Irrigation Engineering

MODULE 3

1. Benefits of Irrigation
1. Increase in crop yield: the production of almost all types of crops can be increased by providing the right amount of water at the right time, depending on its shape of growth. Such a controlled supply of water is possible only through irrigation. 2. Protection from famine: the availability of irrigation facilities in any region ensures protection against failure of crops or famine due to drought. 3. Cultivation of superior crops: with assured supply of water for irrigation, farmers may think of cultivating superior variety of crops or even other crops which yield high return. 4. Elimination of mixed cropping: in rain-fed areas, farmers have a tendency to cultivate more than one type of crop in the same field such that even if one dies without the required amount of water, at least he would get the yield of the other. 5. Economic development: with assured irrigation, the farmers get higher returns by way of crop production throughout the year, the government in turn, benefits from the tax collected from the farmers in base of the irrigation facilities extended.

1. Benefits of Irrigation
6. Hydro power generation: usually, in canal system of irrigation, there are drops or differences in elevation of canal bed level at certain places. Although the drop may not be very high, this difference in elevation can be used successfully to generate electricity. 7. Domestic and industrial water supply: some water from the irrigation canals may be utilized for domestic and industrial water supply for nearby areas.

2. Classification of Irrigation Scheme

The classification of the irrigation systems can also be based on the way the water is applied to the agricultural land as: 1. Flow irrigation system: where the irrigation water is conveyed by growing to the irrigated land. This may again be classified into the following. a. Direct irrigation: Where the irrigation water is obtained directly from the river, without any intermediate storage. This type of irrigation is possible by constructing a weir or a barrage across a river to raise the level of the river water and thus divert some portion of the river flow through an adjacent canal, where the flow takes place by gravity. Reservoir/tank/storage irrigation: The irrigation water is obtained from a river, where storage has been created by construction an obstruction across the river, like a dam. This ensures that even when there is no inflow into the river from the catchment, there is enough stored water which can continue to irrigate fields through a system of canals.

b.

2. Classification of Irrigation Scheme

The classification of the irrigation systems can also be based on the way the water is applied to the agricultural land as: 2. Lift irrigation system: Where the irrigation water is available at a level lower than that of the land to be irrigated and hence the water is lifted up by pumps or by other mechanical devices for lifting water and conveyed to the agricultural land through channels flowing under gravity.

2. Classification of Irrigation Scheme

Classification of irrigation systems may also be made on the basis of duration of the applied water, like: 1. Inundation/flooding type irrigation system: In which large quantities of water flowing in a river during floods is allowed to inundate the land to be cultivated, thereby saturating the soil. The excess water is then drained off and the land is used for cultivation. This type of irrigation uses the flood water of rivers and therefore is limited to a certain time of the year. 2. Perennial irrigation system: In which irrigation water is supplied according to the crop water requirement at regular intervals, throughout the life cycle of the crop. The water for such irrigation may be obtained from rivers or from walls. Hence, the source may be either surface or ground water and the application of water may be by flow or lift irrigation systems.

Terms related to irrigation projects which may also be called irrigation schemes: Commanded area (CA): is defined as the area that can be irrigated by a canal system, the CA may further be classified as under: 1. Gross command area (GCA): This is defined as total area that can be irrigated by a canal system on the perception that unlimited quantity of water is available. It is the total area that may theoretically be served by the irrigation system. But this may include inhibited areas, roads, ponds, uncultivable areas etc which would not be irrigated. 2. Culturable command area (CCA): This is the actually irrigated area within the GCA. However, the entire CCA is never put under cultivation during any crop season due to the following reasons:

a. b. c.

The required quantity of water, fertilizer, etc. may not be available to cultivate the entire CCA at a particular point of time. Thus, this is a physical constraint. The land may be kept fallow that is without cultivation for one or more crop seasons to increase the fertility of the soil. This is a cultural decision. Due to high water table in some areas of the CCA irrigated water may not be applied as the crops get enough water from the saturation provide to the surface water table.

Intensity of irrigation is defined as the percentage of the irrigation proposed to be irrigated annually.

3. Irrigation Project Structures

A number of structures are required for the successful implementation of an irrigation project. This includes: 1. Storage structure and appurtenant works a) Dams b) Spillways and energy dissipators c) Sluices and outlets 2. Diversion structure and appurtenant works a) Barrage (weirs are not commonly used these days for sizeable projects) b) Canal head regulator c) River training works 3. Canal water conveyance structures a) Canal sections and layout b) Cross regulators c) Drops d) Turnouts

4. Surface Irrigation Method

Flooding Method It is a surface irrigation method where the water is allowed to cover the surface of land in a continuous sheet of water with the depth of applied water just sufficient to allow the field to absorb the right amount of water needed to raise the soil moisture up to field capacity Two Types of Irrigation Method: a) Border Irrigation Method b) Basin Irrigation Method

4. Surface Irrigation Method

a) Border Irrigation Method Borders are usually long uniformly graded strips of land separated by earth bunds.

a) Border Irrigation Method The essential feature of the border irrigation is to provide an even surface over which the water can flow down the slope with a nearly uniform depth. Each strip is irrigated independently by turning in a stream of water at the upper end. The water spreads and flow down the strip in a sheet confined by border ridges. When the advancing water reaches the lower end of the border, the stream is turned off.

4. Surface Irrigation Method

b) Basin Irrigation Method Basins are flat areas of land surrounded by low bunds. The bunds prevent the water from flowing to the adjacent fields. The basins are filled to desired depth and the water is retained until it infiltrates into the soil. Water may be maintained for considerable periods of time. Basin method of irrigation can be formally divided into two: a) Check Basin Method b) Ring Basin Method

b) Basin Irrigation Method a) Check Basin Method In this method, the land to be irrigated is divided into small plots or basins surrounded by checks, levees (low bunds) which is suitable for many field crops. Each plot or basin has a nearly level surface. The irrigation water is applied by filling the plots with water up to the desired depth without overtopping the levees and the water retained there is allowed to infiltrate into the soil. The levees may be constructed for temporary or may be semi permanent. The size of the levees depends on the depths of water to be impounded as on the stability of the soil when wet.

b) Basin Irrigation Method a) Check Basin Method Basin irrigation is suitable for many field crops. Paddy rice grows best when its roots are submerged in water and so basin irrigation is the best method for use with the crop.

b) Basin Irrigation Method b) Ring Basin Method The other form of basin irrigation is the ring basin method which is used for growing trees in orchards. In this method, generally for each tree, a separate basin is made which is usually circular in shape Trees which can be irrigated successfully using the ring basin method include citrus and banana. Sometimes, basin sizes are made larger to include two more trees in one basin. Water to the basins is supplied from a supply channel through small field channels conveyed the basins with the supply channel.

Furrow Irrigation Method Furrows are small channels, which carry water down the land slope between the crop rows. Water infiltrates into the soil as it moves along the slope. The crop is usually grown on ridges between the furrows. This method is suitable for all row crops and for crops that cannot stand water for long periods, like 12 to 24 hours, as is generally encountered in the border or basin methods of irrigation. Water is applied to the furrows by letting in water from the supply channel, either by pipe siphons or by making temporary breaches in the supply channel embankment. Furrow irrigation is suitable to most soils except sandy soils that have very high infiltration water and provide poor lateral distribution water between furrows.

5. Subsurface Irrigation Method

The application of water to fields in this type of irrigation system is below the ground surface so that it is supplied directly to the root zone of the plants. The main advantages of these types of irrigation is reduction of evaporation losses and less hindrance to cultivation works which takes place on the surface. There may be two ways by which irrigation water may be applied below ground and these are termed as: a) Natural sub-surface irrigation method b) Artificial sub-surface irrigation method

5. Subsurface Irrigation Method

a) Natural sub-surface irrigation method Under favorable conditions of topography and soil conditions, the water table may be close enough to the root zone of the field of crops which gets its moisture due to the upward capillary movement of water from the water table. The natural presence of the water table may not be able to supply the requisite water throughout the crop growing season.

b) Artificial sub-surface irrigation method The concept of maintaining a suitable water table just below the root zone is obtained by providing perforated pipes laid in a network pattern below the soil surface at a desired depth.

6. Sprinkler Irrigation Method

Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying water which is similar to natural rainfall but spread uniformly over the land surface just when needed and at a rate less than the infiltration rate of the soil so as to avoid surface runoff from irrigation. This is achieved by distributing water through a system of pipes usually by pumping which is then sprayed into the air through sprinklers so that it breaks up into small water drops which fall to the ground. The system of irrigation is suitable for undulating lands, with poor water availability, sandy or shallow soils, or where uniform application of water is desired.

6. Sprinkler Irrigation Method

A typical sprinkler irrigation system consists of the following components: 1. Pump unit: takes water from a source and provides adequate pressure for delivery into the pipe system 2. Mainline and sometimes sub mainlines: deliver water from the pump to the laterals 3. Laterals: deliver water from the mainlines or sub mainlines to the sprinklers 4. Sprinklers

6. Sprinkler Irrigation Method

The most common types of sprinklers that are used are: 1. Perforated pipe system: This consists of holes perforated in the lateral irrigation pipes in specially designed pattern to distribute water fairly uniformly.

2.

Rotating head system: Here small sized nozzles are placed on riser pipes fixed at uniform intervals along the length of the lateral pipe

7. Drip Irrigation Method

Drip Irrigation system is sometimes called trickle irrigation and involves dripping water onto the soil at very low rates (2-20 litres per hour) from a system of small diameter plastic pipes filled with outlets called emitters or drippers. Water is applied close to the plants so that only part of the soil in which the roots grow is wetted, unlike surface and sprinkler irrigation, which involves wetting the whole soil profile. With drip irrigation water, applications are more frequent than with other methods and this provides a very favourable high moisture level in the soil in which plants can flourish. The drip irrigation system is particularly suited to areas where water quality is marginal, land is steeply sloping or undulating and of poor quality, where water or labour are expensive, or where high value crops require frequent water applications.

7. Drip Irrigation Method

A typical drip irrigation system consists of the following components: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Pump unit Control Head Main and sub main lines Laterals Emitters and drippers

8. Important Terms and Definitions

Dam: A dam is a hydraulic structure constructed across a river to store water on its upstream side. Spillways and energy dissipators: Spillway is a channel that carries excess water over or around a dam or other obstruction. An energy dissipator is a device that is used to convert concentrated storm water runoff to sheet flow and is constructed at the end of all storm sewers or channels that outfall into a buffer. Sluice and Outlet: A sluice is an artificial channel for conducting water, with a valve or gate to regulate the flow. An outlet is a small structure which admits water from the distributing channel to a water course of field channel. Barrage: An artificial obstruction placed in a river or water course to increase the depth of water. Canal Head Regulator: Any structure constructed to regulate the discharge, full supply level or velocity in a canal is known as a regulator work.

8. Important Terms and Definitions

River Training Works: Various measures adopted on a river to direct and guide the river flow, to train and regulate the river bed or to increase the low water depth are called River Training works. Cross regulator: A regulator provided on the main channel at the downstream of the offtake to head up the water level and to enable the off-taking channel to draw the required supply is called a Cross Regulator. Pump Unit: This takes water from the source and provides the right pressure for delivering into the pipe system. The control head: This consists of valves to control the discharge and pressure in the entire system. It may also have filters to clear the water. Mainlines, sub mains and laterals: These components supply water from the control head into the fields. Emitters or drippers: These are devices used to control the discharge water from the lateral to the plants.

Management of Water Resources

MODULE 5

A. River Training and River Bank Protection

For constructing a hydraulic structure across a river, a water resources engineer must also consider the effect of the structure on the hydraulics of the river and the best ways to train the river such that the structure performs satisfactorily and also there is no significant damage to the riverine environment. At times, people residing very close to the flood zones of a river may have to be protected from the rivers fury. This is done by providing embankments along the river sides to prevent the river water from spilling over to the inhabited areas. In order to limit the movement of the bank of a meandering river, certain structures are constructed on the riverbank, which are called riverbank protection works.

River Training and River Bank Protection Structures

1. Guide Bund or Banks These are provided for this purpose of guiding the river flow past the diversion structure without causing damage to it and its approaches. They are constructed on either or both on the upstream and downstream of the structure and on one or both the flanks as required.

River Training and River Bank Protection Structures

2. Groynes or Spurs Groynes or spurs are constructed transverse to the river flow extending from the bank into the river. This form of river training works perform one or more functions such as training the river along the desired course to reduce the concentration of flow at the point of attack, creating a slack flow for silting up the area in the vicinity and protecting the bank by keeping the flow away from it.

River Training and River Bank Protection Structures

3. Cut-offs Cut-offs as river training works are to be carefully planned and executed in meandering rivers. The cut-off is artificially induced with a pilot channel to divert the river from a curved flow which may be endangering valuable land or property or to straighten its approach to a work or for any other purpose.

River Training and River Bank Protection Structures

4. Marginal Embankments These are earthen embankments, also known as levees, which are constructed in the flood plains of a river and run parallel to the river bank along its length. The aim of providing these embankments is to confine the river flood water within the cross section available between the embankments.

River Training and River Bank Protection Structures

5. River Bank Protection Works This aspect of river engineering considers methods and techniques for protecting the banks of rivers from collapsing. Hence, certain structural interventions are required to be implemented, which are termed as the riverbank protection works or alternately as bank stabilization structures. Self-adjusting Armour a. Riprap Blanket. should be blocky in shape rather than elongated, as more nearly cubical stones nest together best and are more resistant to movement.

River Training and River Bank Protection Structures

b. Trench fill. Is simply a standard stone armor revetment with a massive stone toe. It is normally constructed in an excavated trench behind the river bank, in anticipation that the river will complete the work by eroding to the revetment, causing the stone toe to launch down and armor the subsequent bank slope.

River Training and River Bank Protection Structures

c. Windrow revetment. It consists of rock placed on the floodplain surface landward from the existing bank line at a pre-determined location, beyond which additional erosion is to be prevented.

River Training and River Bank Protection Structures

d. Longitudinal Stone Toe. It is another form of a window revetment, with the stone placed along the existing streambed rather than on top bank.

River Training and River Bank Protection Structures

e. Concrete Blocks. These are armour revetment for bank stabilization consisting of loose concrete blocks. f. Sacks. Is an armor material can be considered to be artificial rocks of uniform size and shape. g. Soil-cement blocks is mixed well with sufficient cement to provide a durable bond between soil particles.

River Training and River Bank Protection Structures

Rigid Armour. Rigid armour is an erosion-resistant material which has little or no flexibility to conform to bank irregularities occurring after construction. a. Asphalt mixes with a high sand content are sometimes used to retain some permeability to relieve hydrostatic pressure. b. On slopes above water, concrete can be placed in the conventional manner with forms, or can be pumped into fabric mattresses which serve as forms for a fine aggregate concrete. c. Grouted Armour. Grouting of an armour layer with asphalt or concrete enables the armour to withstand higher flow velocities, provides a smooth surface for pedestrian or vehicle access, and reduces the hydraulic roughness of the armour. d. Soil-cement will withstand relatively high velocities and is usually less expensive than concrete, asphalt, and grouted riprap.

River Training and River Bank Protection Structures

Flexible Mattress. The basic concept of a flexible mattress is that material or objects which cannot resist erosive forces separately can be fastened together. a. Concrete Block Mattress. Mattresses provide a higher degree of safety from progressive failure of the armour due to displacement of individual blocks from hydraulic or geotechnical forces or vandalism. b. Fabric mattresses made of synthetic material and filled with concrete grout, other cohesive mixtures, or sand are available from various manufactures. c. Gabion mattress consists of a mesh container filled with cobbles or quarried stone. d. Vegetation Mattress. Wooden mattress is one of the oldest techniques of bank stabilization, even though it is seldom used now in developed regions. The mats may be made of poles, brush, or lumber.

B. Drought and Flood Management

Deficit or excess of the normal requirement of water may cause imbalance in the regions physical, social, or economic situation: Droughts and Floods

C. Remote Sensing and GIS for Water Resource Management

The term Remote Sensing is applied to the study of earths features from images taken from space using satellites, or from nearer the earth using aircrafts. Amongst other fields, the Water Resources Engineers have benefited greatly by using satellite imaging techniques, some applications of which have been highlighted in this chapter. Geographic Information System (GIS) that has wide applications in planning any spatially distributed water resources engineering projects.