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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 15, NO.

3, JULY 2000

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Filtering Dispersed Harmonic Sources on Distribution


Ward Jewell, Senior Member, IEEE, William (Bill) L. Miller, and Tom Casey
AbstractTelephone company customers reported audible noise in their telephone service. Through measurements, analysis, and simulations, 540 Hz noise was found to be coupling from power distribution to telephone cables in a shared underground right-of-way. The source of the noise was small single-phase electronic loads dispersed throughout the power distribution system in the area. A passive shunt filter was designed using an existing capacitor bank. Installation of this filter reduced the noise to acceptable levels. Index TermsEarth, grounding, harmonic analysis, passive filters, power distribution electromagnetic interference, power filters, power system harmonics, power system modeling, power system simulation, wire communication interference.

I. INTRODUCTION ELEPHONE customers in a suburban area complained to the telephone company of noisy telephone service. In one case the noise interfered with the operation of a PBX system. Telephone company personnel investigated and found evidence of noise contribution from the electric power system serving the area. Electric utility and telephone company engineers then began working together to find a mutually acceptable solution. II. TELEPHONE NOISE Telephone company personnel initially received a call from a hospital complaining of getting wrong numbers when calls were placed through their PBX. An excessive common mode voltage, 93 dBrnC at 540 Hz, the ninth harmonic of 60 Hz, was found on the telephone trunk lines of the analog telephone system serving the hospital. For an immediate solution to the hospitals problem noise chokes were installed on the affected trunks. These reduced the trunk lines susceptibility to common mode voltage and solved the hospitals outbound calling problems. The telephone company then performed a shield investigation and found an open shield on one telephone cable. The shield was repaired, reducing the 540 Hz common mode voltage to 84 dBrnC. This is acceptable. Within a few months, however, calls were again received from the hospital and from other customers in the area complaining of audible noise when using their telephones. The 540 Hz common mode voltage was measured on the trunk lines and was again above 90 dBrnC. An inductive survey showed the telephone systems shielding to be in good condition. The

Fig. 1. Power and telephone circuits.

Manuscript received March 16, 1998; revised November 15, 1999. W. Jewell is with the Power Quality Laboratory, Wichita State University, Wichita, KS 67260 USA. W. L. Miller is with Southwestern Bell Telephone, Topeka, KS 66603 USA. T. Casey is with Kansas City Power and Light, Kansas City, MO 64141 USA. Publisher Item Identifier S 0885-8977(00)08134-6.

survey found high 540 Hz influence from the power system along one exposure. It is common for 540 Hz to be the dominant frequency in interference between telephone and electric power systems, even though third harmonic, 180 Hz, current has a higher magnitude in the power system. The design of the telephone system makes it more susceptible to inductively-coupled interference at 540 Hz than at 180 Hz. Telephone equipment is has a highpass filter on the input to reduce its exposure to 60 Hz and low order harmonics. Loaded telephone cable also has a lowpass filter effect that reduces these frequencies. The human ear is also nonlinear and is more sensitive to 540 Hz than 180 Hz audible noise. This is reflected in the C-Message curve [1], which is a product of several elements in the telephone network and the function of the human ear. The exposure is shown in Fig. 1. Two 7200/12 470 V three-phase distribution circuits begin at the utility substation. For 1.5 miles these circuits share a common underground right-of-way with telephone cables. Circuit 1 serves residential loads and the hospital; circuit 2 serves residential loads. An insulated probe wire 100 feet in length was run along the ground parallel to and above the underground right-of-way. The wire was electrically connected at each end to a conducting metal stake driven into the earth. The current flowing on this probe wire indicated an earth current of 41 A, with an excessive contribution at 540 Hz. The spectrum of this current is shown in Fig. 2. The probe wire and stakes were then moved perpendicular to their original path and to the path of the right-of-way. The same earth current, 41 A, was measured. This indicated that the current measured was earth current, which will flow on a probe wire running any direction. Current in the power conductors will only induce probe wire current when the probe wire is parallel to the conductors. Earth current is power system neutral current. In a multigrounded neutral distribution system, it is common for only 40%

08858977/00$10.00 2000 IEEE

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 15, NO. 3, JULY 2000

TABLE I CIRCUIT 1 FIELD MEASUREMENTS

Fig. 2. Earth current spectrum.

of the neutral current to return through the system neutral conductors. The other 60% returns through the earth; these are commonly accepted numbers in the telephone industry. All currents in the power distribution phases, neutral, and other return paths, contribute to the magnitude of the magnetic field along the path of a distribution system. If phase currents are balanced, the geometry of the phase conductors cancels most of this magnetic field. If phase currents are unbalanced but all return current were to flow on the system neutral, geometry could still cancel the field. However, because much of the return current does not flow on the neutral, geometric cancellation is decreased and the magnetic field becomes stronger. This magnetic field links with telephone cables and induces common mode voltage, or power influence, on them. When power influence becomes too large, the audible noise on telephone circuits becomes unacceptable. In addition, earth current may flow on the grounded telephone shield, further increasing the noise coupling with the telephone conductors. Telephone cable shielding reduces the effect of magneticallyinduced current by conducting a similar current on the shield in the opposite direction. This shield current reduces the common mode voltage on the cable. In this case, however, the net 540 Hz disturbing currentthe current contributing to the distribution system 540 Hz magnetic fieldwas too great for its effects to be cancelled by shielding. Another way to eliminate the interference problem would be to convert the analog telephone system in the area to a fiber optic system. This is very expensive, however, and the telephone company wanted to investigate less expensive options before taking this step. The electric utility was contacted for assistance with the problem. III. FIELD ANALYSIS The troubleshooting and mitigation process now turned to locating the source of the harmonic currents and the path through which they were entering the earth. A. Capacitors Telephone company personnel used a van-mounted loop antenna feeding a spectrum analyzer to search for power factor

correction capacitors that might be in series resonance with distribution line reactance. Series resonant capacitors provide a low-impedance path to neutral and earth for harmonic currents at the resonant frequency. Most harmonic current at that frequency on the distribution conductors will return to the neutral/earth return through the resonant capacitor bank. This produces high harmonic currents in the earth at that point, which can increase telephone noise. If capacitors are in resonance, harmonic suppression reactors can be installed in the neutrals to change the resonant frequency to one that will not produce high capacitor currents. Alternately, the capacitor connection to neutral and earth can simply be opened, breaking the path for harmonic currents to flow to earth. The harmonic levels in the distribution conductors are significantly different on either side of the resonant bank, because the bank shunts most of the resonant harmonic current from the lines to neutral and earth. The radiated harmonic energy detected by the loop antenna therefore changes when the antenna passes a bank in resonance. The loop antenna survey of this distribution system found no such resonances. Resonances can also be found by switching capacitor banks off one at a time while watching the harmonic currents on the distribution lines. When a bank in resonance is switched off, harmonic currents will decrease significantly. On these two circuits, harmonic currents on phase conductors were monitored at the substation, and telephone noise was monitored at an affected customer, while capacitors on the system were switched off. The most significant effects were found when capacitors on circuit 1 were removed. On this circuit harmonic currents on the phase conductors and audible telephone noise changed each time a bank was removed. The recorded values are presented in Table I. By the time all banks were removed from the two circuits, the telephone noise level was at an acceptable level. These changes indicate the harmonic currents were traveling to earth through the capacitors. Capacitors, whether in resonance or not, provide a lower impedance path to neutral and earth than loads or transformers because their impedance decreases as frequency increases. However, no single significant change was measured, and no significant decrease was measured until all capacitors were switched off, indicating that no banks were in resonance. Observation over an extended period indicated that the telephone noise was worse during spring and fall, the utilitys light load times. This is common in situations where harmonic currents are conducted to earth through capacitors. Increased load

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TABLE II TRANSFORMER SATURATION TEST

D. Conclusions of Field Analysis No significant sources of harmonic current were found on the circuits involved. Harmonic levels were not unusually high on any of the phase conductors anywhere in the system. The distribution system was in good condition with no open capacitor fuses or capacitors in resonance. The conclusion was, then, that the source of harmonics was the many small single-phase electronic loads dispersed throughout customers homes in the affected area. This conclusion was tested by developing a model of the system and simulating the system operation.

means decreased resistance in parallel with the capacitor banks. The lower resistance tends to dampen the tuned circuit of capacitor banks and system reactance. Damping reduces the harmonic levels. Y-connected three-phase capacitor banks conduct only unbalanced currents and zero-sequence currents to neutral and earth. Balanced positive and negative sequence currents sum to zero at the Y neutral point. Open fuses in one or two phases of a three-phase capacitor bank cause severe imbalances in the currents, and greatly increase the current conducted to earth. A utility line crew checked all capacitors on the circuits for open fuses; none were found. B. Harmonic Sources Customers on the distribution system were evaluated for harmonic sources. The two circuits involved in this study served residential loads and the hospital. While hospitals can be significant harmonic sources [2], this hospital was not drawing significant harmonic currents. Its location between the substation and the exposure between power and phone lines also made it unlikely to be the cause of noise problems. Harmonic currents were measured at various places on the distribution circuits. Harmonic current levels of around 5% THD were found on the phase conductors at the substation, with the 540 Hz contribution being less than 0.5%. These are acceptable levels that usually cause no harmonic problems [3]. No significant sources of harmonic currents were found. One possible source of harmonics on a distribution system is saturated transformers. Saturated transformers draw high levels of exciting current, which is distorted with odd harmonics. Reducing the voltage magnitude will decrease transformer saturation currents. The tap-changing transformer at the substation was stepped down from its normal voltage levels. The voltage levels and resulting telephone interference levels are shown in Table II. No significant change was measured, indicating no transformers in saturation. C. System Neutral If the system neutral conductor is open, then the approximately 40% of the return current it normally carries will flow through the earth. This significantly increases earth currents and the resulting telephone noise. Line crews therefore inspected the underground system neutrals and found them to be in good condition.

IV. MODELING AND SIMULATION The distribution system of circuit 1, including neutral conductors and earth return, was simulated using techniques similar to the practices outlined by the IEEE Task Force on Harmonics Modeling and Simulation [4], [5]. The flow of ninth harmonic current in the earth was of primary interest in this analysis, so load flow constraints were not needed. Because of this, time-domain analysis was acceptable [4] and the Electromagnetic Transients Program (EMTP) [6], [7] was used. EMTP software creates and solves the time-based differential equations describing the circuit being simulated. Outputs are time-varying voltage, current, and power at any selected points in the system. Any of these may then be analyzed for harmonic content using a Fourier transfer algorithm. A. System Model The circuit models used in the simulation are shown in Figs. 35. Three-phase models were used because zero-sequence (neutral/earth return) currents were to be calculated; Figs. 3 and 4 show only one of the three phases. Fig. 3 shows the models for phase conductors, Y-connected power factor correction capacitors, and connections to neutral and earth. Fig. 4 shows the model representing lumped linear and harmonic loads, while Fig. 5 shows the model of the system neutral. The utility provided values of phase conductor impedances used in power flow and short circuit studies. These impedances were used in this model. They are the reactance and resistances shown in Fig. 3 between main nodes, such as Substation to 1, or 3 to 4. Because the model only needed to be accurate at relatively low frequencies, up to about 3000 Hz, the 50th harmonic of 60 Hz, and because the lines being modeled were very short, less than 5 miles in length a frequency-dependent model with distributed parameters was not needed [4]. Power factor correction capacitors are shown in Fig. 3 from the numbered node to the neutral N nodes, such as 1 to 1N, 2 to 2N, etc. Loads are modeled as lumped equivalents in parallel with the capacitors. The load model, shown in Fig. 4, combines a linear resistive load with a nonlinear single-phase rectifier load. This model represents the collective effects of a large number of singlephase rectifiers dispersed throughout the portion of the distribution system between the node to which it is connected and the next node on the system [8]. It can accurately simulate any combination of linear load and single-phase rectifier load. The

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 15, NO. 3, JULY 2000

Fig. 6.

Capacitors on circuit 1.

Fig. 3. Distribution system circuit model.

Fig. 4. Lumped load model.

including harmonic currents, and from utility load estimates. No reactance was included in the linear load because it would have little effect on the relevant simulation results for this system. It could be included if needed, however. In Fig. 3 the resistance from the neutral N to the system neutral SN node, for example, 1N to 1SN, represents current flowing onto the system neutral from the loads and capacitors at the node. The resistance from the N node to ground represents current flowing through earth and other return paths. The current is assumed to split evenly between system neutral and other paths in this case, so the two resistances are equal. The system neutral is then modeled as shown in Fig. 5. This circuit allows the neutral current to be monitored as a simulation output. Because neutral and other return currents are assumed to be equal, the neutral current output can also be considered to be the earth and other return current output. This is an extremely simplified model of earth current that assumes the earth current flows in a straight path parallel to the system neutral conductors. In reality, earth current spreads out over a wide geographic area as it flows. It will follow the shortest path, the path of least resistance, to return to its source. Analysis of earth current usually requires the use of Carsons equations [9]. However, in this simulation we are concerned with the earth current that is coupling with the telephone cables in the same right-of-way as the system neutral and phase conductors. For this reason, and because the lines are short, and because only relative values, i.e., increases or reductions in earth current magnitudes, were needed from the simulation, it was felt that this simple model would be adequate. B. Simulation Results Initial simulations were run to compare the models results with actual conditions. In each case, simulation results were compared with measured values of currents and voltages on the phase conductors under similar conditions. The first case simulated was with all capacitors energized and daytime light-load conditions, with normal levels of rectifier load dispersed throughout the circuit. Following this, capacitors were removed one at a time, beginning with node 1, and moving out through nodes 24, until all capacitors were off. Fig. 6 shows the location of capacitors on circuit 1.

Fig. 5. System neutral model.

values of linear load resistance, dc load resistance, and rectifier filter capacitance are calculated from measured current values,

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TABLE III SIMULATION BASE CASE RESULTS

TABLE V SIMULATION RESULTS: HARMONIC SUPPRESSION REACTORS

TABLE IV SIMULATION RESULTS: OPEN CAPACITOR NEUTRAL

The simulated earth return current and the 540 Hz component were recorded for each case. The 540 Hz component with all capacitors energized was equated to the high noise levels measured at the affected customer for the same conditions. The noise calculated for the case with all capacitors off was equated to the acceptable noise levels measured during that condition. These values were then used in subsequent simulations to judge the telephone noise levels. Relative noise values, both simulated and measured, for these first five cases are presented in Table III. The noise value for the base case, all capacitors energized, is used as the per unit base, so that noise is presented as 1.0. While the increased earth current as banks 13 are removed does not agree with the measured values, the simulation results do indicate, in agreement with field measurements, that when all capacitors are off, 540 Hz noise drops significantly. These simulation results supported the conclusion that the telephone noise was caused by small, dispersed single-phase electronic loads throughout the distribution system, especially on circuit 1. In the next series of simulations the capacitors were energized, but the neutral point on each bank was disconnected from the system neutral and earth. This was accomplished in the simulation by removing the connection from the lower end of the capacitor to the neutral node, (1N4N on Fig. 3) leaving the three-phase Y-connected bank energized but isolated from the system neutral and ground. This blocks the flow of harmonic current through the capacitor bank into earth. The results of these simulations are presented in Table IV. Table IV shows that as successive capacitor neutrals are removed, beginning near the substation and moving out on the feeder, the harmonic currents in the earth and other return paths increase until all capacitor banks are removed. When a capacitor bank is grounded, harmonic currents from loads near that bank see the bank as the low impedance path back to their source. When the capacitor ground is opened, the currents then see

the next bank out on the feeder as the lowest impedance path, causing them to flow through the neutral, earth, and other return paths to the next bank and across a greater length of the telephone exposure. This continues until all banks are removed from the feeder, when the harmonic currents no longer see any low impedance capacitor paths back to neutral and earth, and the system returns to close to the original condition of all capacitors being grounded. These results indicate that removing the ground connections from the capacitor banks will not accomplish the desired telephone noise reduction. By the time this result was available the utility had already considered this solution and rejected it. A safety problem for line crews occurs when capacitor grounds are opened. The capacitor neutral point, which has always before been at earth potential, can no longer be assumed to be at that low voltage. It must now be assumed to be at any voltage up to full line voltage, and line crews must be retrained to assume this. The next set of simulations installed a harmonic suppression reactor (HSR) in the neutral of each capacitor bank. While there was no resonant capacitor, the common use of HSRs, it was thought that the additional reactance might decrease the harmonic earth current to acceptable levels. Table V shows the resulting noise levels, which were still unacceptably high. The next step, then, was to consider installing a shunt filter to reduce the harmonic currents in the earth exposure between the distribution lines and telephone cables. V. FILTER DESIGN A shunt harmonic filter provides a low impedance path to neutral for currents at the tuned frequency. This is accomplished by placing an appropriate reactance in series with existing capacitors. Because this retunes the whole distribution system, it is necessary to simulate the filter under varying conditions during the design process. Fig. 7 shows two designs for a shunt filter on a three-phase bank. Design (b) is recommended, with one reactor per phase. But the telephone company and electric utility already had experience with harmonic suppression reactors, which are installed as shown in design (a), so this design was used. To tune the filter in design (a) for low impedance at frequency , the inductance is (1) Two different 7200 V capacitor sizes were installed on this circuit; 1200 kVAR (20.5 F), and 600 kVAR (10.2 F). The

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VI. FILTER TEST AND INSTALLATION The shunt filter was tested at bank 3. A harmonic suppression reactor of the correct inductance was temporarily installed in the capacitor neutral. Telephone noise levels were monitored at the affected customers. Capacitor and filter reactor current and voltage were also recorded.

VII. FILTER RESULTS Before the reactor was switched in, the 540 Hz noise at the affected telephone customers was 95 dBrnC. When the reactor was switched in, the noise level dropped to 87 dBrnC, an acceptable level. Capacitor and reactor voltages and currents were within their ratings and design ranges. The steady-state current ratings of the harmonic suppression reactor used in the test were too low to permanently install it as a filter reactor; it is intended to block currents, so its ampacity is relatively low. An oil filled reactor was ordered from a transformer manufacturer and was permanently installed at bank 3. The permanent reactor produced the same noise reduction as the test reactor. Noise levels on the telephone circuit have stayed within acceptable ranges ever since.

Fig. 7. Shunt filter designs.

TABLE VI SIMULATION RESULTS: 540 Hz SHUNT FILTER

VIII. CONCLUSIONS Small, dispersed single-phase electronic loads on a residential/commercial feeder caused harmonic distortion significant enough to cause unacceptable telephone noise. An analysis technique involving field measurements and simplified modeling of the distribution system was used to successfully analyze the problem and design and implement a solution. The technique involves a very simple model of earth and other return paths, which assumes the return current splits equally between the system neutral and the earth and other return paths, and follows the geographical path of the phase conductors. An existing three-phase power factor correction capacitor bank was converted to a shunt harmonic filter to divert harmonic currents from the exposure between electric power and telephone cables. This reduced noise to an acceptable level.

inductance required to tune the 1200 kVAR capacitor to 540 Hz is 1.4 mH. The 600 kVAR requires 2.8 mH. Three cases were simulated: 1) Filters at all four capacitor banks. 2) Filter at bank 2 only. 3) Filter at bank 3 only. The results are shown in Table VI. Applying filters at all four banks reduces the harmonic noise to an acceptable level. Filtering at only bank 2 or 3 produces even lower noise than filters at all four. A filter at bank 2 or 3 removes from the exposure much of the 540 Hz current generated between banks 2 and 4, while not drawing a significant harmonic current from the other end of the exposure. On this circuit it was physically impractical to install a filter reactor on the pole at bank 2, so the filter at bank 3 was chosen for further study. All combinations of capacitors on and off the system were then simulated with the shunt filter installed at bank 3. Higher load levels were also simulated. The noise levels remained at acceptable levels for all conditions. The simulated values of currents through the capacitor bank were analyzed to insure the bank would not be overloaded by the increased 540 Hz current it was carrying. The current through the filter reactor was used to specify the current capacity of the reactor itself.

REFERENCES
[1] IEEE Recommended Practice for Inductive Coordination of Electric Supply and Communication Lines, IEEE Std. 776-1992, 1992. [2] W. Jewell, The effects of voltage sags in hospitals, in Proceedings of PQA 93, San Diego, CA, November 1993, pp. 5-3:15-3:7. [3] 345 E. 47th St.10 017-2394IEEE recommended practice for harmonic control in electric power systems, IEEE, New York, NY, IEEE 519, 1992. [4] IEEE Task Force on Modeling and Simulation, Modeling and simulation of the propagation of harmonics in electric power networks, Part I: Concepts, models, and simulation techniques, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 452465, January 1996. [5] IEEE Task Force on Modeling and Simulation, Modeling and simulation of the propagation of harmonics in electric power networks, Part II: Sample systems and examples, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 466474, January 1996. [6] The Fontaine, Unit 6B, 1220 NE 17th Ave.97 232W. S. Meyer, Alternative Transients Program (ATP) Rule Book. Portland, OR: Canadian/American EMTP User Group.

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[7] H. W. Dommel, Electromagnetic Transients Program Reference Manual (EMTP Theory Book): Bonneville Power Administration, August 1986. [8] D. J. Pileggi, E. M. Gulachenski, C. E. Root, T. J. Gentile, and A. E. Emanuel, Effect of modern compact fluorescent lights on voltage distortion, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 14511459, Jul. 1993. [9] R. H. Galloway et al., Calculation of electrical parameters for short and long polyphase transmission lines, Proceedings of IEE, vol. 111, no. 12, pp. 20512059, Dec. 1964.

William L. Miller is presently Manager, Technical Network Support, Southwestern Bell Telephone Company in Topeka, KS. He has taken courses in electronics and related fields at Wichita State University, University of Wisconsin, and University of West Virginia following two years of Vocational Electronics at CKAVTS. He has been employed for 24 years, which includes 12 years of experience with Inductive Interference. He is the Subject Matter Expert (SME) for the Kansas City Market Center in the areas of electrical protection, inductive interference, loop transmission, and dial-up data. Mr. Miller is the Founder and Chairman of the Midwest Power and Communications Association.

Ward Jewell (M80SM90) teaches courses in electric power systems and electric machinery as a Professor of Electrical Engineering at Wichita State University. Dr. Jewell is Director of the WSU Power Quality Laboratory and performs research in electric power quality and advanced energy technologies. He has been with WSU since 1987. Dr. Jewell earned the Ph.D. in electrical engineering from Oklahoma State University in 1986. He received the M.S. in electrical engineering from Michigan State University in 1980, and the B.S. in electrical engineering from Oklahoma State University in 1979. From 19801984 Dr. Jewell worked with the Power Systems Technology Program at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Dr. Jewells consulting work is in electric power quality troubleshooting and analysis for commercial, industrial, and utility systems. He also consults in other areas of electric power systems and vehicle power systems.

Tom Casey supervises the electrical testing laboratory at Kansas City Power and Light Company in Kansas City, MO. His duties include the repair and testing of distribution line equipment, tools, and test instruments. He received the B.S. in electrical engineering from the University of Kansas in 1981. For the last 15 years he has held various customer service positions at Kansas City Power and Light and was instrumental in developing the power quality program at KCP&L.

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