Australian English

Australian English is a relatively new dialect of English being just over 200 years old. It began diverging from British English shortly after the foundation of the Australian penal colony of New South Wales in 1788. The dialect can be described as a new dialect that developed as a result of contact between people who spoke different, mutually intelligible, varieties of English.

The origin of Australian English The anglophone Australia and New Zealand are two of the youngest nations in the world. The first Europeans who took their residence in Australia came 205 years ago. They did not come because they wanted to. Australia was founded as a penal colony. They were eventually followed by voluntary immigrants. Until now, the Australian with British ancestor are the predominant part of the population. Among them, the area where a nowadays Australian most probably can find their ancestors is the region around London. The second important group of immigrants were Irish, mainly responsible for the huge number of Catholics in Australia compared with Britain (30.4% in 1851; Turner, 1972: 5). According to Hammarstrm (1980) Australian pronunciation is more or less the Cockney one of the last 18th century, having developped independently ever since -it missed the RP-contact arising in Britain in the 19thcentury-, but conservatively -like most exported languages are. Indeed, Australian English is different from any accent existing in England (Wells, 1982b: 593).

Origins
Convicts sent to Australia came mostly from large English cities and included a significant proportion of Cockneys from London[2]. They were joined by free settlers, military personnel and administrators, often with their families. The early form of Australian English would have been first spoken by the children of the colonists born into the early colony in Sydney. This very first generation of children created a new dialect that was to become the language of the nation. The children in the new colony would have been exposed to a wide range of different dialects from all over England but mainly the south east, particularly from London. They would have created the new dialect from factors present in the speech they heard around them in response to their need to express peer solidarity. Even when new settlers arrived, this new dialect of the children would have been strong enough to deflect the influence of new children. There is evidence from early written sources that a new and distinct dialect was present in the colony by the 1830s.[3]

Influences
A large part of the convict body were also the Irish, with at least 25% directly from Ireland, and others indirectly via Britain. There were other populations of convicts from non-English speaking areas of Britain, such as the Welsh and Scots. In 1827 Peter Cunningham, in his book Two Years in New South Wales, reported that native-born white Australians of the time known as "currency lads and lasses"[4] spoke with a distinctive accent and vocabulary, different to any of their parents but with a strong Cockney influence. The distinctive accent continued to develop amongst the native born, even after transportation of convicts to Australia ended in 1868, as immigration of free settlers from Britain, Ireland and elsewhere continued. The first of the Australian gold rushes, in the 1850s, began a much larger wave of immigration which would significantly influence the language. During the 1850s, when the UK was under economic hardship, about two per cent of its population emigrated to the Colony of New South Wales and the Colony of Victoria.[5] Among the changes brought by the gold rushes was "Americanisation" of the languagethe introduction of words, spellings, terms and usages from North American English. The words imported included some later considered to be typically Australian, such as dirt and digger.[6] Bonzer, which was once a common Australian slang word meaning "great", "superb" or "beautiful", is thought to have been a corruption of the American mining term bonanza,[7] which means a rich vein of gold or silver and is itself a loanword from Spanish. As the term was used interchangeably in the early twentieth century with the words boshter and bosker, the derivation from the Spanish 'bonanza' seems unlikely. The influx of American military personnel in World War II brought further American influence; though most words were short-lived;[6] and only okay, you guys and gee have persisted.[6] Since the 1950s the American influence on language in Australia has mostly come from pop culture, the mass media (books, magazines and television programs), computer software and the internet. Some words, such as freeway and truck, have even been naturalised so completely that few Australians recognise their origin.[6] Some American, British and Australian variants exist sideby-side; in many cases freeway and motorway (used in New South Wales) for instance regional, social and ethnic variation within Australia typically defines word usage.[8] Words of Irish origin are used, some of which are also common elsewhere in the Irish diaspora, such as tucker for "food", "provisions" (Irish tacaras well as one or two native English words whose meaning have changed under Irish influence, such as paddock for "field", cf. Irish pirc, which has exactly the same meaning as the Australian paddock. To outsiders, Australian English seems most similar to New Zealand English. Both use the expression different to (also encountered in British English, but not American) as well as different

from, though sometimes with a semantic difference (different to highlights the "closeness" or "neutrality" of the difference, while different from highlights the difference).

Media
One of the first writers to attempt renditions of Australian accents and vernacular was the novelist Joseph Furphy (a.k.a. Tom Collins), who wrote a popular account of rural New South Wales and Victoria during the 1880s, Such is Life (1903). C. J. Dennis wrote poems about working class life in Melbourne, such as The Songs of a Sentimental Bloke (1915), which was extremely popular and was made into a popular silent film (The Sentimental Bloke; 1919). John O'Grady's novel They're a Weird Mob has many examples of pseudo-phonetically written Australian speech in Sydney during the 1950s, such as "owyergoinmateorright?" ("How are you going, mate? All right?"). Thomas Keneally's novels set in Australia, particularly The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith, frequently use vernacular such as "yair" for "yes" and "noth-think" for "nothing". One of the most influential books of Australian English is the satirical "Let Stalk Strine" by Afferbeck Lauder where "Strine" is "Australian" and "Afferbeck Lauder" is "alphabetical order" . The book reduces the Australian tendency to shorten and run words together into virtual gibberish. For instance, the term 'Aorta' translates as 'They ought to' as in 'Aorta builda nuvver arber bridge. An aorta stop halfese cars from cummern inner city - so a feller can get twirkon time.' (They ought to build another harbour bridge, and they ought to stop half these cars from coming into the city, so a fellow can get to work on time) Video (emmachisit)

Variation and changes

Three main varieties of Australian English are spoken according to linguists: broad, general and cultivated.[9] They are part of a continuum, reflecting variations in accent. They often, but not always, reflect the social class or educational background of the speaker.[10] Broad Australian English is recognisable and familiar to English speakers around the world because it is used to identify Australian characters in non-Australian films and television programmes (often in the somewhat artificial "stage" Australian English version). Examples are film/television personalities Steve Irwin and Paul Hogan. Slang terms ocker, for a speaker, and Strine, a shortening of the word Australian for the dialect, are used in Australia. The majority of Australians speak with the general Australian accent. This predominates among modern Australian films and television programmes and is used by, for example, Eric Bana, Dannii Minogue and Hugh Jackman. Cultivated Australian English has some similarities to British Received Pronunciation, and is often mistaken for it. Cultivated Australian English is spoken by some within Australian society, for exampleKevin Rudd, Cyril Ritchard, Errol Flynn, Geoffrey Rush and Judy Davis.

[edit]Regional

variations and pronunciations

There are no strong variations in accent and pronunciation across different states and territories. Regional differences in pronunciation and vocabulary are small in comparison to those of the British and American English, and Australian pronunciation is determined less by region than by social, cultural and educational influences. There is some subtle regional variation. In Tasmania and Queensland, words such as "dance" and "grant" are usually heard with the older pronunciation of these words, using []. In South Australia [a] is the norm. In other states both pronunciations can be heard. Some speakers in those areas where []/[] is found prefer to use [a] in such words as a sign of higher social class.[11] In words such as "pass", "can't", "last", all regional variants use [a]. There are a few regionally-distributed phonetic features.

Ethnocultural varieties of Australian English

Whilst the standard Australian English is the main dialect of Australian-born citizens, it is also used by the majority of migrants who arrive during childhood or early adolescence when local companion influence is at its greatest. The children of immigrant families generally adopt the majority speech patterns of the adopted country rather than those of their parents due to children's need to conform to their peer group. Over the past 20 years, there has been extensive sociopolitical change in Australia. Multiculturalism as a governmental policy has led to substantial immigration from Asia and the Middle East and has contributed to a large increase in cultural diversity and the desire for individuals to freely express their cultural identity within the Australian context. This has resulted in an increase in the variety of dialects spoken by young people in Australia. Today there is a growing trend for Australian-born children of migrants from non-English speaking backgrounds to embrace their cultural heritage and express their niche identities by using new Australian Ethnocultural dialects. Ethnocultural varieties of Australian English are minority dialects. They contain features of Standard Australian English combined with some non-English language features. Ethnocultural varieties are Australian English dialects and should not be considered foreign accented English. They may be spoken by Australian-born people who have English as their first language but many speakers of ethnocultural varieties also speak a language other than English. There are potentially many different varieties of Ethnocultural Australian English however few have been the subject of extensive research.

Characteristics of Australian English

Linking /r/ Australian English is non-rhotic accent, which means that it does not allow '/r/ sounds before pauses or before other consonants. So the words car and card will not contain the /r/ sound. However, the /r/ sound can occur when a word that has a final r in the spelling comes before another word that starts with a vowel. For example, in car alarm the sound /r/ can occur in car because here it comes before another word beginning with a vowel. This is called a linking /r/. The words far, far more and farm do not contain an /r/ but far out will contain the linking /r/ sound because the next word starts with a vowel sound. Intrusive /r/ Australian English speakers may also use intrusive or epenthetic /r/. This is when an /r/ may be inserted before a vowel in words that do not have r in the spelling. For example, "drawing" will sound like "draw-ring" and "saw it" like sound like "sore it". Intonation - high rising tune ( video by adam hills) Perhaps of the American influence, some Australian English speakers commonly use a form of upward inflection in their speech that is not associated with asking questions. In English, upward inflection (a rise in the pitch of the voice at the end of a sentence) typically signals a question. However, some speakers also use upward inflection as a way of including their conversational partner in the dialogue. As such, they are an important interactive tool. This is also common in Californian English.[15] /j/ The sound /j/ occurs in Australian English at the beginning of words like "yellow" and "yes" and it also occurs in words like "new" and "tube". Palatalisation also typically occurs now in young speakers where /tj/, /dj/, /sj/ and /zj/ become single affricate or fricative sounds: For example in "tube", and "tune", the /tj/ sound becomes the affricate "ch". An affricate also occurs in "dune", where it will be pronounced exactly like "june".

Australian English Vocabulary

Australian English has many words that some consider unique to the language. One of the best known is outback, meaning a remote, sparsely populated area. Another is The Bush, meaning either a native forest or a country area in general. 'Bush' is a word of Dutch origin: 'Bosch'. However, both terms have been widely used in many English-speaking countries. Early settlers from England brought other similar words, phrases and usages to Australia. Many words used frequently by country Australians are, or were, also used in all or part of England, with variations in meaning. For example,creek in Australia, as in North America, means a stream or small river, whereas in the UK it means a small watercourse flowing into the sea; paddock in Australia means field, whereas in the UK it means a small enclosure for livestock; bush or scrub in Australia, as in North America, means a wooded area, whereas in England they are commonly used only in proper names (such as Shepherd's Bush and Wormwood Scrubs). Australian English and several British English dialects (for example, Cockney, Scouse, Glaswegian and Geordie) use the word mate. The origins of other words are not as clear or are disputed. Dinkum (or "fair dinkum") can mean "true", "is that true?" or "this is the truth! among other things, depending on context and inflection. It is often claimed that dinkum dates back to the Australian goldrushes of the 1850s, and that it is derived from the Cantonese (or Hokkien) ding kam, meaning, "top gold". But scholars give greater credence to the conjecture that it originated from the extinct East Midlands dialect in England, where dinkum (or dincum) meant "hard work" or "fair work", which was also the original meaning in Australian English.[17] The derivative dinky-di means 'true' or devoted: a 'dinky-di Aussie' is a 'true Australian'. However, this expression is limited to describing objects or actions that are characteristically Australian. The words dinkum or dinky-di and phrases like true blue are widely purported to be typical Australian sayings, even though they are more commonly used in jest or parody than as authentic slang. Similarly, g'day, a stereotypical Australian greeting, is no longer synonymous with "good day" in other varieties of English and is never used as an expression for "farewell", as "good day" is in other countries. It is simply used as a greeting.

Australianisms Most of the Australian specialties in vocabulary derive from English local dialects. "On the other hand, in recent years the influence of American English has been apparent... Thus we find American truck, elevator, andfreeway alongside British petrol, boot (of a car) and tap." (Crystal, 1988: 240). Few aboriginal words were borrowed, though a third of the place names is taken from their languages, with in increasing number in our days (Bhr, 1974: 274). A short excerpt from Aussie vocabulary (including slang words, which are more accepted than in Mother England; Bhr, 1974; Crystal, 1988; Baker, 1978):
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Australian English this arvo footpath weekender sheila lolly drongo paddock singlet Aussie cobber dinkum shanty chromo broke for fed with chunder

British English this afternoon pavement holiday cottage girl sweet fool field vest Australian mate honest pub prostitute in need of tired of vomit

Australian English vocabulary

Many works giving an overview of Australian English have been published; many of these are humour books designed for tourists or as novelties. One of the first was Karl Lentzner's Dictionary of the Slang-English of Australia and of Some Mixed Languages in 1892. The first dictionary based on historical principles that covered Australian English was E. E. Morris's Austral English: A Dictionary of Australasian Words, Phrases and Usages (1898). In 1976 the Australian Pocket Oxford Dictionary was published. In 1981, the more comprehensive Macquarie Dictionary of Australian English was published, after 10 years of research and planning. Updated editions have been published since and the Macquarie Dictionary is widely regarded as authoritative. Oxford University Press published their own Australian Oxford Dictionary in 1999, as a joint effort with the Australian National University, and have also some other dictionaries of Australian English, including the Oxford Dictionary of Australian English and the Australian National Dictionary. Various publishers have also produced "phrase books" to assist visitors. These books reflect a highly exaggerated and often outdated style of Australian colloquialisms and they should generally be regarded as amusements rather than accurate usage guides. [edit]History

and origins

Australian English incorporates many terms that Australians consider to be unique to their country. One of the best-known of these is outback which means a "remote, sparsely-populated area". Many such words, phrases or usages originated with British and Irish convicts transported to Australia in 1788-1868. And many words which are still used frequently by rural Australians are also used in all or part of England, with variations in meaning. For example: a creek in Australia (as in North America), is any "stream or small river", whereas in England it is a small watercourse flowing into the sea;paddock is the Australian word for "field",[citation needed] while in England it is a small enclosure for livestock. Bush (as in North America) or scrub mean "wooded areas" or "country areas in general" in Australia, while in England they are commonly used only in proper names (such as Shepherd's Bush and Wormwood Scrubs). Australian English and several British English dialects (e.g. Cockney,Scouse, Geordie) use the word mate to mean a friend, rather than the conventional meaning of "a spouse", although this usage has also become common in some other varieties of English. The origins of other terms are not as clear, or are disputed. Dinkum or fair dinkum means "true", "the truth", "speaking the truth", "authentic" and related meanings, depending on context and inflection. It is often claimed that dinkum was derived from the Cantonese (or Hokkien) ding kam, meaning "top gold" or "deposit", during the Australian goldrushes of the 1850s. This, however, is chronologically improbable since dinkum is first recorded in the 1890s. Scholars give greater credence to the notion that it originated with a now-extinct dialect word from the East Midlands in England, where dinkum(or dincum) meant "hard work" or "fair work", which was also the original meaning in Australian English.[1] The derivation dinky-di means a 'true' or devoted Australian. The words dinkum or dinky-di and phrases like true blue are widely purported to be typical Australian sayings, however these sayings are more commonly used in jest or parody rather than as an authentic way of speaking. Similarly, g'day, a stereotypical Australian greeting, is no longer synonymous with "good day" in other varieties of English (it can be used at night time) and is never used as an expression for "farewell", as "good day" is in other countries. Sheila, Australian slang for "woman", is derived from the Irish girls' name Sle (IPA: /il/, anglicised Sheila). "Bludger" - someone who is lazy - is derived from the British slang term of the same name referring to a pimp. [edit]Words

of Australian Aboriginal origin

Main article: List of English words of Australian Aboriginal origin Some elements of Aboriginal languages have been incorporated into Australian English, mainly as names for flora and fauna (for example dingo, kangaroo). Beyond that, few terms have been adopted into the wider language, except for some localised terms, or slang. Some examples are cooee and Hard yakka. The former is a high-pitched call (pronounced /k.i/) which travels

long distances and is used to attract attention. Cooee has also become a notional distance: if he's within cooee, we'll spot him. Hard yakka means hard work and is derived from yakka, from the Yagara/Jagara language once spoken in the Brisbane region. Also from the Brisbane region comes the word bung meaning broken. A failed piece of equipment might be described as having bunged up or referred to as "on the bung" or "gone bung". Bung is also used to describe an individual who is pretending to be hurt; such individual is said to be "bunging it on". However, at the same time, the word bung can also be used to describe someone who actually is injured, as in "he's still got a bung leg". [edit]Terms

for people

Australians use a variety of terms to refer to people. These terms may indicate such things as the person's ethnicity, the place where the person resides, thesocial status of the person, the person's behaviour, etc. Many of these words occur in other English dialects, especially New Zealand English, whilst others are unique to Australian English. Some of these words were once heard to be derogatory, but many now have been adopted. [edit]Proper

nouns

It is also common amongst Australians to shorten the names of places, people, companies, etc. Some of these terms are regional, while others are in relatively widespread use. Many terms derive from company or brand names and some from rhyming slang or the use of diminutives. [edit]Clothing Australians use many unique terms to relate to items of clothing. Some of these terms are regional. What Americans call a sweater is often referred to as a "jumper", a Sleeveless T-shirt is called a "singlet" and sunglasses are commonly shortened to "sunnies". The footwear often known as "flipflops" are called "thongs" or "pluggers" in Australia. [edit]Furniture Australians use the English terms of cupboard and wardrobe for furniture in which clothes or other items are stored. Australians recognise the American term closet, but mostly associate it with the phrase coming out of the closet. [edit]Household Australians use the word tap to refer to a water outlet, in contrast to faucet used in some regions of the United States. [edit]Civic

infrastructure

Australians use the word footpath instead of the more American English version of sidewalk. Although the latter's usage is increasingly accepted and understood, the use of footpath continues

to be prevalent in colloquial usage and government signage. The term pavement is also commonly used but the term is more generic and does not uniquely refer to a pedestrian walkway beside a road. [edit]Food

and drink

Where foodstuffs are concerned, Australian English tends to be more closely related to the British vocabulary, for example the term biscuit is the traditional and common term rather than the American terms cookie and cracker. As had been the case with many terms, cookie is recognised and understood by Australians, and occasionally used, especially among younger generations. Australians may also call biscuits "bikkies". Australians, like the British, use the term chips where Americans say french fries. In Australia, chips is also used for what are called crisps in the United Kingdom. American restaurants such as McDonald's continue to use the term french fries in Australia, so the term fries is understood and sometimes used by Australians (though it is commonly applied only to chips of that particular elongated shape). In a few cases such as zucchini, snow pea and eggplant, Australian English uses the same terms as American English, whereas the British use the equivalent French terms courgette, mangetout andaubergine. This is possibly due to a fashion that emerged in mid19th century Britain of adopting French nouns for foodstuffs and hence the usage changed in Britain while the original terms were preserved in the colonies. Australia uses the botanical name capsicum for what the Americans would call (red or green) bell peppers and the British (red or green) peppers. Australians generally use the term rockmelon where North Americans would use the term cantaloupe, although in Victoria and Tasmania the two terms are used interchangeably. In Australian English, dried fruits are given different names according to their variety and use. Raisins (grapes) are largest while currants are smallest and both are generally recognised as being primarily for use in recipes or in cereals. Sultanas (grapes) are of intermediate size and have a wider range of uses which includes their use as a snack food. In Australian English as in British English, tomato sauce (often known simply as "sauce") is the name given to a product similar to what Americans call ketchup. However, American-style ketchup, with its slightly spicier and sweeter taste, is still sold in many grocery stores and is common in fast food outlets such as McDonald's. Other sauces made from tomatoes are generally referred to by names related to their uses, such as barbecue and pasta sauce. Served coffee beverages are given unique descriptive names such as flat white, for an espresso with milk. Other terms include short black (espresso) and long black (espresso diluted with water, similar to an Americano in the United States). Since the mid-1980s other varieties of

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coffee have also become popular, although these have generally been known by names used in North Americaand/or Europe. As in British English, the colourless, slightly lemon-flavoured, carbonated drink known in North America and elsewhere under brand names such as Sprite and 7 Up is called lemonade, while the more strongly flavoured drink known as lemonade in North America that is typically made of lemon juice and sugar is sometimes referred to as lemon squash, traditional lemonade or club lemon, particularly in carbonated form. The carbonated drink commonly called sarsaparilla in Australia is a type of root beer, named after the sarsaparilla root from which root beer is made. However, the taste is quite different, to the point that they may be considered two completely different products. Australians also often refer to McDonald's restaurants as Macka's or Maccas (Macka being a nickname for any person with a "Mac" or "Mc" surname). The corporation itself sometimes refers to itself informally as Maccas in advertising. Cheap, unbranded Australian wine is called "cleanskin" wine, after the term for unbranded cattle. Cheap cask wine is often pejoratively referred to as goon (diminutive slang for flagon), and the plastic cask is referred to as a "goon sack", "goon bag" or "goony"[citation needed]. Wine purchased in a box containing a bladder with a plastic spigot may be referred to pejoratively as "Chateau d'Cardboard", "gin's handbag" (the term "gin" being a slightly pejorative term for an older Aboriginal Lady) or a "Dapto Briefcase".[2] More expensive bottled wine tends to be known by its grape variety or varieties in Australia; this is possibly due to the Appellation rules prohibiting the use of regional names (such as burgundy or chablis) to describe wines of a particular style that are not made in the country of the style's origin. Hence, chardonnay and sauvignon blanc are examples of popular white wines grown and consumed in Australia and shiraz and cabernet sauvignon are examples of popular red varieties.[3] A portable cooler, usually made of metal, plastic and/or polystyrene foam, is called an esky. This is a genericised trademark from the trade name Esky. A series of Australian tourism advertisements shown in the United States used the expression "I'll slip an extra shrimp on the barbie for you". Australians, however, invariably use the word prawn and never use shrimp. The translation was a deliberate one for American audiences. Shrimp is sometimes used to refer to someone who is short. [edit]Sport To barrack for a sporting team, means to hoot or cheer in support of something. The American term "root" is not used, as this is both a noun and verb referring to the act of sexual intercourse (noun) and to having sexual intercourse (verb - "rooting"). In Australia a table grouping teams according to their position in a league is called a ladder.

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[edit]Cricket The game of cricket is immensely popular in Australia and has contributed slang terms to Australian English. Some of this is shared with rival cricketing nations, such as England and New Zealand. Australians can be bowled over (taken by surprise), stumped (nonplussed) or clean bowled or alternatively hit for six (completely defeated). When answering questions, one can play a straight bat (or adead bat) (give a non-committal answer) or let that one through to the keeper or shoulder arms (dodge the question), particularly if they are on a sticky wicket (in a tight situation). The questioner in turn can send down a bouncer, a googly, a flipper or a yorker (difficult questions to varying degrees). Alternatively, the question could be a long hop or a dolly an easy question that person being questioned can use to his or her advantage. The expression "to bat for the other side" is commonly used in respect of gay men or lesbians, and is not necessarily a pejorative. If you take a proactive stance , then you are "taking it on the front foot", whereas if you are reacting to matters, "you are taking it on the back foot." Both are methods of playing cricket shots in terms of footwork. [edit]Football The word football or its shortened form footy is used by Australians for several different codes of football or the ball used to play any of them. Australians generally fall into four camps when it comes to the use of the word.

In the states of New South Wales (NSW) and Queensland, and the Australian Capital Territory, most people refer to Rugby League simply as "football", "footy" or "League". Rugby Union is known as "rugby", "union", "rahrah" or (less kindly) "Thugby". Australian Rules Football is known in these areas as "AFL" (a name which, strictly speaking, refers to the main governing body, the Australian Football League), "Aussie Rules".

In the states of Victoria, Western Australia, South Australia and Tasmania, the word "football" (or more commonly, "footy") usually refers to Australian Rules Football (also known simply as Australian football or "Aussie Rules"). In these states there is little or no popular differentiation between the two kinds of Rugby football, although some people use the terms "League" and "Union".

In areas in which all three codes are popular, especially the Northern Territory and the Riverina (south-western NSW), the word "football" is ambiguous and the names "league", "union" and "AFL" (or just "rules") are used to avoid confusion.

Association Football is generally known as soccer in Australia. In 2005, the governing body changed its name to Football Federation Australia. Many Sydney-based media sources now also refer to the game as "football".

In Australia, American football, which has a small following, is known as Gridiron.

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Players, officials and followers of Australian rules football, have devised many unique concepts, terms, slang and nicknames. Some of these, such as "footy", Grand Final and State of Origin have entered wider Australian usage, even among followers of other codes of football.

[edit]Vehicles [edit]Work

vehicles

In Australian English the term "ute", short for utility vehicle or utility truck, refers to a passenger carlike vehicle with a tray back - a pickup truck in American English. Truck (rather than lorry) has been the more usual term for heavy goods vehicles in Australia since World War II. Four-wheel drive, which is often abbreviated in writing as 4WD and in speech as "fourby" (4x4), is the usual name for the class of vehicles called SUVs in American English, as well as for utes with 4WD capability. In contrast to American English, neither utes nor passenger 4WD vehicles are usually regarded as being trucks in Australia. Four-wheel drives that are used only in the city and never for off-road driving are commonly given derogatory nicknames based on the names of wealthier suburbs of Australia's various state capital cities, the most common of these is Mosman Taxis, referring to the affluent Sydney suburb of Mosman or Toorak Tractors, referring to theMelbourne suburb of Toorak and their use by many parents to ferry their children to and from school. There are a variety of terms for large and/or articulated trucks, depending on the type of cargo area, size/length, number of axles/wheels and so on. A single trailer articulated truck (typically with 22 wheels in Australia) is known as a semi-trailer or semi ([semi], not [sma] as in the USA), an articulated truck with two trailers (typically with 34 tyres) is known as a B-Double (the lead trailer is shorter, with a fifth wheel supporting the second trailer). The largest of all articulated trucks are road trains, which have at least two full length trailers(plus 42 tyres). In all articulated truck configurations, the powered vehicle at the front is invariably known as a prime mover except when driven without trailers then its called a Bobtail.[4] Articulated Buses are commonly known as either "Bendy Buses" or "Banana Buses" in the major cities, where they are prevalent. [5] [edit]Other

differences

The word holiday in Australia is both used to describe time away from normal employment or school, and to describe recreational travel involving a stay away from home. A government decreed day off work is called a public holiday. Australians do not use holiday to describe days such as Valentines Day or Mothers Day which do not involve time away from work. The term "Fall" is not used as another word for "Autumn". Also, the verb "root" ("to root"), while it has the same American and British meanings of "to fix oneself in" (never "to root for": to lend support, usually a sporting person or team, instead "to barrack for" is used), in Australian English it is also a verb that means "to have sex with". While not

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an especially offensive, this is still a vulgar expression in Australia, usually used in the "broad" language among friends. For example, this became confusing for international audiences of Chris Lilley's Summer Heights High, where character Mr. G sings: "she's a slut and she knows it/she wants to root all the boys", in which many misunderstood the verb to be "she wants to ruin all the boys". "Rooted" (like the term "buggered") is a term used to describe something ruined, or a person in a state of exhaustion. With regard to foreign countries, the word abroad is rarely used in Australian English. Overseas is commonly used in the same sense because all other countries are overseas from Australia.

Australian English Vocabulary

British English A a good job Absolutely! accident afternoon aggressive alcohol alcohol American angry Australian B banana beer beer glass (285 ml) biscuit C Car paint cheap wine chicken chocolate Christmas criminal D Duco plonk chook chokkie Chrissie bushranger nana amber (fluid) middy, pot Bickie a good lurk Reckon! prang arvo aggro grog booze Yank berko Aussie, Strine Australian English

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dockworker drunk E engine (car or boat) English person Eucalyptus tree evening meal exact information excellent F far away in the outback farm fast sheep shearer field food G game Go away. H Have you eaten yet? Hi. horses How are you? I idiot information it it's fine K kangaroo L lavatory lavatory (outdoor) Liquor Shop

wharfie pissed

donk pom gum tree tea good oil ace

back of beyond station ringer (in the country) paddock tucker

brave Shove off.

Did you eat yet? G'day mate. neddies How are you going?

dill, drongo oil she she's apples

Roo

Loo dunny Bottle Shop

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M Middle of nowhere Milk bar (South Wales) milkman money mosquito N New Zealander nonsense non-stop talk P postman pub meal R remote desert country road for trucking cattle by road trains S sandwiches sausage shark meat sheep a sheep which has lost all its teeth sheepdog sheepfarmer Shut up. soldier stony desert stupid person swiming costume T tasty food tea kettle teacher to complain to give up num-nums (parent to kid talk ) Billie chalkie to grizzle to give it away cut lunch snag flake jumbuck (mainly in songs) gummy kelpie woolgrower Belt up. digger gibber (used in the west) Alf bathers never-never beef road postie counter meal kiwi, enzedder piffle earbush (old) back of bourke deli milko lolly (in the country) mozzie

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to have a look to hunt for gemstones Toilet tomato sauce trainee on a cattle farm trousers U underpants (men) undertaker V vegetable extract (used for sandwiches) vegetables W waterhole Well done!

to gander to fossick comfort station dead horse (old) Jackaroo daks, strides

jocks mortician

vegemite vegies

billabong Good on ya!

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Influence of Australian Aboriginal languages

Some elements of Aboriginal languages and Torres Strait Island languages have been adopted by Australian English mainly as names for places, flora and fauna (for example dingo) and local culture. Many such are localised, and do not form part of general Australian use, while others, such as kangaroo, boomerang, budgerigar, wallaby and so on have become international. Beyond that, little has been adopted into the wider language, except for some localised terms and slang. Some examples are cooee and hard yakka. The former is used as a high-pitched call, for attracting attention, (pronounced /k.i/) which travels long distances. Cooee is also a notional distance: if he's within cooee, we'll spot him. Hard yakka means hard work and is derived from yakka, from the Yagara/Jagara language once spoken in the Brisbane region. Also from there is the word bung, from the Sydney pidgin English (and ultimately from the Sydney Aboriginal language), and originally meaning "dead", and now meaning "broken" or "caused to be less than perfect", such as "a bung knee", which is a knee that does not work properly for whatever reason, such as stiffness, pain, arthritis, an accident, or something like that. A failed piece of equipment may be described as having bunged up or as "on the bung" or "gone bung". Although didgeridoo, referring to a well-known wooden musical instrument, is often thought of as an Aboriginal word, it is now believed to be an onomatopoeic word invented by English speakers. It has also been suggested that it may have an Irish or Scottish Gaelic derivation because the word ddaire means "piper" in Gaelic, and ddaire dubh [du:dr du:] means 'black pipe player'.[18] Many towns or suburbs of Australia have also been influenced or named after Aboriginal words. The most well known example is the capital, Canberra named after a local language word meaning "meeting place".

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Spelling
Australian spelling generally follows conventions of British English. As in British spelling, the 'u' is retained in words such as honour and favour and the -ise ending is used in words such as organiseand realise, although -ize may be tolerated, and occasionally appears in official contexts.[citation needed] As in most English speaking countries, there is no official governmental regulator or overseer of correct spelling and grammar. Dictionaries such as the Macquarie Dictionary and the Australian Oxford Dictionary have provided a compendium of words and spellings, but often include variants of spellings for certain words regardless of their commonality.[citation needed] This can lead to confusion about what is correct or acceptable spelling in Australian English. There was a widely held belief in Australia that controversies over spelling resulted from the "Americanisation" of Australian English; the influence of American English in the late 20th century, but the debate over spelling is much older. For example, a pamphlet entitled The So-Called "American Spelling", published in Sydney some time before 1901, argued that "there is no valid etymological reason for the preservation of the u in such words as honor, labor, etc.",[19] alluding to older British spellings which also used the -or ending. The pamphlet also claimed that "the tendency of people in Australasia is to excise the u, and one of the Sydney morning papers habitually does this, while the other generally follows the older form." Newspapers are not always a reliable guide to community preference and usage,[20] as they are often more concerned about saving space.[21] For example, circa 2007 Melbourne newspaper The Age finally changed its longstanding policy of omitting the u, in response to continuing complaints from its readers.[22][verification needed] One of the two major political parties is the Australian Labor Party, spelt without a 'u', with the atypical spelling dating back to 1912 as what was then an attempt to "modernise" the name. The main champion of the spelling change was King O'Malley, a major figure in the party's early history, who publicly claimed to have been born in Canada but was most likely born in the US and spent (almost) all of the first 30 years of his life in the US. It should also be noted that in its early years, the ALP was significantly influenced by the US labour movement. Words listed by the Macquarie Dictionary as currently often spelled differently to the received British spellings include "program" as opposed to "programme" and "jail" as opposed to "gaol" (although the traditional spellings may still be found in government documents or names such as Boggo Road Gaol).[23]

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[edit]Colloquialisms Diminutives are commonly used and are often used to indicate familiarity. Some common examples are arvo (afternoon), barbie (barbecue), smoko (originally a smoking break, now often used to refer to morning tea), Aussie (Australian) and pressie (present (gift)). The last two are pronounced /zi/ and /przi/ respectively, never with a voiceless 's'. This may also be done with people's names to create nicknames (other English speaking countries create similar diminutives). For example, "Gazza" from Gary. Incomplete comparisons are sometimes used, such as "sweet as". "Full" or "fully" may precede a word to act as an intensifier. This is more common in regional Australia. The suffix "-ly" is sometimes omitted in broader Australian English. For instance "real good" in lieu of "really good." South Australia's use of the expression "heaps good" is well known in Australia. The expression is used in some South Australian tourism advertisements. The augmentation "heaps" can be heard throughout Eastern Australia, along with "way" and "far." Litotes, such as "not bad", "not much" and "you're not wrong", are sometimes used. Many idiomatic phrases and words once common in Australian English are now stereotypes and caricatured exaggerations, and have disappeared from everyday use. Such outdated and parodied terms include strewth, you beaut and crikey, though these may still be heard in rural areas. Waltzing Matilda written by bush poet Banjo Paterson contains many obsolete Australian words and phrases that appeal to a rural ideal and are understood by Australians even though they are not in common usage outside the song. One example is the title, which means travelling, particularly with a swag.

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Australian Aboriginal English

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Australian Aboriginal English (AAE) is a term referring to the various varieties of the English language used by Indigenous Australians. These varieties, which developed differently in different parts ofAustralia, vary along a continuum, from forms close to standard English to more nonstandard forms. There are generally distinctive features of accent, grammar, words and meanings, as well as language use.[1] The furthest extent of the dialect is Kriol, which is regarded by linguists as a distinct language from English.[citation needed] Speakers change between different forms according to social talking.[citation needed] Several features of AAE are shared with creole languages spoken in nearby countries, such as Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea, Pijin in the Solomon Islands, and Bislama in Vanuatu. AAE terms, or derivative terms, are sometimes used by the broader Australian community. Australian Aboriginal English is spoken amongst Indigenous people generally but is especially evident in what are called 'discrete communities' i.e. ex-government or mission reserves such as the DOGIT communities in Queensland. Because most Indigenous Australians live in urban and rural areas with strong social interaction across assumed rural and urban and remote divides, many so-called 'urban' people also use Aboriginal English. See the extensive research of Diane Eades for information and the impacts of these linguistic communities on the relationship between Indigenous people and Australian institutions such as the legal system. [edit]Grammar [edit]Pronouns Although he and him are masculine pronouns in standard English, in Aboriginal English, particularly in northern Australia, it may also be used for females and inanimate objects. The distinction betweenhe as the nominative form and him as the accusative form is not always observed, and him may be found as the subject of a verb. [edit]"Fellow" In some forms of Aboriginal English, fellow (also spelt fella, feller, fullah, fulla, balla etc.) is used in combination with adjectives or numerals, e.g. big fella business = "important business", one-feller girl = "one girl". This can give it an adverbial meaning, e.g. sing out big fella = "call out loudly". It is also used with pronouns to indicate the plural, e.g. me fella = "we" or "us", you fella = "you". [edit]Lexicon [edit]Kin

terms

Main article: Australian Aboriginal kinship

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Words referring to one's relatives are used in different senses to Standard English, reflecting traditional kinship systems.

Aunty and uncle are used as terms of address for older people, to whom the speaker may not be related. Brother and sister include close relatives of the same generation, not just siblings. Cousin includes any relative of one's own generation. The combinations cousin-brother and cousin-sister are used to refer to biological cousins. In south-east Queensland, daughter is used to refer to any woman of one's great-grandparents' generation. This is due to the cyclical nature of traditional kinship systems. Father and mother include any relative of one's parents' generation, such as uncles, aunts, and in-laws. Grandfather and grandmother can refer to anyone of one's grandparents' generation. Grandfather can also refer to any respected elderly man, to whom the speaker may not be related.

Poison refers to a relation one is obligated to avoid. See Mother-in-law language. The term second, or little bit in northern Australia, is used with a distant relative who is described using a close kinship term. For example, one's second fathers or little bit fathers are men of one's father's generation not closely related to the speaker. It is contrasted with close, near or true.

A skin or skin group are sections which are determined by the skin of a person's parents, and determine who a person is eligible to marry. Son can refer to any male of the next generation, such as nephews.

[edit]Bru

/ Brahh

Shortened version of "brother". [edit]Business Many Aboriginal people use the word business in a distinct way, to mean matters. Funeral and mourning practices are commonly known as Sorry Business. Financial matters are referred to as Money Business, and the secret-sacred rituals distinct to each sex are referred to as Women's Business and Men's Business. [edit]Camp Many Aborigines refer to their house as their camp, particularly in Central Australia and the Top End of the Northern Territory. [edit]Deadly

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Deadly is used by many Aboriginal people to mean excellent, very good, in the same way that wicked is by other English speakers. The Deadlys are awarded for outstanding achievement by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island people. This usage is not exclusive to Aborigines.

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Strine
Strine /stran/ is a term coined in 1964[1] and subsequently used to describe a joke or made-up "language" purportedly spoken by Australians whose accents frequently run words together in a type ofliaison. The term is a syncope, derived from a shortened phonetic rendition of the pronunciation of the word "Australian" in an exaggerated Broad Australian accent.[2] It was the subject of humorous columns published in the Sydney Morning Herald from the mid 1960s. Alastair Ardoch Morrison, under the Strine pseudonym of Afferbeck Lauder (a syncope for "Alphabetical Order"), wrote a song "With Air Chew" ("Without You") in 1965 followed by a series of books - Let Stalk Strine (1965), Nose Tone Unturned (1967), Fraffly Well Spoken (1968) and Fraffly Suite (1969). An example from one of the books: 'Eye-level arch play devoisters ...' ("I'll have a large plate of oysters"). In October 2009, Text Publishing Company, Melbourne re-published all four books in an omnibus edition.[3] The naturalist and TV presenter Steve Irwin was once referred to as the person who "talked Strine like no other contemporary personality".[4

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Aussie Strine
A guide for the uninitiated http://users.tpg.com.au/users/bev2000/strine2.htm A quick word of explanation first: I have drawn deeply on the experience and humour of Alistair Morrison, better known as Afferbeck Lauder, in bringing this invaluable resource to you. By the time you work your way through this page, you will have at your fingertips a number of useful phrases which just may save you acute embarrassment one day. Consider the following real life experience of British novelist Monica Dickens, as reported in the Sydney Morning Herald on 30 November 1964. Monica was signing copies of her latest book at a bookstore in Sydney, when a lady handed her a book, saying "Emma Chisit?" The author dutifully wrote, 'To Emma Chisit' inside the front cover of the book and passed it back. Can you see what had happened? Click here to hear what Emma Chisit really said. Ah - it's so obvious once you know the lingo! The lady was saying in her best Strine, "How much is it?", but being from the Motherland, Monica couldn't understand her. Alistair Morrison was inspired by this event, to write a Strine-English phrasebook, using the pseudonym Afferbeck Lauder, which is itself a Strine phrase. Can you pick it? It might help if you recall that a phrasebook is set out in alphabetical order. Now, lets imagine a scene in an ordinary suburban home. Bev is on the phone to a friend. Generally, I'll leave you to fill in the conversation on the other end of the phone with whatever suits you. Click on each underlined phrase to hear it spoken, and the translation buttons for a cheat sheet! "Jareedna piper wairtsed abat the bushfires?" "Eiche nardly bleevit." "Yeah. Shockin' - Gonnynews?" "Yagunna goda Mairlben freester?" "Icon ardlywait." "Jegoda the footy?" Friend: "Nar dingo - sorten tv." "Waddya think of Smithy? Idney great!?" "Eeza rep bairg." 25

"Eediddit without retrine." "Whine cher comoveren avtee?" "I was zony sane lar snite we oughter seeyas." "Sleece tiger do." "Jeer that noise? Wodger reckna itiz? Scettin lairder."

Let Stalk Strine was followed by Nose Tone Unturned (1967), Fraffly Well Spoken (1968), and Fraffly Suite (1969). The first two presented Australian written phonetically to appear as another language, the next two lampooned the clipped, almost strangled variety of upper-class English speech in the same way. The titles, and the author pseudonym, are all examples in themselves (Afferbeck Lauder = alphabetical order). Some further examples are:

Strine

"Spewffle climber treely" - It's a beautiful climate, really "Emma chisit" - How much is it ? "Egg nishner" - air-conditioner

Fraffly

"Egg wetter gree" - I quite agree "Gray chooma" - Great humour

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Waltzing Matilda
"Waltzing Matilda" is Australia's most widely known bush ballad, a country folk song, and has been referred to as "the unofficial national anthem of Australia".[1] The title is Australian slang for travelling by foot with one's goods in a "Matilda" (bag) slung over one's back.[2] The song narrates the story of an itinerant worker, or swagman, making a drink of tea at a bush camp and capturing a sheep to eat. When the sheep's owner arrives with three police officers to arrest the worker for the theft (a crime punishable by hanging [citation needed]), the worker commits suicide by drowning himself in the nearby watering hole, and then goes on to haunt the site. The original lyrics were written in 1895 by poet and nationalist Banjo Paterson. It was first published as sheet music in 1903. Extensive folklore surrounds the song and the process of its creation, to the extent that the song has its own museum, the Waltzing Matilda Centre in Winton, Queensland. The song was first recorded in 1926 as performed by John Collinson and Russell Callow.[3] This recording of "Waltzing Matilda" was added to the National Film and Sound Archive's Sounds of Australia Registry in 2008.

History
Writing of the song
The words to the song were written in 1895 by Banjo Paterson, a famous Australian poet, and the music was written (based on a folk tune) by Christina Macpherson, who wrote herself that she "was no musician, but she would do her best." Paterson wrote the piece while staying at the Dagworth Homestead, a bush station in Queensland. While he was there his hosts played him a traditional Celtic folk tune called "The Craigeelee", and Paterson decided that it would be a good piece to set lyrics to, producing them during the rest of his stay. It has been widely accepted that "Waltzing Matilda" is potentially based on the following story: In Queensland in 1891 the Great Shearers' Strike brought the colony close to civil war and was broken only after the Premier Samuel Griffith called in the military. In September 1894, on a station called Dagworth (north of Winton), some shearers were again on strike. It turned violent with the strikers firing their rifles and pistols in the air and setting fire to the woolshed at the Dagworth Homestead, killing dozens of sheep. The owner of Dagworth Homestead and three policemen gave chase to a man named Samuel Hoffmeister also known as "French(y)". Rather than be captured, Hoffmeister shot and killed himself at the Combo Waterhole.

27

Bob Macpherson (the brother of Christina) and Paterson are said to have taken rides together at Dagworth. Here they may have passed the Combo Waterhole, where Bob may have told this story to Paterson. The song itself was first performed on 6 April 1895 by Sir Herbert Ramsay at the North Gregory Hotel in Winton, Queensland. The occasion was a banquet for the Premier of Queensland. It became an instant success. In February 2010 ABC News[7] reported investigation by Barrister Trevor Monti that the death of Hoffmeister was more akin to a gangland assassination than to suicide. The same report asserts "Writer Matthew Richardson says the song was most likely written as a carefully worded political allegory to record and comment on the events of the shearers' strike."

Lyrics
Typical lyrics
There are no "official" lyrics to "Waltzing Matilda", and slight variations can be found in different sources.[12] This version incorporates the famous "You'll never catch me alive said he" variation introduced by the Billy Tea company.[8] Paterson's original lyrics referred directly to 'drowning', which the tea company felt was too negative.

Once a jolly swagman camped by a billabong Under the shade of a coolibah tree, And he sang as he watched and waited till his billy boiled "You'll come a-Waltzing Matilda, with me" Waltzing Matilda, Waltzing Matilda "You'll come a-Waltzing Matilda, with me" And he sang as he watched and waited till his billy boiled, "You'll come a-Waltzing Matilda, with me". Down came a jumbuck to drink at that billabong, Up jumped the swagman and grabbed him with glee, And he sang as he shoved that jumbuck in his tucker bag, "You'll come a-Waltzing Matilda, with me". Waltzing Matilda, Waltzing Matilda "You'll come a-Waltzing Matilda, with me" And he sang as he shoved that jumbuck in his tucker bag, "You'll come a-Waltzing Matilda, with me".

28

Up rode the squatter, mounted on his thoroughbred, Down came the troopers, one, two, three, "Where's that jolly jumbuck you've got in your tucker bag?" "You'll come a-Waltzing Matilda, with me". Waltzing Matilda, Waltzing Matilda "You'll come a-Waltzing Matilda, with me" "Where's that jolly jumbuck you've got in your tucker bag?", "You'll come a-Waltzing Matilda, with me". Up jumped the swagman and sprang into the billabong, "You'll never take me alive", said he, And his ghost may be heard as you pass by that billabong, "You'll come a-Waltzing Matilda, with me". Waltzing Matilda, Waltzing Matilda "You'll come a-Waltzing Matilda, with me" And his ghost may be heard as you pass by that billabong, "You'll come a-Waltzing Matilda, with me."

Plot and details

The song narrates the story of an itinerant worker making a crude cup of tea at a bush camp and capturing a sheep to eat. When the sheep's ostensible owner arrives with three policemen to arrest the worker, he drowns himself in a small lake and goes on to haunt the site. The lyrics contain many distinctively Australian English words, some now rarely used outside this song. These include: waltzing derived from the German term auf der Walz, which means to travel while working as a craftsman and learn new techniques from other masters before returning home after three years and one day, a custom which is still in use today among carpenters.[13] Matilda a romantic term for a swagman's bundle. See below, "Waltzing Matilda." Waltzing Matilda from the above terms, "to waltz Matilda" is to travel with a swag, that is, with all one's belongings on one's back wrapped in a blanket or cloth. The exact origins of the term "Matilda" are disputed; one fanciful derivation states that when swagmen met each other at

29

their gatherings, there were rarely women to dance with. Nonetheless, they enjoyed a dance, and so they danced with their swags, which was given a woman's name. However, this appears to be influenced by the word "waltz", hence the introduction of dancing. It seems more likely that, as a swagman's only companion, the swag came to be personified as a woman. Another explanation is that the term also derives from German immigrants. German soldiers commonly referred to their greatcoats as "Matilda", supposedly because the coat kept them as warm as a woman would. Early German immigrants who "went on the waltz" would wrap their belongings in their coat, and took to calling it by the same name their soldiers had used. swagman a man who travelled the country looking for work. The swagman's "swag" was a bed roll that bundled his belongings. billabong an oxbow lake (a cut-off river bend) found alongside a meandering river. coolibah tree a kind of eucalyptus tree which grows near billabongs. jumbuck a large, difficult-to-shear sheep, not a tame sheep. Implies that the sheep was not 'owned' by the squatter or regularly shorn, thus not able to be stolen by the swagman. billy a can for boiling water in, usually 23 pints. Tucker bag a bag for carrying food ("tucker"). troopers policemen. squatter Australian squatters started as early farmers who raised livestock on land which they did not legally have the right to use; in many cases they later gained legal use of the land even though they did not have full possession, and became wealthy thanks to these large land holdings. The squatter's claim to the land may be as uncertain as the swagman's claim to the jumbuck.

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