Cal1 IU SLIDES (2ndsem09-10) Chapter1 SV

CALCULUS I
Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY, VNU-HCM
April 19, 2010
Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai CALCULUS I
References
Main textbook:
J. Steward, Calculus. Concepts and Contexts, 5
th
ed., Thomson
Learning, 2001.
Other textbooks:
[1.] R.N. Greenwell, N.P. Rithchey, M.L. Lial, Calculus with
Applications for the Life Sciences, Pearson Education, 2003.
[2.] J. Rogawski, Calculus, Early Transcendentals, W. H. Freeman,
2008.
Chapter 1. FUNCTIONS, LIMITS
AND CONTINUITY
Contents
[1.] What is Calculus?
[2.] Straight Lines. Equations of Lines
[3.] Functions and Graphs
[4.] New Functions from Old Functions. Inverse Functions
[5.] Parametric Curves
[6.] Limits of Functions. One-sided Limits
[7.] Laws of Limits. Evaluating Limits
[8.] Continuity. The Intermediate Value Theorem
[9.] Limits Involving Innity
Chapter 1 FUNCTIONS, LIMITS
AND CONTINUITY
1.1 WHAT IS CALCULUS?
Early in the seventeenth century, Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
discovered three laws of planetary motion:
1. Each planet travels in an ellipse that has one focus at the sun.
2. The radius vector from the sun to a planet sweeps out equal
areas in equal intervals of time.
3. If T is the length of a planets year and a is the semimajor
axis of its orbit, then the ratio T
2
/a
3
has the same constant
value for all planets in the solar system.
AND CONTINUITY
Questions:
1. Why do the planets move in elliptical orbits around the sun?
2. How do radio waves propagate through space?
3. How can one predict the eects of interest rate changes on
economies and stock markets?
4. Why does an epidemic spread faster and faster and then slow
down?
These and many other questions of interest and importance in our
world relate directly to our ability to analyze motion and how
quantities change with respect to time or each other.
AND CONTINUITY
Kepler described how the solar system worked. He didnt know
why.
Calculus and Newtons laws explained why it worked that way.
Algebra and geometry are useful tools for describing relationships
among static quantities, but they do not involve concepts
appropriate for describing how a quantity changes.
Calculus provides the tools for describing motion quantitatively.
It introduces two new operations called dierentiation and
integration.
AND CONTINUITY
Dierential calculus dealt with the problem of calculating
rates of change.
Integral calculus dealt with the problem of determining a
function from information about its rate of change.
Calculus is the mathematics of motion and change.
John von Neumann (1903-1957) wrote: The calculus was the
rst achievement of modern mathematics.
HOW TO LEARN CALCULUS?
Calculus introduces so many new concepts and computational
operations.
What should you do to learn?
1. Read the text carefully. Read the relevant passages in the
textbook and work through the examples step by step. Read
and search for detail in a step by step logical fashion. It takes
attention, patience, and practice.
2. Complete the homework exercises, keeping the following
principles in mind.
a) Sketch a diagram whenever possible.
b) Write your solution in a connected step-by-step logical fashion,
as if you were explaining to someone else.
1.2 STRAIGHT LINES. EQUATIONS OF LINES
1.2.1 STRAIGHT LINES
Linear functions are the simplest of all functions and their graphs
(lines) are the simplest of all curves.
However, linear functions and lines play an enormously important
role in calculus.
Slopes of Nonvertical Lines
If a particle moves from (x
1
, y
1
) to (x
2
, y
2
), the increments in its
coordinates are
x = x
2
x
1
and y = y
2
y
1
.
Let L be a nonvertical line in the plane. Let P
1
(x
1
, y
1
) and
P
2
(x
2
, y
2
) be points on L.
Denition 2.1
The slope of a nonvertical line is
m =
y
x
=
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
The slope of a horizontal line is zero since y = 0.
The slope of a vertical line is undened.
1.2.2 EQUATIONS OF LINES
Denition 2.2
The equation
y y
1
= m(x x
1
)
is the point-slope equation of the line that passes through
the point (x
1
, y
1
) with slope m.
Example 2.1 Write an equation for the line that passes through
the point (2, 3) with slope 3/2.
Example 2.2 Write an equation for the line through (2, 1)
and (3, 4).
Slope-Intercept Equations
Denition 2.3
The equation
y = mx + b
is the slope-intercept equation of the line with slope m and
y-intercept b.
Example 2.3 The standard equation for converting Celsius
temperature to Fahrenheit temperature is a slope-intercept
equation. If 0
C corresponds to 32
F (the freezing point of water)

and 100
C corresponds to 212
F (the boiling point of water at see

level), represent Fahrenheit temperature F as a function of Celsius
temperature C.
Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
Parallel lines have equal angles of inclination. Thus,
Two lines are parallel if and only if they have the same slope,
or if they are both vertical.
Example 2.4 Find the equation of the line that passes through
the point (3, 5) and is parallel to the line 2x + 5y = 4.
Two lines are perpendicular if and only if the product of their
slopes is 1 or, if one is vertical and the other horizontal.
Example 2.5 Find the slope of any line L perpendicular to the
line having the equation 5x y = 4.
1.3 FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS
1.3.1 FUNCTIONS
In many practical situations, the value of one quantity may depend
on the value of a second.
For example, the area A of a circle depends on the radius r of
the circle. The rule that connects A and r is given by A = r
2
.
The human population of the world P depends on the time t.
For instance,
P(1980) = 4.45 billions,
P(1990) = 5.28 billions,
P(2000) = 6.070 billions.
Such relationships can often be represented mathematically as
functions.
1.3.1 FUNCTIONS
Denition 3.1
A function from a set A to a set B is a rule that assigns to
each element in A a single element of B.
The set A is called the domain of the function.
The set of all possible values of the function is called the range.
We usually consider functions for which the sets A and B are
sets of real numbers.
To denote that y is a function of x we write
y = f (x)
The number f (x) is the value of f at x.
1.3.1 FUNCTIONS
A symbol that represents an arbitrary number in the domain of a
function f is called an independent variable.
A symbol that represents a number in the range of f is called a
dependent variable.
So
The set of all possible values of the independent variable in a
function is its domain, and the resulting set of all possible
values of the dependent variable is the range.
1.3.1 FUNCTIONS
Example 3.1 Which of the following are functions?
(a)
(b) The key x
2
on a calculator.
(c) The set of order pairs with rst elements children and second
elements their birth mothers.
(d) The set of order pairs with rst elements mothers and second
elements their children.
1.3.1 FUNCTIONS
Representations of functions
There are four possible ways to represent a function
verbally (by a description in words)
numerically (by a table of values)
visually (by a graph)
algebraically (by an explicit formula)
For instance, the most useful representation of the area of a circle
as a function of its radius is probably the algebraic formula
A = r
2
.
In most cases in this course, a function is expressed as an
equation, such as C(x) = 5x 2 +
x
2
1.
When an equation is given for a function, we say that the
equation denes the function.
1.3.1 FUNCTIONS
Example 3.2 Let g(x) = x
2
+ 4x 5.
Find each of the following
(a) g(3)
(b) g(a)
(c) g(x + h)
(d) g(
2
r
)
(e) Find all values of x such that g(x) = 2.
1.3.1 FUNCTIONS
Agreement on Domains
When a function f is dened without specifying its domain,
we assume that the domain consist of all real numbers x for
which the value f (x) of the function is a real number.
Example 3.3 Find the domain and range for each of the
functions dened as follows.
(a) f (x) =
x
2
5x + 6 (b) g(t) =
t
t
2
1
.
1.3.1 FUNCTIONS
Piecewise Dened Functions
Example 3.4 The absolute value function f (x) = |x| is dened
by
f (x) = |x| =
_
x if x 0
x if x < 0
Example 3.5 The signum function is dened by
sgn(x) =
_
_
1 if x > 0
0 if x = 0
1 if x < 0
1.3.2 GRAPHS OF EQUATIONS AND FUNCTIONS
Graphs of Equations
Each point in the plane corresponds to an ordered pair of numbers.
The rst member is called the rst coordinate of the point, and
the second member is called the second coordinate. Together,
these are called the coordinates of the point.
In the xy-plane, the vertical line is often called the y-axis, and
the horizontal line is often called the x-axis.
Denition 3.2
The graph of an equation is a drawing that represents all the
solutions of the equation.
Graphs of Functions
Denition 3.3
If f is a function with domain A, then its graph is the set of
all order pairs
__
x, f (x)
_
| x A
_
In other words, the graph of f consists of all points (x, y) in the
xy-plane such that y = f (x) and x is in the domain of f .
Example 3.6 Sketch the graph of
(a) x
2
+ y
2
= 4 (b) y = x
2
(c) x = y
2
.
The graph of a function is a curve in the xy-plane.
The Vertical Line Test
Vertical Line Test A curve in the xy-plane is the graph of
a function of x if and only if no vertical line intersects the
curve more than one.
1.3.3 EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS. SYMMETRY AND REFLECTIONS
Denition 3.4
Suppose that x belongs to the domain of f whenever x
does. We say that f is an even function if
f (x) = f (x) for every x in the domain of f .
We say that f is an odd function if
f (x) = f (x) for every x in the domain of f .
The graph of an even function is symmetric about the y axis.
The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin.
If an odd function f is dened at x = 0, then f (0) = 0.
Example 3.7 Determine whether the function is even, odd, or
neither.
(a) f (x) = x
6
(b) g(x) =
1
x
(c) h(x) = x
3
+ x
2
.
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
Denition 3.5
A function f is called increasing on an interval I if
f (x
1
) < f (x
2
) for all x
1
, x
2
I such that x
1
< x
2
.
It is called decreasing on I if
f (x
1
) > f (x
2
) for all x
1
, x
2
I such that x
1
< x
2
.
1.4 NEW FUNCTIONS FROM OLD FUNCTIONS
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
1.4.1 TRANSFORMATIONS OF FUNCTIONS
Two important ways of modifying a graph are translation (or
shifting) and scaling.
Vertical and horizontal translation
Suppose c > 0. To obtain the graph of
y = f (x) + c, shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance c units
upward;
y = f (x) c, shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance c units
downward;
y = f (x c), shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance c units to the
right;
y = f (x + c), shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance c units to the
left.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Example 4.1 Given the graph of
y = f (x) =
1
x
2
+ 1
,
use transformation to graph
y =
x
2
+ 2
x
2
+ 1
, y =
2x
2
1
x
2
+ 1
, y =
1
(x + 1)
2
+ 1
.
Example 4.2 Sketch the graph of the function
f (x) = x
2
+ 4x 5 using the graph of y = x
2
.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Given a line L and a point P not on L, we call a point Q the
reection of P in L if L is the right bisector of the line segment
PQ.
The reection of any graph G in L is the graph consisting of the
reections of all of the points of G.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Vertical and Horizontal Stretching and Reecting
Suppose that c > 1. To obtain the graph of
y = cf (x), stretch the graph of y = f (x) vertically by a factor
of c;
y =
1
c
f (x), compress the graph of y = f (x) vertically by a
factor of c;
y = f (cx), compress the graph of y = f (x) horizontally by a
factor of c;
y = f (
x
c
), stretch the graph of y = f (x) horizontally by a
factor of c;
y = f (x), reect the graph of y = f (x) about the x-axis;
y = f (x), reect the graph of y = f (x) about the y-axis;
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Example 4.3 Sketch the graph of the following functions
(a) y = sin 5x (b) y = 3 sin 2x (c) y = | ln x|.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
1.4.2 SUMS, DIFFERENCES, PRODUCTS QUOTIENTS, AND MULTIPLES
Denition 2.1
If f and g are functions, then for every x that belongs to the
domains of both f and g we dene functions f +g, f g, fg,
f /g by the formulas:
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)
(f g)(x) = f (x) g(x)
(fg)(x) = f (x)g(x)
_
f
g
_
(x) =
f (x)
g(x)
, where g(x) = 0.
In particular, if c is a real number, then the function cf is
dened for all x in the domain of f by (cf )(x) = c f (x).
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
1.4.2 SUMS, DIFFERENCES, PRODUCTS QUOTIENTS, AND MULTIPLES
Example 4.4 If f (x) =
x and g(x) =
4 x
2
, nd the
functions 6f , f + g, f g, fg, and f /g, and specify the domains
of each of these functions.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
1.4.3 COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS
Denition 4.2
Given two functions f and g, the composite function f g
(also called the composition of f and g) is given by
_
f g
_
(x) = f
_
g(x)
_
.
The domain of f g is the set of all x in the domain of g for
which g(x) is in the domain of f .
If the range of g is contained in the domain of f then the domain
of f g is just the domain of g.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
1.4.3 COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS
Example 4.5 If f (x) = x +1 and g(x) =
4 x
2
, calculate the
four composite functions f g, f f , g g, and g f , and specify
the domain of each.
Note In general f g = g f .
Example 4.6 Given F(x) =
_
2 + cos(x
2
+ 1), nd functions
f , g and h such that F = f g h.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
1.4.4 THE BASIC CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS
Polynomials
Denition 4.3
For any real number , the function f (x) = x
is called the
power function with exponent .
A function P is called a polynomial if
P(x) = a
n
x
n
+ a
n1
x
n1
+ + a
1
x + a
0
where n is a nonnegative integer number and the numbers
a
n
, a
n1
, ..., a
0
are constants.
The numbers a
n
, a
n1
, ..., a
0
are called coecients.
The degree of P is n (assuming that a
n
= 0).
The coecient a
n
is called the leading coecient.
The domain of a polynomial is IR.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
A polynomial of degree 1 is of the form f (x) = ax + b and so
it is a linear function.
A polynomial of degree 2 is called a quadratic function. Its
graph is always a parabola.
A polynomial of degree 3 is of the form
P(x) = ax
3
+ bx
2
+ cx + d (a = 0)
and is called a cubic function.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Rational Functions
Denition 4.4
A rational function is a quotient of two polynomials
f (x) =
P(x)
Q(x)
.
Every polynomial is also a rational function (with Q(x) = 1).
The domain of a rational function
P(x)
Q(x)
is the set {x| Q(x) = 0}.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Algebraic Functions
Denition 4.5
A function is called an algebraic function if it can be
constructed using algebraic operations (such as addition,
substraction, multiplications, division, and taking roots)
starting with polynomials.
For example,
f (x) =
_
x
2
5x + 6, g(x) =
x
7
x
2
+ 3
x
4
x
2
1
+ (x 1)
6
2x + 1
are algebraic functions.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
1.4.5 INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Denition 4.7
A function f is called a one-to-one function if f (x
1
) = f (x
2
)
whenever x
1
and x
2
belong to the domain of f and x
1
= x
2
.
In other words, a function is one-to-one if it never takes on the
same values twice, that is, fore every value c, the equation
f (x) = c has at most one solution for x.
An equivalent statement is that
f is one-to-one if
_
f (x
1
) = f (x
2
) = x
1
= x
2
_
.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
The Horizontal Line Test
Horizontal Line Test A function is one-to-one if and only
if no horizontal line intersects its graph more than one.
Example 4.7 Which of the following functions is one-to-one?
(a) f (x) = x
2
(b) g : [0, ) IR, g(x) = x
2
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Denition 4.8
Let f be a one-to-one function with domain D and range E.
Then its inverse function f
1
has domain E and range D
and dened by
f
1
(y) = x f (x) = y
for any y in E.
Note that
domain of f
1
= range of f
range of f
1
= domain of f
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Example 4.8 Find the inverse of f (x) =
2x + 1.
How to nd the inverse function of f
1. Solve the equation y = f (x) for x in terms of y (if possible).
2. Interchange x and y. The resulting equation will be
y = f
1
(x).
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Note
f
1
_
f (x)
_
= x for every x in D
f
_
f
1
(x)
_
= x for every x in R
The graph of f
1
is obtained by reecting the graph of f
about the line y = x.
SOME IMPORTANT INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
An exponential function is a function of the form f (x) = a
x
,
where a > 0 and a = 1. The number a is called the base.
Exponential functions are positive: a
x
> 0 for all x.
f (x) = a
x
is increasing if a > 1 and decreasing if a < 1.
The domain of an exponential function is IR = (, ) and
the range is (0, ).
Denition 4.9
If a > 0 and a = 1, then the logarithm to the base a,
denoted log
a
x, is the inverse of f (x) = a
x
.
y = log
a
x x = a
y
the domain of log
a
x is (0, ).
the range of log
a
x is the set of all real number IR.
f (x) = log
a
x is increasing if a > 1 and decreasing if a < 1.
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The function f (x) = sin x is one-to-one on [/2, /2].
Its inverse is called the inverse sine function or the arcsine
function and denoted sin
1
x or arcsin x:
y =sin
1
x is the unique angle in [
2
,

2
] such that sin y = x
y = sin
1
x sin y = x and

2
x

2
The domain of sin
1
x is [1, 1] and the range is [/2, /2].
The cosine function is one-to-one on [0, ].
Its inverse is called the inverse cosine function or the arccos
function and denoted cos
1
x or arccos x:
y =cos
1
x is the unique angle in [0, ] such that cos y = x
y = cos
1
x cos y = x and 0 x
The domain of cos
1
x is [1, 1] and the range is [0, ].
The tangent function is one-to-one on the interval (/2, /2).
The inverse is called the inverse tangent function and is
denoted tan
1
x or arctan x:
y =tan
1
x is the unique angle in
_
2
,

2
_
such that tan y = x
y = tan
1
x tan y = x and

2
< x <

2
Similarly,
y =cot
1
x is the unique angle in (0, ) such that cot y = x
y = cot
1
x cot y = x and 0 < x <
tan
1
x and cot
1
x have domain IR.
The range of tan
1
x is (/2, /2).
The range of cot
1
x is (0, ).
ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS
New functions may be produced using the operations of addition,
multiplication, division, as well as composition, extraction of roots,
and taking inverses.
It is convenient to refer to a function constructed in this way
from the basic functions listed above as an elementary function.
1.5 PARAMETRIC CURVES
Denition 5.1
If x and y are given as functions
x = f (t), y = g(t)
over an interval I of tvalues, then the set of points
(x, y) =
_
f (t), g(t)
_
dened by these equations is a curve in
the coordinate plane. The equations are parametric
equations for the curve. The variable t is a parameter for
the curve and its domain I is the parameter interval. If I is a
closed interval, a t b, the point
_
f (a), g(a)
_
is the initial
point of the curve and
_
f (b), g(b)
_
is the terminal point of
the curve. When we give parametric equations and a
parameter interval for a curve in the plane, we say that we
have parametrized the curve. The equations and interval
constitute a parametrization of the curve.
In many applications t denotes time, but it might instead denote
an angle or the distance a particle has traveled along its path from
its starting point.
We could use a letter other than t for the parameter.
Example 5.1 The Unit Circle x
2
+ y
2
= 1. What curve is
represented by the parametric equations
x = cos t, y = sin t, 0 t 2?
Since the curve starts and ends at the same point, it is called a
closed curve.
Example 5.2 A parametrization of the Ellipse
x
2
a
2
+
y
2
b
2
= 1.
Describe the motion of a particle whose position P(x, y) at time t
is given by
x = a cos t, y = b sin t, 0 t 2.
Example 5.3 A parametrization of the Circle x
2
+ y
2
= R
2
.
The equations and parameter interval
x = R cos t, y = R sin t, 0 t 2
obtained by taking b = a = R in the previous example, describe
the circle x
2
+ y
2
= R
2
.
Example 5.4 Cycloids. A wheel of radius a rolls (without
slipping) along a horizontal straight line. Find parametric
equations for the path traced by a point P on the wheels
circumference. The path is called a cycloid.
Note The graph of a function y = f (x) can always be
parametrized as
x = t
y = f (t)
1.6 LIMITS
1.6.1 LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS
Calculus is based on the fundamental concept of the limit of a
function.
It is this idea of limit that distinguishes calculus from algebra,
geometry, and trigonometry, which are useful for describing static
situations.
1.6 LIMITS
Example 6.1 Describe the behaviour of the function
f (x) =
x
2
1
x 1
near x = 1.
1.6 LIMITS
Denition 6.1
We write
lim
xa
f (x) = L
and say the limit of f (x) as x approaches a equals L if
we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L (as close
to L as we like) by taking x to be suciently close to a (on
either side of a) but not equal to a. We also say that f (x)
approaches L or converges to L as x approaches a.
An alternative notation for lim
xa
f (x) = L is
f (x) L as x a
which is usually read f (x) approaches L as x approaches a.
1.6 LIMITS
Example 6.2
(a) lim
xa
x = a
(b) lim
xa
c = c (where c is a constant).
Example 6.3 Investigate
lim
x0
sin

x
.
1.6 LIMITS
1.6.2 ONE-SIDED LIMITS
The limit we have discussed so far are two-sided.
In some instances, f (x) may approach L from one side of a
without necessarily approaching it from the other side, or f (x) may
be dened on only one side of a.
Example 6.4 The Heaviside function H is dened by
H(t) =
_
0 if t < 0
1 if t 0
As t approaches 0 from the left, H(t) approaches 0. As t
approaches 0 from the right, H(t) approaches 1. There is no single
number that H(t) approaches as t approaches 0. Therefore,
lim
t0
H(t) does not exist.
1.6 LIMITS
Denition 6.2
We write
lim
xa
f (x) = L
and say the left-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a (or
the limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the left) equals
L if we can make the values of f (x) as close to L as we want
by taking x to be suciently close to a and x less than a. We
also say that f (x) has left limit L at x = a.
Similarly, if we require that x be greater than a, we get the
right-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a is equal to L (or
f (x) has right limit L at x = a), and we write
lim
xa
+
f (x) = L.
1.6 LIMITS
Theorem 6.1
A function f (x) has limit L at x = a if and only if it has both
left and right limits there and these one-sided limits are both
equal to L:
lim
xa
f (x) = L lim
xa
f (x) = lim
xa
+
f (x) = L.
1.6 LIMITS
Example 6.5 If
f (x) =
|x 2|
x
2
+ x 6
,
nd lim
x2
+ f (x), lim
x2
f (x), and lim
x2
f (x).
1.7 LAWS OF LIMITS. EVALUATING LIMITS
1.7.1 LAWS OF LIMITS
Theorem 7.1
Suppose that c is a constant and the limits lim
xa
f (x) and
lim
xa
g(x) exist. Then
1. lim
xa
_
f (x) + g(x)
= lim
xa
f (x) + lim
xa
g(x)
2. lim
xa
_
f (x) g(x)
= lim
xa
f (x) lim
xa
g(x)
3. lim
xa
_
cf (x)
= c lim
xa
f (x)
4. lim
xa
_
f (x)g(x)
= lim
xa
f (x) lim
xa
g(x)
5. lim
xa
f (x)
g(x)
=
lim
xa
f (x)
lim
xa
g(x)
if lim
xa
g(x) = 0.
1.7.1 LAWS OF LIMITS
6. lim
xa
_
f (x)]
n
=
_
lim
xa
f (x)
_
n
,
where n is a positive integer.
7. lim
xa
n
_
f (x) =
n
_
lim
xa
f (x),
where n is a positive integer.
The Limit Laws also hold for one-sided limits.
Example 7.1 Find
lim
t0
t
2
+ 9 3
t
2
.
1.7.2 THE SQUEEZE THEOREM
Theorem 7.2
If f (x) g(x) when x is near a (except possibly at a) and the
limits of f and g both exist as x approaches a, then
lim
xa
f (x) lim
xa
g(x).
Theorem 7.3 (The Squeeze Theorem)
If f (x) g(x) h(x) when x is near a (except possibly at a)
and lim
xa
f (x) = lim
xa
h(x) = L, then
lim
xa
g(x) = L.
Similar statements hold for left and right limits.
The Squeeze Theorem is sometimes called the Sandwich
Theorem or the Pinching Theorem.
1.7.2 THE SQUEEZE THEOREM
Corollary 7.1
If lim
xa
|f (x)| = 0, then lim
xa
f (x) = 0.
Example 7.2 Show that lim
x0
x
2
sin
1
x
= 0.
Theorem 7.4
If is measured in radians, then
lim
0
sin
= 1
1.8 CONTINUITY
THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM
1.8.1 CONTINUITY
Denition 8.1
A function f is continuous at a number a if
lim
xa
f (x) = f (a).
If f is not continuous at a, we say that f is discontinuous at
a, or f has a discontinuity at a.
Notice that if f is continuous at a, then:
1. f (a) is dened, that is, a is in the domain of f ;
2. lim
xa
f (x) exists;
3. lim
xa
f (x) = f (a).
1.8 CONTINUITY
1.8.1 CONTINUITY
Denition 8.2
A function f is continuous from the right at a number a if
lim
xa
+
f (x) = f (a)
and f is continuous from the left at a if
lim
xa
f (x) = f (a).
For example, the Heaviside function
H(x) =
_
0 if x < 0
1 if x 0
is continuous at every number x except 0. It is right continuous
at 0 but is not left continuous or continuous there.
1.8 CONTINUITY
1.8.1 CONTINUITY
Denition 8.3
A function f is continuous on an interval if it is continuous
at every number in the interval. If f is continuous at all points
in its domain, then f is simply called continuous.
Here, if f is dened only on one side of an endpoint of the interval,
we understand continuous at the endpoint to mean continuous
from the right or continuous from the left.
Example 8.1 Show that the function f (x) =
1 x
2
is
continuous.
1.8 CONTINUITY
1.8.1 CONTINUITY
Theorem 8.1
If f and g are continuous at a, and c is a constant, then the
following functions are also continuous at a:
(a) f g (b) cf
(c) fg (d) f /g if g(a) = 0.
Corollary 8.1
(a) Any polynomial is continuous everywhere, that is, it is
continuous on IR = (, ).
(b) Any rational function is continuous wherever it is
dened-that is, it is continuous on its domain.
1.8 CONTINUITY
1.8.1 CONTINUITY
Example 8.2 Where are each of the following functions
discontinuous?
(a) f (x) =
_
x
2
x2
x2
if x = 2
1 if x = 2
(b) g(x) =
_
1
x
2
if x = 0
1 if x = 0
(c) h(x) =
_
x
2
if x 0
x + 1 if x > 0
The kind of discontinuity illustrated in part (a) is called
removable.
The discontinuity in part (b) is called an innite discontinuity.
The discontinuities in part (c) are called jump discontinuities.
1.8 CONTINUITY
1.8.1 CONTINUITY
Theorem 8.2
The following types of functions are continuous at every
number in their domains: Polynomials, Rational functions,
Root functions, Trigonometric functions.
Example 8.3 Where is the function
f (x) =
ln x + tan
1
x
x
2
1
continuous?
1.8 CONTINUITY
1.8.1 CONTINUITY
Theorem 8.3
If f is continuous at b and lim
xa
g(x) = b, then
lim
xa
f
_
g(x)
_
= f (b). In other words,
lim
xa
f
_
g(x)
_
= f
_
lim
xa
g(x)
_
.
Theorem 8.4
If g is continuous at a and f is continuous at g(a), then the
composite function f g given by (f g)(x) = f
_
g(x)
_
is
continuous at a.
Theorem 8.5
If f is continuous on an interval I with range J and if the
inverse f
1
exists, then f
1
is continuous on the domain J.
1.8 CONTINUITY
1.8.1 THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM
Theorem 8.6 (The Intermediate Value Theorem)
A function f that is continuous on a closed interval [a, b]
takes on every value between f (a) and f (b).
A point c where f (c) = 0 is called a zero or root of f .
Corollary 8.2 (Existence of Zeros)
If f is continuous on [a, b] and if f (a) and f (b) have opposite
signs, that is, f (a)f (b) < 0, then f has a zero in (a, b).
Example 8.4 Show that the equation x
3
x 1 = 0 has a
solution in the interval [1, 2].
1.9 LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY
1.9.1 INFINITE LIMITS
Denition 9.1
Let f be a function dened on both sides of a, except possibly
at a itself. Then,
lim
xa
f (x) =
means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily large-as
large as we please-by taking x suciently close to a, but not
equal to a.
Another notation for lim
xa
f (x) = is:
f (x) as x a.
Denition 9.2
Let f be dened on both sides of a, except possibly at a itself.
Then,
lim
xa
f (x) =
means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily large
negative by taking x suciently close to a, but not equal to a.
Similar denitions can be given for the one-sided limits:
lim
xa
f (x) = lim
xa
+
f (x) =
lim
xa
f (x) = lim
xa
+
f (x) =
x a
means that we consider only values of x that are less

than a.
x a
+
means that we consider only values of x that are
greater than a.
Keep in mind that and are not numbers.
The line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the curve
y = f (x) if at least one of the following statements is true.
lim
xa
f (x) = lim
xa
f (x) = lim
xa
+ f (x) =
lim
xa
f (x) = lim
xa
f (x) = lim
xa
+ f (x) =
Example 9.1 Find the vertical asymptotes of
(a) f (x) = ln x (b) g(x) = tan x.
1.9.2 FINITE LIMITS AT INFINITY
Denition 9.3
Let f be a function dened on some interval (a, ). Then,
lim
x
f (x) = L
means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily close to
L by taking x suciently large.
Another notation for lim
x
f (x) = L is
f (x) L as x .
Denition 9.4
Let f be a function dened on some interval (, a). Then,
lim
x
f (x) = L
means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily close to
L by taking x suciently large negative.
Denition 9.5
The line y = L is called a horizontal asymptote of the curve
y = f (x) if either
lim
x
f (x) = L or lim
x
f (x) = L.
Most of the Limit Laws given in Section 1.7 also hold for limits
at innity.
Example 9.2 If n is a positive integer, then
lim
x
1
x
n
= 0.
Example 9.3 Evaluate
lim
x
20x
2
3x
3x
5
4x
2
+ 5
.
Example 9.4 Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the
graph of the function
f (x) =
2x
2
+ 1
3x 5
.
Theorem 9.1
The limits
lim
x
_
1 +
1
x
_
x
and lim
x
_
1 +
1
x
_
x
exist and equal. This value is called the number e.
Thus we have
lim
t0
(1 + t)
1
t
= e
lim
t0
ln(1 + t)
t
= 1
and
lim
u0
e
u
1
u
= 1
1.9.3 INFINITE LIMITS AT INFINITY
The notation
lim
x
f (x) =
is used to indicate that the values of f (x) become large as x
becomes large.
Similar meanings are attached to the following symbols:
lim
x
f (x) = lim
x
f (x) = lim
x
f (x) =
Example 9.5 If a > 1 then
lim
x
a
x
= 0 and lim
x
a
x
=
Example 9.6 Calculate
(a) lim
x
11x+2
x
3
1
(b) lim
x
4x
3
+7x
2x
2
3x10
(c) lim
x
4x
3
+7x
2x
2
3x10
Asymptotic Behavior of a Rational Function The
asymptotic behavior of a rational function depends only on
the leading terms of its numerator and denominator. Suppose
a
n
, b
m
= 0 and
L = lim
x
a
n
x
n
+ a
n1
x
n1
+ + a
0
b
m
x
m
+ b
m1
x
m1
+ + b
0
.
If m > n, then L = 0.
If m = n, then L = a
n
/b
m
.
If m < n, then L = , depending on the signs of
numerator and denominator.
Exercises and Assignments
Text book: J. Stewart, Calculus. Concepts and Contexts, 2nd,
Thomson Learning, 2001.
Pages Exercises Assignments
2224 5, 6, 26, 35 , 40 7, 8, 18, 20, 27, 28 39
43, 48, 51
3538 1, 10, 13 2, 4, 6, 9, 12, 14
4649 3, 7, 24, 32, 37 5, 23, 38, 40, 44, 53, 55
7375 5, 20, 26, 11 6, 7, 22, 25, 28, 33
86-87 19, 23, 24
Exercises and Assignments
Text book: J. Stewart, Calculus. Concepts and Contexts, 2nd,
Thomson Learning, 2001.
Pages Exercises Assignments
108-110 3, 6 5, 10
117-119 2, 15, 18, 26, 32, 36 7, 10, 20, 27, 28,
33, 35, 38, 43
128130 3, 13, 24, 29, 37 4, 6, 7, 15, 16, 23, 30
31, 33, 38, 40, 46
139142 2, 4, 24, 39, 41 3, 11, 19, 20, 23, 31, 34
37, 42

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CALCULUS I

Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hai

F (the freezing point of water)

F (the boiling point of water at see

means that we consider only values of x that are less

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