoluntateipsarumciuitatiumrecepit,nonnullas urbes per Delphos, Thebas, Orchomenum uim expugnauit, reliquas ciuitates circummissis legationibus amicitiae Caesaris conciliare studebat (Caes. BC 3.56). 2.3.37, Fin. 2.65, Liv. 1.3.10, 19The point hardly requiresillustration,but cf. Cic. Ver: Apul. Apol. 79. 20 Liberalitas is the propensityto discharge,or the actual discharge,of resources,often alia financial (cf. Cic. Amic. 51, Nep. Att. 11.3) or the equivalent (auxit hoc offjicium quoque liberalitate: nam uniuersosfrumento donauit, Nep. Art. 2.6), to the benefit of with which liberalanother.Liberalitasthus overlaps partlywith beneficentia/beneficium, itas is paired or equated by Cicero both in theoreticalor metalinguisticformulations(cf. 1.20, 1.42, 1.68 et alias, Amic. 31, Deiot. 26) and in other, non-theoreticalcontexts O.ff 2.3.94, Flac. 85, Marc. 19, Fam. 5.20.4, Att. 9.1 la.3). While liberalitas is practiced, (Ver. and praisedby that name, among partieswhose objective status is equivalent,still liberalitas is styled the act of the superiorparty,being thus numberedamong the kingly virtues in our passage as one of the instrumentsof Roman impe(Deiot. 26)-and so appropriate rialism. See also J. Hellegouarc'h, Le vocabulaire latin des relations et des partis poli(Paris 1963) 217-219. tiques sous la Rdpublique 2.3. I), 21Cf. for examplefaciunt nulla re commotialia nisi utilitate communi(Cic. Ver: Spartamnulla re alia nisi auaritia esse perituram(Cic. 0ff 2.77), nulla alia re nisi honestate duci (Cic. Fin. 5.64).,

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dualism. Whereas the allies' knowledge of their own resources is expressed by nosco "be familiar with," their knowledge of Rome's capacity is expressed by scire et existimare "know and assess."22That brings out a nice distinction between categories of knowledge based on degree of remotenessfrom oneself: one might well be said to be "familiar with" or "recognize"oneself, the nearer (cf. nosce te ipsum), and "know and assess" what belongs to others, the farther.That difference is partly mapped by the constructionsof the verbs of knowing: nearer familiarity is expressed by a perfect, emphasizing acquiredknowledge, and fartherfamiliaritynot by a finite verb but by a modal construction, stressing the potentiality and not the actuality of knowledge. The distinction is furtherreinforcedby assigning to norunt and scire et existimare possunt different kinds of predicates, an accusative and an indirect question, an attested difference when the distinction between "familiarity"versus "knowledge"is stressed.23Still, nosco, especially in the perfect, and scio do share some terrain,and the Author is at pains or "remote"knowlto overbalancescio in the directionof "intellectual" with which scio edge by adding existimare, appears not to be paired elsewhere (TLL 5.1525.20-34). The parallel clause structure(cum ... tum uero), each with its own complementarypairs, gives a frame to this whole effort to bring out a distinction between, so to speak, a strength assessment and an intelligence report. These "sophistic" dualisms, then, are not stock tricks of epideixis out of the box, but intelligent adaptationsof a structuralpatternby way
of phonetic figures (re ... spe), forced, but suggestive, contrast (norunt vs. scire et existimare), or cultural interpretation (uis et uoluntas -

arma et liberalitas). Whateverobvious quality they might still have is furtheroffset by the complementarypairs that depend on Roman uoces propriae. Here the form of the binary phrase gives the speaker an opportunity to display his knowledge of the Roman cultural world. Such a set appearsin the phraseinstructioresand apparatiores,the condition in which the allies would have come to battle had they not been counting on outside help. This expression is not simply a way of saying "really, really prepared." Instructus and apparatus denoted distinct
22Et is omitted of thetradition;forthe manuscriptfamilies cf. Friedrich in one branch Marx,Incertiauctoris de ratione dicendi ad C. Herenniumlibri IV (Stuttgart1923). noui. Lib. At nosce sane. I Merc. Sit, non sit, non edepol scio (PI. As. 464-465), noui

23egopol Sauream nonnouinequequafacie sit scio (PI.As. 353), Merc.Sauream non

sis amicisiucundus scio quam humanitatem (Cic.Att.16.16f.I). tuam,

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kinds of military preparedness. Instruere in military contexts most commonly means to "draw up" troops into battle order (TLL 7.1.2016.44 ff.), but in our passage must mean "fit out" with equipment, a meaning occasionally found, as in Livy's equitatum quoque nouis instruxitarmis "He also equippedthe cavalry with new weapons" (Liv. frag. 21).24Apparare,literally "make ready [with a view to some purpose],"means "provide"with the requisite furnishings; most commonly applied by Cicero to "furnishing"public rituals and private displays (TLL2.269.60-270.14), in its rareappearancesin militaryconahead of texts it may mean "collect supplies" or "make preparations"
time (TLL 2.270.14-45).25 Paired one with the other, instructus and

apparatiores is apparatus thus suggest a completeness of preparation: like the gatheringof materiel, and forced to refer to prior preparations, the actual fitting out of soldiers. instructioresto immediatepreparation, This effect is achieved precisely by the choice of the rarercompounded form apparare as a substitutefor the less precise parare.26 Here is not here is the speech of someone merely a merism for "preparedness": who knows how they talk in the principia.
Comparable to the pair instructiores et apparatiores in its effects is the phrase propter propinquitatem et omnium rerum societateni "on

account of their closeness [to us] and association [with usj in all matters," the sources of information that ought to have given the allies
24 Cf. also magnoquenumeropdilorum tragularumreliquorumque telorumse instruxerant "They had equipped themselves with a great number of javelins, spears, and other missiles" (Caes. BC 1.57.2); TLL2.1.2019.45. urbis reliqua apparare 'oepe25 E.g., Massilienses tamennihilo setius ad delfensionem runt "Neverthelessthe Massilienses began to ready the remainingmaterialfor the (defense hieme aplparatit. i/neof the city" (Caes. BC 2.7.4), Cn. Pomtpeius [sc. bellum! extremoa unte uere suscepit, media aestate confecit "Cn. Pompeius readied for war at the end of winter, undertookthe war at the beginningof spring,and finished the war in the middle of summer"(Cic. Leg. Man. 35), cf. Cic. Phil. 5.30, Luc. 3. 26 Apparareand instruereare joined only once elsewhere in Republicanprose, at Cic. Inv. 1.58: domus ea, quae ratione regitur,omnibus est instructior rebuts et apparattior quam ea, quae temere et nullo consilio administratur,where the non-militarycontext may partly neutralizethe difference between instruereand apparare, both of which are used synonymically for furnishinghouseholds, games, spectacles, etc. In militaryor agonistic contexts the usual partnerof instruereis the vaguer simplex parare: so governing me (Cic. Ver. 1.1.7), omnia [= res militares] (Sull. 53, with ornare), se (Phil. 3.1), forti7.59.5), Nuomitudo (Tusc. 4.52, with armata), nauis (Fam. 12.15.2), exercitus (Caes. BG(; dae (Sall. Jug. 74.3). This pair, in turn, i.e., instruere and parare, is only once found furnishing,Cic. Ver2.4.62 (of a conoiuiuiun). applied to "household/spectacle"

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knowledge of Roman strength.Propinquitasrefers to physical proximity, whereas omniumrerumsocietas refers to, as it were, social proximity (and not primarilyto "the condition of being a federal ally").27The allies were close enough, from any point of view. The contrastbetween physical and social proximity is doubtless the guiding idea of the phrase. But it is just possible that there is anotherset of resonances. In
vitro, as it were, propinquitas and societas would most probably sug-

gest first not physical as against social proximity, but two kinds of social proximity. Propinquitas typically described the kind of social As such proximity produced by affinitas "relationshipby marriage."28 propinquitas was readily constrastedto societas "relationshipby contract,"as in a passage of Cicero's pro Quinctio, a complicated case in which the litigants share both business and family ties: Etenim si ueritateamicitia, fide societas, pietate propinquitascolitur, necesse est iste qui amicum, socium, adfinem fama ac fortunis spoliare conatus est uanumse et perfidiosumet impium esse fateatur. (Quinct. 26) For if friendship (amicitia) is maintained by truthfulness (ueritas),

association (societas) by trustworthiness(fides), and familial relationship (propinquitas)by respect (pietas), it follows that someone
who has attempted to despoil a friend (amicus), associate (socius),

and in-law (adfinis) of his fame and fortune is admitting that he is and disrespectful. untruthful, untrustworthy, Pietas, the respect famously owed by Roman children to their parents, andfides, the sacrosancttrustworthiness expected of witnesses and contracting parties, correspond to propinquitas and societas respectively, and in turn to the morality of the relationships: fides is owed to parties with whom one voluntarily associates, and pietas to parties to whom
27The latter sensedoes not occurwitha modifying as here.Forexamples of genitive, earumrerum cf. societatem the sense "association [in]"with genitives, quae in (;allia et iuriset multarum rerum societate(Vel: (Cic. Quinct.12), et sermonis comparabantur 2.5.167);cf. the sense of socius at Red.Sen. 25, Fam. 1.9.22,Liv.4.24.2, Tac. Germ. is rare in anycase,so thatits as "alliance 36.3,Tac.Hist. 1.65. Societas states]" [between anadnominatio Her 4.29). or pun(Rhet. use here,fairlysoonafter socii, mayconstitute 28Propinquitas as "kin" as in is sometimes fromaffinitas vs. "in-laws," distinguished OLD coniuncti (Caes.BG 2.4.4),cf. TLL10.2.2013.51, qffinitatibusque propinquitatibus 3b. s.v.propinquitas

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one is involuntarily bound.29If the joint presence of societas and propinquitascaused the Roman map of the social world to flicker in the hearer's mind, then the pair propinquitasand societas may have suggested, behind the contrast between location and actual intercourse, also a contrast between involuntary and voluntary associations, the latter contrasta kind of metaphoricaltransferfrom two uoces propriae for describing relationships between individuals. And that transfer, in conturn, suggests the difference between the, as it were, "necessary," tractual federal relationships and other forms of intercourse that the allies and Rome may have enjoyed. On this analysis a speaker who knows what these uoces propriae mean is here showing he also knows how to export them suggestively. At any rate the effect of the phrase is to exhaust the idea of proximity and leave the allies no excuse for ignorance. V. PAIRINGS(2): COLLOCATIONAL SETS Several of the other binary phrases in our passage have the appearance of complementary sets. Virtus"courage, manliness; virtue" and industria"hardwork, application"are the qualities with which, according to the speaker,allies are expected to help preserveRoman rule, and are, I suppose, qualities reasonablyexpected of allies in the conduct of their federal duties. The phrase might be parsed as pairing the "pure" versus the "applied"aspects of character,to name but a single possibility. Opes et copia might be parsed as meaning "financialresources"vs. If in the tripletgentes reges nationes one "availablemilitarystrength.'"30 et which is attestedelsewhere, as a properpair see nationes, gentes may = "the progeny of a common a then noun for "race" split by reges, founder" is paired with a noun for "race" = "the inhabitants of a common place."'3In any case gentes reges nationes gives the effect of
29 Thiscontrast is brought out in the the

of law,wherethe stockphrases arc language

(Gai. Inst. 1.4.1, 1.7.1.,2.8.3, cf. 2.3.6 propinquitateconiunctus "joinedby propinquitas" and maximis uinclis et propinquitatis et adfinitatis coniunctus, Cic. Planc. 27; quasi propinquitateconiunctos atque natura,Cic. Amic. 50), but societatem coire "entera societas [jointly]" (Gai. Inst. 3.148, 149, cf. Cic. Quinct. 76, S. Rosc. 21, 87, Q. Rose. 55,

etc.). cf. TLL lar= "troop, 4.905.18-42. force," military cf. natiosolumpatriam gens seriemmaiorum quaerit, explicat 31Forthis distinction,
30Exercituset militumcopia dicitur, Paul. Fest. p. 81; for other examples of the singu-

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completeness, enumeratingevery principality,throne, and domination that had bent a knee to Rome. But such analyses would be, according to the instance, wholly or partly misleading; all of these pairs have collocational properties, apparentonly from the contexts in which the pairs appear.The pair uirtus et industria has considerably more point than may appear at first sight. In Cicero its application is in fact quite specific: the pair, often alone, sometimes with other nouns, functions almost as a kind of political slogan, encapsulatingthe qualities used by the ambitious-which is to say, the less well-established-to scale the social ladder. In three examples Cicero applies it to the enterpriseof noui homines or "new men,"the first membersof a family to win a curule office or consulship; for example: uidemus quanta sit in inuidia quantoque in odio apud quosdam nobilis homines nouorum hominum uirtus et industria. (Ver. 2.5.181) We see how much envy and hatred on the part of certain nobles falls upon the virtue (uirtus) and hard work (industria) of new men. In a comparablepassage Cicero rebukesthe nobles' affection for Verres by noting in him the lack of qualities that by implicationbelong to new men:

of ancestors," De Difwhereas "natiorefersonly to homeland, gens looksto a sequence 2.5. Hence clan,whereas natio gensis usedfora Roman p. 527, andTac.Germ. ferentiis, or a shared socialenvironment is used for a groupwith shared (natiocanexperiences raisesthequesCic. Mur. didatorum, 69, cf. OLD3). TheAuthor's gentesregesnationes thosewithcollocational The tion of wordorderin binary phrases, especially properties. order thatis occasionally inverted: so ususeemsto be thatthereis a standard principle at Cic. Rep. I, industriae butad industriam uirltuuirtutemque ally uirtuset industria, treated further below) oratory tiqueat Sest. 137;likewise(to taketwo pairsfromearlier andusually butthereverse at Cic.Div.2.97,Att. 15.12.2, et ingenium animus usually uiris an exactreflecat Gracchus ORF48.44.Thisinversion butthe reverse tus et sapientia in which of Latinwordorderin the sentence, level of the principles tion on the phrasal forreasons of discourse or art. thatallowoccasional inversions therearestandard patterns of the be treated as an inversion Thusthe Author's gentesregesnationesmayperhaps which Thedistinction fromEnglish collocational common phrases, regesgentesnationes. is notable. havea fixedwordorder,

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odistis hominum nouorum industriam, despicitis eorum frugalitatem, pudorem contemnitis, ingenium uero et uirtutemdepressam
exstinctamque cupitis: Verrem amatis! ita credo: si non uirtute,

non industria, non innocentia, non pudore, non pudicitia, at sermone, at litteris, at humanitateeius delectamini. (Ver 2.3.8) You despise the hard work (industria) of the new men; you look down on their frugality,you scorn their modesty; their talent and their virtue (uirtus) you wish to see repressed and exstinguished: instead you love Verres!I'm sure I know your reasons: his speech, education, and culture provide you such pleasure-though not his virtue (uirtus), hard work (industria), blamelessness, modesty, or propriety! The use of the phrase is not confined to the Verrines,where Cicero affects the ethos of a righteous outsider. The older and rather better establishedCicero of the pro MurenareprovesServius Sulpicius Rufus, who had impugned Murena's origins; while Sulpicius' family was of noble stock, that was in the remote past and the family had been undistinguishedof late:32 qua re ego te semper in nostrum numerumadgregaresoleo, quod uirtute industriaque perfecisti ut, cum equitis Romani esses filius, summa tamen amplitudinedignus putarere.(Mur 16) Therefore I usually think of you as one of us (noster numerus = noui homines); for, even though you are the son of a Roman knight, by your uirtusand industriayou have caused yourself to be worthyof the highest distinction(amplitudo). While uirtus et industria seems to be especially associated with the efforts of noui homines,33it could also refer to the honorable social exertions of other sorts of, as it were, non-top-tierRomans,34usually
32Of theeventswhichoccasioned wastheascension theepithet nouushomo,therarest froma non-senatorial andCicerohasthatsensein of someone to the consulship family, buthis father was of equestrian rank mindhere:Sulpicius (RE95) was consulin 51 B.C., 16). (Mur. cf. theappendix. examples, 33Forother 34Thus Ver. ... summauirtutehorninem, 2.3.60, of a Romanknight(C. Matrinium a manof the highestvirtue,the highest summa summa industria, gratia"C. Matrinius, to the contribuandFont.42, in a contextreferring andthe highestinfluence") industry,

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with the implication that their social rewards were come by rightlythe very nuance that made the phrase perfect to express the aspirations of the new men. Inasmuch as the conjunction of uirtus and industria implied exertion and rightful deserts, it was paradoxically the perfect for phrase to apply to the blueblood Ap. Claudius on his acquittals:35 uirtus et industria suggest an accomplishmentowed to one's own rightness ratherthan an exoneration abetted by one's high birth-or other less savory influences. The phrase opes et copia, which describes the resources a party collocational should assess before making war, may also have particular is a freet "means and resources" The similar opes copiae properties. the disto the assets at most in commonly quent phrase Cicero, applied in the of citizens conduct both of private posal powerful individuals, civic life (Flac. 14, Clu. 18, de Or 2.342, Part. Or 86) and regents providing war materiel (so Mur 33, Phil. 11.31); the phrase is also applied to rich regions (Ver 2.4.46, of Sicily) and military resources (Balb. 39, Fam. 12.7.2). But there is a curious difference between opes et copiae and opes alone. Opes et copiae is virtuallyalways used of successful or prospectively successful deployments of resources. If the Rullan bill is passed, Cicero warnsthe people that they "will see all of the ager Canmpanus passing into the hands of those awash in means and resources" (deinde ad paucos opibus et copiis adfluentis totumagrum Campanum perferri uidebitis, Leg. Agr 2.82). Cato's old age will be easier for him because of "the resources at [his] disposal and [his] good reputation"
in military affairs andgoodfortune whosevirtue, sit "men industry, felicitasin re militari is worth a nobilis,buta plebeian, Planc.9, of M. luventius is recognized"). Laterensis, in rempublicam, tu animum tu uirtutem.tu tu industriam, tu continentiam, comparing: et repudiatos putas?"Surely you don'tthinkthatbecauseyou were not electedaedile andefforts the state,virtue,blamelessness, towards hardwork,attitude yourdiscipline, to Heremayalsobe grouped anddiscarded?" havebeenshattered Fam.5.17.4,addressed the to his son:thepairdescribes et industria thenin exile, whichapplies uirtus P.Sittius, thatmakes fathers work" "hard proud. 35Fam.3.11.2,for maiestas, in June,50 B.C.; Fam.3.12.1,forambitus in August,50 to a thereCicerosuggestsan addendum Phil. 13.50maybe a comparable B.C.. passage: is represented in whichPompey to the senateto Sex. Pompey addressed letterof thanks butalsopropatris actednotonly [pro]suapristina as having uoluntate industria uirtute so paired and industria in rempublicam. suorum Virtus animostudioque maiorumque his realcontributions, to Pompey for the senate's gratitude amongthe reasons highlight besidehispolitical pedigree.
innocentiam, tufidem, tu labores tuos, quod aedilis non sis factus, fractos esse et abiectos

tion of municipal men to the Roman state (homines quorum cognita uirtus, indlustria,

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(propteropes et copias et dignitatemtuam, Sen. 8). Beside summa uirtus, great opes et copiae are necessary to defend the seriatefrom brigandage (nec curiam sine summa uirtuteac maximis opibus et copiis ab intestino latrocinioposse defendi, Red. Sen. 19). Opes may also be used to describe prospectively successful resources, but when the resources fail or when an attemptis unsuccessful, opes alone is preferredby far, as in the evidently idiomatic expression opes frangere "shatter the resources of, defeat," of military and political losses, which never appearsin the form opes et copiasfrangere.36 In short, the difference between opes and opes et copiae may be described in terms of collocational properties,with the latterconnoting or tending to connote resources that are actually or prospectively sucwithout regardto cessful, and the former denoting merely "resources," their effective or potentially effective deployment. There is a roughly comparable nuance to be found in the difference between English "wealth" as against "assets": "He is a man of considerable wealth" connotes stability, substance, and security, whereas "he is a man of considerable assets," even if there is reference to exactly the same dollar value, instead suggests motion, trading, and deployment. In short "assets" connotes motion and "wealth" stasis.37The distinction between opes et copiae as against opes is broadlysimilar.It may be that this distinction is not inherentto the pair, but an epiphenomenonof the effect of doubling: the doubling of words meaning "resources"might be expected, other things being equal, to sound better in positive conin negativecontexts. texts and inappropriate It is possible thatone last amplificationalso has certaincollocational properties.The allies ought to have known better than to revolt against
36 Scipionis prouidentia Kartaginis opes fregit (Rhet. Her 4.43), conliunctione .fangi senatus opes, diiunctione ciuile bellum excitari uidebam (Cic. Fam. 6.6.4), eadem enim causa opes meas fregit (Cic. Fam. 6.13.4), frangi Lacedaemoniorumopes (Cic. Off: 3.49). Compare also Lacedaemoniorumopes corruerunt (Cic. Off 1.84), accusatorum opibus et populus uniuersus et ... iudices restiterunt(Cic. Mur. 59), aedilitatem petiuit cum bonis uiris et hominibusprimis sed non praestantissimis opibus et gratia: tribum

suam non tulit ...

(Cic. Sest. 114), hanc ...

legem ad illius opes euertendas tainquamln

comparari (Cic. Leg.Agr.2.50). mnachinam the older 37These nuances closely reflectthe respectiveorigins of the words: "Wealth," word in English, is from Middle English welth "well-being, happiness,"a quality proper to its possessor, whereas assets is an Anglicized form of the Old French asez (Latin ad satis) and meant "enough (to pay debts)," signifying alienation of property, and thus motion away from a possessor.

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a people to whom were subject omnes gentes reges nationes "all races, kings, and nations." Cicero commonly combines gentes and nationes, whether really referring to foreign nations, for example in respect to their religious practices (e.g., Ver.2.4.108, 2.5.188), or affecting an expression for "the whole world"(e.g., Leg. Man. 35, Q.fr 1.1.9).38In such expressions rex and reges are never found. Their addition to the combination changes the flavor of the phrase notably-and in an entirely predictableway, given the value of rex and regnumin Roman social ideology. The triplet reges gentes nationes in Cicero is always used to refer to foreigners in their capacity as enemies of the Roman state: nam externa bella regum, gentium, nationum iam pridem ita exstincta sunt ut praeclarecum iis agamus quos pacatos esse patiamur.(Sest. 51) For foreign wars with kings, races, and nations have been squelched for so long now that we have entirely respectable dealings with partieswe now permitto be at peace. nullum externumpericulumest, non rex, non gens ulla, non natio pertimescendaest. (Leg. Agr 1.26) There is no foreign danger;there is no king, no race, no nation to fear. The potentialenergy of the mass of gentes and nationes, as it were, was converted by rex into hostile potential energy, in ratherthe same way as, duringthe Cold War,"EasternEurope"could have many valencesthe lovelinesses of Krak6wor Prague, say, or the homelandof millions of U.S. immigrants-but "Eastern bloc" (thanks in part to the homophonous "block") connoted soulless Stalinist architecture,droning propaganda,the Soviet Empire's grim vanguard, and bad shoes. Here, too, the collocational properties may be an epiphenomenon of other semantic forces; in this case rex or reges summons up not only distinct "outsiders," signifying heads of governmentfound only on the
38 For other examples cf. omnium sacrorum quae apud omnis gentis natioliesqite J.itnt

"of all the sacred rites that occur throughoutthe world" (Cic.

omnes gentes ac nationes premnebantur "a war which distressed the whole world" (Cic.

2.4.109), uo Ibe//llo ,Ver

Leg. Man. 35), Ver 2.4.108, 2.5.76, 2.5.188, Font. 35, Leg. Man. 31, 56, Dor. 89, Har: Resp. 19, Prov. Cons. 23, ND 3.93, Qif 1.53, Q.fr 1.1.9.

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speaker--on the map of the Roman social and political world.43He does not cause the accepted idea of Rome's power to flicker in his hearers' minds by the loaded phrasegentes reges nationes, which ought to have given the allies pause; he apparentlysimply assumes nobiscum will connote a powerful Rome. He does not assign the allies to their place in the social hierarchywith the near-sloganuirtus et industria;he simply says socii, without specifying what that should imply. The
"slack" speaker's one attempt at a binary phrase is malos et audaces

"evil and daring." While malitia and audacia are occasionally associated, the phrase malus et audax, save for a single instance in Sisenna, seems to be a comic phrase.44 Here, I hazard,it is meantto sound out of or out of awkward stab in the direction of a cardinal date place-an virtueof the good passage. The speakerof the genus mediocrepassage knows more than how to use established binary (or ternary)phrases. He also knows how to create the solid feel of an established phrase by pairing appropriatelexemes, simultaneously exhausting and nuancing a given concept, and
concomitantly advertising his own knowledge. Apparatiores et instruc-

tiores, for example, referringto two types of preparation,makes the audience think about the tasks the allies ought to have thought about and subtly suggests, or so at any rate it seems to me, a speaker who
knows military jargon. Propinquitas et omnium rerum societas can be read as virtually a paronomasia, not only with societas played against

socii, but the whole complex in its literal sense played against its value in the Roman social world. The quasi-pun thus reveals a speaker who knows not only what the terms mean but also how to make good metaphorical use of them-an effect that was perhaps especially acceptable in a style informedby epideixis, where self-conscious verbal play was welcome. Last, the speaker of the genus mediocre passage knows how to adapt the hackneyeddualisms of sophistic presentations to illuminate his subject, and that advertises, what, indeed, is already clear from the numerousforms of exornatio which the passage features, his rhetoricaleducation, but equally his grasp of the subject matterto
43 1 herederive fromrhythm andfromthebinary theverypointSinclair phrase (above., n. I I) derives fromtheuseof sententiae.
44 ego illos malos et audaces semper enixim contra fortunas atque honores huius ordi-

nis omnia fecisse ac dixisse sentio (Sisen. fr. 110); fuisse et audacern et malum (PI. Bacch. 949), multumet audax et mala es (PI. Men. 731), hominemaudacem et malum(PI. Most. 1078); cf. os habet, linguam,perfidiam,malitiamatque audaciam (PI. Mil. 189).

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which he applies the dualisms: the contrast between uis and uoluntas, for example, trite as it may be, brings out something real about the Roman experience of expansion and provides a frame for the more Roman armis and liberalitate;the pairing of norunt and scire et existimare brings out a real difference in categories of knowledge. It is to be stressed that the speaker's touch here is sure: such distinctions could easily have been used to empty effect in a more Gorgianic fashion, for example in a phrase like suas copias existimasse, suas res perlustrasse "to have assessed their own resources,to have surveyedtheir own material." By contrast a triplet like non multitudinemmilitum, non idoneos imperatores,non pecuniam publicam 'a large numberof soldiers, suitable commanders,public funds" isolates, in a brushstroke-an alliterative brushstroke-three importantkinds of resources that experienced senators must really have taken into account when considering whether to go to war. VII. TOWARDSA HISTORYOF THE BINARY PHRASE AND THE MIDDLE STYLE IN LATIN So far my analysis has examined the function of the binaryphrase in the "good" middle style passage mostly from the point of view of content: what kinds of informationit could convey and what that information, so conveyed, implied about the speaker. It is also possible to analyze the binary phrase as a purely formal feature. Independentof content, the use of particularformal features in and of itself, or their avoidance and the preferencefor other features,can alter or even create aspects of a text's meaning and the speaker's ethos. In fact I have already suggested how the features of exornatio and the metrical clausulae, signally lacking in the "bad"middle style passage, advertise the rhetoricaleducation of the speaker.Although the natureof the evidence requires at points a more speculative treatment,it is worth considering the ethical effects of the binary phrase itself-as well as the effects of certain morphological formations and phrases found in the "bad"middle style passage, which provide an illustrativecounterpoint. Whereas my examinationof content was mostly syntagmatic, these formal features are best considered diachronically.The binary phrases with which the "good" middle style passage is decoratedseem to have been, at the time our passage was composed, a rhetoricalfigure of rela-

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tively recent popularityin Latin--despite the fact that they have a very old pedigree on Italian soil. Some of the most striking examples, wonderfully preserved amid straighttalk about cash farming, are found in Cato's de Agricultura in a prayer to accompany the lustration of the suouetaurilia, the "triple sacrifice" of a pig, a sheep, and a bull (141.2-4).45 Thence comes the "sophistic" dualism we have already
seen, morbos uisos inuisosque "diseases seen and unseen." Pastores

pecuaque "shepherdsand flocks" pairs human with non-human. The prayer,like the "good" middle style passage, also features several pairings of near-or partialsynonyms to produce the effect of completeness. Salutem ualetudinemquewe have alreadyseen. Mars is asked to permit
crops grandire beneque euenire "to grow and reach good end," a

("get bigger")and developphrase which pairs development-as-process ment-into-result("come out well").46 Even the triplet non multitudineni
militum, non idoneos imperatores, non pecuniam publicam, which enu-

merates the essential elements of military planning, has congeners in Cato's prayer:the god is to act, says the orant, mihi domo familiaeque nostrae "for me, the house, and our household" and the lustration is
performed fundi terrae agrique mei lustrandi "in order to purify my

estate and land and field." These triple phrasesenumerate,respectively, the structureof the Roman household (paterfamilias, blood kin, and slaves) and three ways of seeing a plot of land (perhaps land-as-estate, a legal description;land-as-element,a geological description;and landas-cultivatedfield, a culturalor functionaldescription).47
45 For a detailed analysis of the verbalplay of this prayer,which undoubtedlypreserves a verbal tradition well antedating Cato, see Calvert Watkins, How to Kill a Dragon: Poetics (New York 1995) 197-213. Aspects of Indo-European 46 In the structureof the prayer,which is organized "vertically"as well as "horizontally," these verbs appear to have different subjects, respectively fruges frumrenta = "grain"and uineta uirgulta = "vineyards"(cf. Watkins [above, n. 45] 205); but that, of course, does not diminish the effectiveness of the figureas a horizontalorganizingdevice. of the triplet is based on the range of the three nouns in Cato's de 47 This interpretation Agricultura,where terra means simply "soil, dirt, the ground"(cf. OLD 4a for the sense "land as source of vegetation"), fundus the "estate,"and ager "soil as the focus of agricultural activity."The triplet can be parsedin other ways: for example, according to Florentinus (Dig. 50.16.211 .pr) in rural usage fundus refers to the whole of an agricultural propertywith its buildings, whereas the land itself is called ager; in that case ager would refer to cultivated and terra to uncultivatedland, with taking in the whole rural .undus complex. In the Twelve Tablesfundus applies to land without buildings, but laterthey are included; cf. RE s.v. According to the TLL6.1.1576.75-1577.6 Cato's is the only .undus. findus is used parallelto ager. passage where

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But for all its antiquity the device of the binary phrase does not appearin the fragments of archaicoratory.There are a very few examples from Cato's speeches, and these, it seems to me-and here I admit that I appeal partly to sensibility ratherthan analysis-have more to do with emphasis than with providing the neat little "package"typical of the binaryphrases we have so far examined. In the lengthy fragmentsof Cato's pro Rhodiensibus, the only possible examples are in the first sentence: scio solere plerisque hominibusrebus secundis atque prolixis atque prosperis animum excellere atque superbiam atque ferociam augescere atque crescere. (ORF 8.163, a. 167) I know that when things are lucky and abundantand fair men's spirits usually soar and their haughtiness and pride grows and swells. Superbiamatqueferociam is the best candidatein this sentence, if Cato meant superb- to signify the inner attitudeandferoc- its outer expression.48 Augescere atque crescere may mirrorthe pairing of superbiamn atque ferociam, if augescere refers to augmentationconceived of as created from without and crescere to augmentation conceived of as being generatedfrom within.49By my lights there are only three other possible examples in the fragments of Cato's oratory-indeed, in any fragmentof oratoryup to 123 B.C.:
41 Cf. Liv. 25.18.2, inde ingens ferocia superbae suopte ingenio genti creuit inultisque proeliis lacessebant Romanos, whereferocia is the external expression that leads to batties and superba describes the inner [suopte ingenio] disposition of the Campanians.The pair is used in a few places (PI. Amph. 213, Plin. Pan. 14.1, Tac. Hist. 4.19, Rut. Alex. Mag. 7.11.23). 49 So the distinction of Ludwig Ramshorn, Dictionary of Latin Synonvnmes (Boston 1839), s.v. augeo. In support of the distinction it may be noted that augesco of res corI ff.), poreae et naturales is typically accompanied by a source or agent (TLL 2. 1358.30 whereas the same is not true of cresco (TLL4. 1176.63 ff.). Furtherdetails are too complicated to rehearsehere. The dynamic of secundis atque prolixis atque pro.peris is difficult to assess: it is structuredthe same way as formidulosius atque segnius atque timniditus below, with partialsynonyms framinga word of differentsemantic range. In the Author's of attestation is the structured which nationes, gentes similarly, independent gentes reges et nationes and reges gentes nationes makes analysis easier; Cato's triplets are not attestedelsewhere, nor are the putativebinaryphrasesfirmidulosus et timidusand sectundus et prolixus they may contain.

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egoque iam pridem cognoui atque intellexi atque arbitrorrem publicam curare industrie summum periculum esse. (ORF 8.21, Dierum dictarumde consulatusuo, a. 191 ex. vel 190) And for some time now I have recognized and understood and believe that managing the public business energetically is very hazardous. censores qui posthac fiunt, formidulosius atque segnius atque timidius pro re publica nitentur.(ORF 8.50, Dierum dictarum de consulatu suo, a. 191 ex. vel 190) Censors who come hereafterwill toil for the republic more fearfully and more sluggishly and more timidly. cumque Hannibal terram Italiam laceraret atque uexaret (ORF 8.187, de Achaeis, a. 151) And since Hannibalwas manglingand harryingthe land of Italy Of these only laceraret atque uexaretseems to me to have the dynamic of a binaryphrase as we have seen them so far, if the idea is to capture two kinds of wounding,one involving rendingand the other blows.50 The attestationof early Roman oratory,preserved mostly in scraps, makes certain conclusions difficult;still, the fragmentsof pro Rhodiensibus are extensive, and if the binaryphrase was not altogetherforbidden to earlier oratory,at least it can be certainly said that Cato did not feel it appropriateas a stylistic device in that speech or in the few others of which we possess at least a paragraph. By the later first century, tastes were apparentlydifferent. A lengthy passage of Gaius Gracchus has several phrases which seem to exhibit the dynamic of the binary phraseas we saw it in the "good"middle style passage. That perception is encouragedby a parallelisticclausal structure-the macro-version,if you like, of the dynamic of a binaryphrase:
anduexare are disturb' 'beat,buffet, disturb' 'rend, harry; ravage; mangle; -5 Lacerare on bodiesandin transferred bothforthedamage afflicted elsewhere, occasionally paired
applications,e.g., Cic. Phil. 11.8, Tusc. 3.35, Liv. 2.56.8, 30.39.3. Cognoui atque intellexi

atque arbitrormightalso work as a triplet,if the idea is knowledge-as-recognition, is meant thephrase butperhaps andknowledge-as-observation; knowledge-as-perception, > considered > understanding a process to describe opinion). (recognition

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nam uos, Quirites, si uelitis sapientia atque uirtute uti, etsi quaeritis, neminem nostrum inuenietis sine pretio huc prodire. omnes nos, qui uerba facimus, aliquid petimus, neque ullius rei causa quisquam ad uos prodit, nisi ut aliquid auferat.ego ipse, qui aput uos uerbafacio, ut uectigalia uestraaugeatis, quo facilius uestra commoda et rem publicam administrarepossitis, non gratis prodeo; uerum peto a uobis non pecuniam, sed bonam existimationem atque honorem. qui prodeunt dissuasuri ne hanc legem accipiatis, petunt non honorem a uobis, uerum a Nicomede pecuniam; qui suadent ut accipiatis, hi quoque petunt non a uobis bonam existimationem, uerum a Mithridate rei familiari suae pretium et praemium; qui autem ex eodem loco atque ordine tacent, hi uel acerrimi sunt; nam ab omnibus pretium accipiunt et omnis fallunt. uos, cum putatis eos ab his rebus remotos esse, inpertitis bonam existimationem;legationes autem a regibus, cum putant eos sua causa reticere, sumptus atque pecunias maximas praebent,item uti in terraGraecia,quo in temporeGraecus tragoedus gloriae sibi ducebattalentummagnumob unam fabulamdatum esse, homo eloquentissimusciuitatis suae Demades ei respondisse dicitur:"mirumtibi uidetur,si tu loquendo talentumquaesisti?ego, ut tacerem, decem talenta a rege accepi." item nunc isti pretia maxima ob tacendum accipiunt. (ORF 48.44, Dissuasio Legis
Aufeiae, a. 123)

For if you are willing to investigate the matter with intelligence and moral sensibility, Quirites, you will not find, look though you may, that any one of us comes forwardup here without a reward. All of us speakersare looking for something; no one comes before you for any reason without wanting to take something away for himself. I myself, in speaking before you to encourage an extension of your uectigalia, in orderthatyou may betterlook after your own convenience and the public treasury,do not come forwardfor free; I am looking to secure from you, not money, but reputation and honor. Those who come forwardto discourage you from voting for this law are not looking for honor from you, but money from Nicomedes; those who encourage you to vote for the law are also looking, not for good reputationfrom you, but for a reward and a price from Mithridatesto be added to their own property.But the silent membersof the same rank and station are altogetherthe worst: they take money from everyone and deceive everyone. In

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thinking them above such behavior, you attributeto them a good reputation;but the kings' deputations,who think their silence is a favor to them, are offering them considerablegifts and monies. To recall an incident that happened in Greece: a tragic actor thought himself honored to have received an Attic talent for a single play. It is said that Demades, the most eloquent man in the city, replied to him: "Do you think making a talent for talking is impressive? The king has given me ten talents for not talking." These men likewise receive great rewardsfor their silence. Many of these pairs can be analyzed in exactly the same fashion as those in the "good" middle style passage. The dynamic of the "sophistic" dualism uestra commoda et rem publicam is obvious. Sapientia and

uirtus here may be the first appearanceof the pair with a collocational
force applying to intelligence.5' As instructiores et apparatiores is a

that also shows familiaritywith military kind of merism for "prepared" technical language, so honor et existimatio is an expression for "public standing"comfortably deploying the correct members of the language
of social assessment.52 Similar is the pair sumptus et pecunias: the
51 Virtus et sapientia as a pair occasionally retain the force their individual native semantics would suggest, the "brains"of civic life and the "brawn"of military activity, e.g., Hor.Serm. 2.1.72. Probablythis is the idea behind the appearanceof the pair in connection to the rise of Rome (Cic. Ver 2.5.50, Sal. Cat. 51.42). But by the late Republic uirtus et sapientia seems to have acquiredan additional,collocational meaning signifying in which intelligence, foresight, and/or exemplary moral something like "statesmanship," behaviorplay the primarypartand militaryaccomplishmentneed not figure at all; so, for example, of the statesmanlike creation of a legal code (ea enim uirtute et sapientia maiores nostri fuerunt, ut in legibus scribendis nihil sibi aliud nisi saluten atque utilitatem rei publicae proponerent,Cic. Inv. 1.68). Cf. also Cic. Tusc. 1.100, Off. 2.17, de Or: 3.65. Gracchus' use, then, appearsto be the first instance of this collocational force, signifying "moral intelligence." On the word order of the phrase in Gracchus, ef. above, n. 31. 52Existimatio is a broad term ("11n'a ... jamais la valeur relativement pr6cise des mots techniques ou quasi-techniquesde ce vocabulaireet ne cesse pas d'appartenirau domaine le plus g6n6ral,"Hellegouarc'h [above, n. 20], 363), whereas honos has specific associations of fides and officium (ibid. 383-384) and refers not to social preeminence only. The terms are precisely those which involve assessment by others (cf. Gracchus' peto a uobis) and are neither inheritablenor associated specifically with the senatorial elite (unlike, say, gloria or dignitas: cf. Hellegouarc'hs.vv.). The only time Cicero pairs honor and existimatiois in concert with other nouns and applied to Greeks (genere, honore, copiis, existimationefacile principem Lampsacenorum,Ver.2. 1.64; est genere, honore, existimatione,pecunia princeps, Flac. 72).

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semantics of the nouns, respectively "expenses" and "monies,"form a nice complementary catchphrase for "bribes": in tandem the nouns either representboth ends of the transaction(a bribe is a sumptusfrom the giver's point of view and pecunia from the taker's)or-more probably, it seems to me-describe two kinds of gifts, those of cash (pecuniae) and those of purchased items (sumptus). Loco atque ordine is a

kind of pun of exactly the same order as propinquitatemet onmniunm rerumsocietatem above, with one meaning in the Roman social world that peeks throughthe differentmeaning requiredby the context." If r-e set against spe were forced by a phonetic figure into referring to opposed, or rather opposable, ideas-"motivation" versus "expectation"-so praemium and pretium, bound into a pair by alliteration, the one propreflect opposite ends of the conceptual field of "reward," literal.54 other and the properly erly symbolic
A fragment of C. Laelius Sapiens' Laudatio P. Cornelii Scipionis

Aemiliani that was delivered by Q. Fabius Maximus six years after Gracchus'speech displays the same techniqueas Gracchus'passage:55 quiapropter neque tanta diis inmortalibus gratia haberi potest, quanta habendaest, quod is cum illo animo atque ingenio hac e ciuitate potissimum natus est, neque tam moleste atque aegre56 [mi] ferri quam ferundum[eum] est, cum eo morbo trumtemouitet in eodem tempore periit, cum et uobis et omnibus, qui hanc rem
53Whereas in the context of Gracchus' speech the noun pair appearsto describe primarily a literal place from which speakers are stepping forwardto address the co0tio or comitia-the passage is full of other phrases that draw attention to the locality (huc prodire, ad uos prodit, aput uos, prodeunt)-the phrase also resonates with its value in the Roman social world, suggesting status and rank,in this case the senatorial--doubtless the primarytargetof Nicomedes' and Mithridates'bribes. 54Praemium properly describes a symbolic allocation of honor (cf. 7LL s.v.) and pretiumproperlya "price"in the literal sense (so its use in legal texts, e.g., Gaius 3. 139). Pretium and praemium thus very occasionally form an expression for "reward,recompense,"as in Gracchus, so also in Cic. Leg. 1.48 (item iustitia nihil expetitpraeinii, nihil pretii); cf. Quadr.Ann. fr. 41. Partof the effect of Gracchus' figure lies in the flexibility of and both pretiumand praemium:pretiumis sometimes used metaphoricallyfor "deserts." likewise praemium specifically for a particular"price." However recompense be styled, for Gracchusit all comes down to res.familiaris. 55According to the Scholia Bobiensia to Cicero (Mil. 18), Laelius wrote the speech but it. Fabiusdelivered 56 aegre is Mai's suggestion for acre; my translationof the locus desperatus follows roughly Stangl's correctionto cum isto modo mortemobiit.

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publicam <saluam> uolunt, maxime uiuo opus est, Quirites. (ORF 20.22) In these circumstanceswe cannot feel the gratitudeto the immortal gods that we should for his having been born, so spiritedand intelligent, to this state in particular;and neither can we feel the grief and the pain that we should for his having met death too soon and having perished at the very moment when you and everyone who wants the governmentsound most need him alive, Romans. The parallelismof the structureis clear enough, augmentedin one case,
if Stangl's correction is right, by a figura etymologica (obiit
-

periit),

and enhanced by several binarypairs. Animusand ingenium have a certain overlap ("mind,""intellectualpowers,""character"), but the former is more emotional, the latter more intellectual.57 Moleste and aegre are nicely complementary,inasmuchas molestus properlysignifies pain as burden imposed from without (cf. moles "burden")and aeger pain as arising from the inside, like an illness.58 The reasons that by the time of Gracchus the binary phrase had become an acceptable, desirable, or more attractivedecorative device for oratoryare not far to seek: they must lie in the influence of Greek rhetoric-in which the Gracchi brotherswere notoriously expert (Cic. de Or 1.38). One of the central effects on Latin prose of the increasingly close study of Greek rhetoricalmodels was the importationinto prose of structures that had hitherto been confined to poetry. The
57HenceOff 1.80-81,where emotional control andrational arefunctions of response is a function andforethought the animus, of ingenium, thusdividing intellectual activity intothereactive andthe proactive; andhenceBrut.93, whereuis ingenircfers to a talent for emotional and uis animito a naturally emotional Animus and oratory disposition. thus form a natural (Plaut. ingenium complementary pair from the earliestliterature Bacch.494, Tri.92 [plur.], Ter.Adelph. 829, cf. Ter. Andr.114-115)andareso usedby Cicerobothalone(Mur.16;Lig.35, wheresee Gotoff'snote;Phil. 2.46;tie O: 1.113: Lucull.73, 127;Div. 2.97; 1.74;Fam.2.1.2, 10.28.2,12.23.1,12.24.1,Att. 1.18.2, nouns(withauctoritas, rei publicae Off.. Ep. Brut.3.4) andwithother 82; praesidium, Murl withconstantia, Sest.99; withconsilium, Phil. 5.23, Repub.1.8,6.12, Faim. 9.14.7,Att. withuires,de Or 3.5). 14.17a.7, 15.12.2; 58Henceaegreferre is less common thanaegrepati, andvice versafor moleste; cf. TLL1.943.61 ff. Whileaegre ferredatesto Plautus (Capt.146),thisis thefirstattestation of moleste is primarily Ciceronian 8.1355.27 (cf. TLL ferre,whichafterwards ff.), andthe andaegr-arepaired thana list of synonyms at Cic. Fin. (other only placewheremolest1.59).

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constituent order Al + B + A2, to take a single example-a perfectly regulareffect in Ciceronianoratoryand Greek prose-appears in Latin from the earliest literary attestations, as in these virtually random examples:59 Solus solitudine Al [ego ted]B atque ab egestateA2abstuli (Pl. As. 163) nuntiisAlpraesimBet lucroA2(PI. Amph. 12) regesAl quo ueniantBet diA2(P1.Amph.61)60 But such a structuredoes not appearin the fragmentsof Latin oratory until Gracchus: quo me miser conferam? quo uortam?in Capitoliumne?at fratris sanguine redundat.an domum? matremne ut miseram lamentantemAl uideamBet abiectamA2?(ORF 48.61, oratio extremis vitae diebus habita, a. 121). The binary phrase will have been anothersuch device, legitimated for prose in the decades preceding the composition of the Rhetorica ad Herenniumby the influence of Greek literary models. To excerpt and analyze likely models would entail rehearsing the stylistic canons of Greek prose and imagining their reception by the Romans, a task well beyond the purposesof this article. But the harmonybetween the binary phrase, which typically co-occurs, as we have seen, with parallelistic clausal structures, and the style of Isocratic epideixis is obvious-a style of epideixis, as we will see presently,that is likely to have loomed large in the Author'sconception of the middle style. If the "good" middle style passage is thus up to date, the "bad"passage is not. Consonant with the out-of-date tone of malos et audaces, which we have alreadyseen, the "bad"middle style passage acquires a distinctly archaic flavor from several of its expressions. Belligerare is an old word for "wage war." Known to Plautus, it also appears in
by the Author (4.38), whose 59 The figure is called coniunctio (= ouEvetypEvov) example is formae dignitas aut morbodeflorescitaut uetustate. 6oThere are aroundtwenty examples in the Amphitruo,the exact numberdepending on one's definition of a constituent.

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Ennius.61But it had apparentlyfallen out of fashion by the late Republic: Caesar and Sallust, who do not lack opportunitiesto discuss warfare, never use it. Its other late Republican or early Imperial appearances seem explicable either by its phonetics-in its single appearances in Hirtius and Livy, it appears to have been chosen to anchor a jingle62-or its very antiquity:its single use in a speech of Cicero is in a striking phrase in a melodramaticpassage to which an antique poeticism is well suited, sed etiam cumfortuna belligerandum fuit "but I had

to do battle even with fortune" (Red. Pop. 19). This last example ensures that the verb had an archaicflavor,ratherthan only a colloquial one (as the Hirtius passage alone might have suggested). The structurally comparablemorigerare(-ari), also an old form that is virtually makes the issue clear: classical Latin had extinct by the late Republic,63 ceased to be able to form compounds freely, which in some cases retroactivelytagged even alreadyexisting forms as poetic or anomalous and encouragedtheir replacementby analytic forms-so in the case of
these verbs, morem gerere and bellum gerere.64
61 PI. Capt. 24, 93, Pers. sed belligerantes 26, Truc. 183, 628; non cauponanteshbelum

Iferro, non auro uitamcernamusutrique(Enn. Ann. 6.184-1 85). 62tamen Caesar omnia patienda esse statuit, quoad sibi spes aliqua relinqueretur iure potius disceptandi quam belligerandi (Hirt. BG 8.55.2); cum Gallis tumultuatumuerius quam belligeratum (Liv. 21.16.5). Livy's tag has another unusuallexical usage: tumultuare is only here in the sense of "scrap,scrimmage"(OLD Ic), ratherthan "make a commotion"(OLD 1). 63 Known to the older language (Acc. trag. 469, Plaut.Amph.981, Capt. 966; mOa-rigeratio, Afran. tog. 380; commonest is the adjectival form morigerus), morigerarevanishes from classical Latin, replacedby moremgerere, but for a singular,doubtless mildly jocular, instance in Cicero: consule ueritatem:reprehendet;refer ad auris: probabunt;quacre cur ita sit; dicent iuuare; uoluptatiautem aurium morigeraridebet oratio "Askthe truth, it will object; take [the forms] to your ears, they'll approve;ask why, they'll say they like them; and speech has to indulge the pleasureof the ears" (Orat. 159). Cicero has just discussed the problemof apparentlyirrationalsound changes that, by his lights, happennon ... natura sed quodam instituto "not naturallybut by a kind of agreed-upon practice." Morigerareindexes Cicero's cheerful surrender-and rejectionof pureanalogia; the only thing to do in the face of a messy system is "tip your hat to what sounds good." 64Compounds with a nominal first element and verbal second element (which second element may be in verbal form, as belligerare, morigerare; in participial form, as bellipotens, altiuolans; in adjectival form, as signifer, carniuorus; or in nominal form, as agricola, indigena), are an almost completely unproductivecategory in the classical period, with the exception of poetic language, and there largely confined to a few types Compounds with nominal or adjectivalele(e.g., adjectivalcompounds in -ger and -.fer). without acquiringtonal color, but compounds ments that alreadyexisted typically remain

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One more example, not an archaism,is worth noting, since, as with ratiocinari and belligerare, it exhibits an avoidance of ordinaryexpression. The apparentlyunremarkable magna negotia agere is unparalleled in Cato, Plautus,Terence,Cicero, Caesar,Sallust, or Livy; here it seems to be a kind of deliberateliteralism,composing elements in a way that looks past their standardcollocational force: for negotiumagere in the late Republic means, not "perform a task," which is the sense that seems to be requiredhere (approx.=facere or conficere), but "takecare of something, look after something" (approx. = curare).70Magnum negotium, for its part, may also have sounded slightly amiss in the sense "major"or "importantundertaking": by the late Republic magnum negotium seems to have acquireda colloquial tone (= "big job" or "a lot of work" as opposed to "a major undertaking").71 Looking past developed collocational force is also a kind of archaism,as if to recombine the elements in their original meanings and ignore the semantic developmentsthat have in meantimehappened.If one imagines a writer who used "He told him to hit the road"to mean not "He orderedhim to depart" but "He ordered him to strike the pavement,"then one has something of the effect. These peculiaritiesof the "bad"middle style passage set its failures into relief. In the canons of Roman oratoricalstyle there was nothing
7"Negotiumagere is not a common expression in the late Republic, never appearingin Caesar and Sallust. Cicero uses the phraseonly if a personal pronounmodifies negotium, in the meaning "takecare of [someone's] business,""look after [someone's] affairs,"usually with an implication of selfishness: tuum negotiumagere loquebantur(Ver 2.3.149), non debuisse, cum praetor esset, suum negotium agere (Flac. 85), cf. Mil. 47, de 0,: 2.275, Off 1.29, 1.125, Fam. 7.2.2. A neutralsense, "do a thing,"is confined to the very rare passive expressions (in the late Republic, also confined to Cicero): cf. in re nihil est argumenti,in negotio quod actum esse dicitur nullum uestigium sermonis, lotCi,temporis (Cael. 55); ut iis negotiis quae agerenturinteresset(Art. 15.18.1). 71 Magno negotio is a fixed adverbialphrase for "with great difficulty":apros quidnem posse haberi in leporario nec magno negotio ibi et captiuos et cicuris, qui i/li nati sint, pingues solere fieri scis, inquit, Axi (Var.R.R. 3.13. I). utt . . . reliquae (sc. naues) tamen refici posse magno negotio uiderentur,Caes. BG 5.11.2; B. Alex. 8.4; Cels. Med. 7.5. la, 8.4.7. Outside of this expression, the tone of magnumnegotium seems to be more colloquial; the phraseoccurs in staccato,breezy,or intimatepassages (id si ita est. onia faucilCic. Fam. 11.14.3; negotium magnum est nauigare iora; sin aliter, magnum negotium, atque id mense Quintili, Att. 5.12.1; intellego permagnumesse negotiumet maximi consili, Q. ftr 1.1.7). It is worth noting that magnitudonegoti (e.g. Cic. Mur: 41, Red. Sen. 37) has no such restriction:the tone of one element of a set of derivatives(as with negotium agere vs. negotiumagi; cf. above, n. 70) is not necessarily passed on to the whole set.

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wrong with archaismor odd vocabularyper se: indeed, we just saw that Cicero used belligerare and sermocinarito fine effect. The problem lies with the Author's particularconception of the characterof the middle style. One might have felt, even without the Author's example of the "bad"middle style, that poeticisms or archaismson the one hand and colloquialisms on the other belong most properly not to the middle but to the grandand plain styles. But the "bad"middle style passage makes this aspect of the Author's sensibility especially clear. His ideal of the middle style is fairly narrowlyIsocratean-ordinary vocabularyarrayed in clear and parallelistic structuralframes.72Not for the Author, it would seem-as later, not for Caesar, either73-the lexical flexibility typical of other kinds of epideixis-that of the pseudo-Demosthenic Erotic Essay, say, or even Cicero himself (and probably Hortensius). The "bad"middle style falls outside the Author's canons not only by what it lacks, structure,but also by what it has, non-standardvocabulary. In short, the "bad"middle style speaker is not only one who cannot locate his idea on the terrainof contemporaryideology; he is also one who cannot presenthis idea accordingto some fairly narrowparticulars In both those failures-and in in contemporaryaesthetic standards.74 the correspondingsuccesses of the "good" middle style passage-the simple device of the binary phrase plays an important,almost the central, role.

According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus,Isocrates' language is very pure Attic: he uses ordinaryand familiar words (Isoc. 2), avoids the archaic and obscure (ibid.), and while admittingmore figurativelanguage than Lysias, does so to an unremarkable degree cf. Isoc. 14. (Isoc. 11). For a critiqueof Isocrates' propensityto counterbalance, gias inauditumatque insolens uerbum(de Analogia, fr. 2). 73 tamquamscopulumsic fiu 74 It is worthcommenting here that the Author'saesthetic standardsappearnot to have long outlived the publicationof his text, at least to judge by Cicero. Conjunctphrasesare common in Cicero's redundantiaiuuenilis (Brut. 316) and continueto be used throughout Cicero's oratorical career (cf. the remarksof EduardNorden, Die antike KunstprosaI [Leipzig 1898] 225-233), but neitherare they as easily amenable to analysis as complementary sets, as are many of the pairs in the Rhet. Her. passage, nor are binary phrases the chief organizingprincipleof Cicero's phrases,just as strict parallelismis not the chief organizing principle of his clauses. When the mature Cicero aims for epideictic parallelism, he deliberately varies the internal structureof the paired clauses (cf. H. Gotoff, Cicero's Elegant Style [Urbana, IL 1979] passim)-presumably to avoid what had become a cloying effect.
72

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APPENDIX:FURTHEREXAMPLES OF
VIRTUS AND INDUSTR-

For other examples of uirtus and industr- connected to noui

homines, cf. M. uero Catoni, homini ignoto et nouo, quo omnes, qui isdem rebus studemus, quasi exemplari ad industriam uirtutenmque

ducimur "M. Cato, an unknown new man, by whose example all of us who have the same ambitions are broughtto industria and uirtus (Cic.
Repub. 1.1); ... aditusque in illum summum ordinem omnium ciuium industriae ac uirtuti pateret "and that access to that highest rank be

open to the industry and virtue of all citizens" (Cic. Sest. 137; on the word order of the phrase in these two examples, cf. above, n. 3 1). The co-appearance of uirtus and industr- in the following passages, while not in the form of binaryphrase as I have defined it, is nonetheless worth noting: deinde ista praeclara nobilitas desinat queri populum Romanum hominibus nouis industriis libenter honores mandare semperque mandasse: non est querendum in hac ciuitate, quae propter uirtutem omnibus nationibus imperat, uirtutem plurimum posse "So let

our distinguished nobility cease to complain that the Roman people freely entrust and have always entrusted high office to hard-working (industriis) new men; there is no reason to complain that virtue (uirtus) has great influence in this state which rules over all nations because of its virtue (uirtus)" (Cic. Ver 2.4.81, with a pun on uirtus "character"
and uirtus "courage; military strength"); nego usquam unmquam fuisse maiores [fructus]; ubi si quis ignobili loco natus ita uiuit ut nobilitatis dignitatem uirtute tueri posse uideatur, usque eo peruenit quoad eum industria cum innocentia prosecuta est "I say no state has ever offered

greaterrewards[sc. to a nouus homo than ours]-a state where if anyone not of noble birth lives in such a way that he seems capable of defending the status of the nobility by his own virtue (uirtus), he achieves as much as hard work (industria), and blamelessness, allows"
(Cic. Clu. 111). DAME OFNOTRE UNIVERSITY