Wastewater - Secondary

CIV3264: URBAN W ATER AND W ASTEWATER SYSTEMS Topic 4: Wastewater Secondary, Tertiary Treatment and Sludge Processing
CONTENTS 0
Topic 4: Secondary & Tertiary Treatment and Sludge Processing
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No 4.1 SECONDARY TREATMENT 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3 4.1.4 4.1.5 4.1.6 4.1.7 Microorganisms and pollutant decompositions Activated sludge treatment Trickling filters Secondary clarifiers Rotating biological contactors Oxidation ponds Disinfection 1 1 2 12 16 18 19 20 21 21 25 26 26 31 37 37 38 39 40 40 41 42
4.2 TERTIARY TREATMENT AND EFFLUENT DISPOSAL 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.2.5 Nutrient removals Filtration Carbon adsorption Effluent disposal Alternative treatment processes
4.3 SLUDGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.3.4 4.3.5 4.3.6 Thickening Digestion Conditioning Dewatering Reduction Sludge disposal
CHAPTER REVIEW
Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University CIV3264 Revised 5/2012
4.1 SECONDARY TREATMENT

Learning Outcome: (1) knowing the role of microorganisms in secondary wastewater treatment and the concept of aerobic and anaerobic decomposition; (2) being able to carry out basic calculations for the design of an activated sludge facility for the treatment of typical domestic wastewaters; (3) understanding the working principles of trickling filters, rotating biological contactors and oxidation ponds, and the concept of effluent disinfection.
Secondary treatment usually consists of biological treatment and a secondary clarifier (Figure 4.1). Secondary treatment is often referred to as biological treatment because it uses microorganisms to remove organic materials/pollutants (represented by BOD) from wastewater. The basic conditions needed for the biological treatment are: (1) the availability of microorganisms; (2) sufficient contact between microorganisms and organic materials in the wastewater; (3) the availability of oxygen; and (4) the maintenance of favourable environmental conditions (appropriate temperature, sufficient time for microorganisms to function, etc).
Primary clarifier
Secondary treatment unit
Secondary clarifier
Sludge Sludge
Figure 4.1: Typical Secondary treatment process A number of biological wastewater treatment techniques are available. The most common types are: 1. 2. 3. 4. Activated sludge Trickling filters Rotation biological contractor (RBC) Oxidation ponds (or lagoons)
These treatment facilities will be introduced in this chapter.
4.1.1 MICROORGANISMS AND POLLUTANT DECOMPOSITIONS

The most basic ingredient needed for conventional aerobic biological treatment is the availability of sufficient amounts of microorganisms. The decomposition of organic pollutants is accomplished as the microorganisms convert colloidal and dissolved organic matter into gases, water and other smaller molecules. Most microorganisms operate primarily under either aerobic or anaerobic condition (but some types of microorganisms have metabolism pathways under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions). Accordingly, in a wastewater treatment facility, the decompositions of organic pollutants, which results in BOD reduction, can be achieved via two routes: aerobic or anaerobic. Aerobic decomposition. The basic equation of aerobic decomposition is:
Complex Organics + O2 CO2 + H2O + Stable Products (4.1)
Carbon dioxide and water are always two of the end products of aerobic decomposition, while the other products can be organic materials for the cells of microorganisms, and stable sulphur, phosphorus and nitrogen products. Anaerobic decomposition. The second route of degradation is anaerobic, performed by a different set of microorganisms, to which oxygen is often toxic. The basic expression of anaerobic decomposition is:
Complex Organics CO2 + CH4 + Partially Stable Products (4.2)
Box 4.1: Microorganisms involved in wastewater treatment Some microorganisms of interest in wastewater treatment include: bacteria, fungi, algae and protozoa. The dominance of any groups of microbes in a treatment facility depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and operating condition of the facility. No particular species can be considered a s the best. The microorganisms can be classified in different ways. Further information, such as the classification and pollutant bio-removal pathways, will be introduced in a Level 4 Module, CIV4268 Water Resource Management.
Exercise 4.1
(2 minutes)
Understanding the role of microorganisms (1) Under what type of condition (aerobic or anaerobic) are most secondary treatment facilities operated? (2) Where could the microorganisms be located in a secondary wastewater treatment facility?
4.1.2 ACTIVATED SLUDGE TREATMENT

Process Description The activated sludge process is a biological wastewater treatment technique in which a mixture of wastewater and microorganisms (biological sludge) is agitated and aerated. As the microorganisms grow, the individual organisms clump together (flocculate) to form an active mass of microbes (flocs), called activated sludge. The basic compounds of an activated sludge facility are: (i) aeration tank, (ii) air supply, (iii) secondary clarifier, and (iv) sludge recirculation. These components are presented in Figure 4.2. In practice, wastewater flows continuously into an aerated tank (Figure 4.2), where air is injected to mix the activated sludge with the wastewater and to supply the oxygen needed to break down the organic matter. As wastewater flows continuously into the aeration tank, compressed air is injected through diffusers in the bottom of the tank, or mechanical aerators entrapping atmospheric air. The air mixes with activated sludge in the wastewater and supplies the oxygen needed for the organisms to break down the organics. The mixture of wastewater and activated sludge is called mixed liquor.
An An aerated aerated tank tank - plan plan view view Wastewater feed Secondary clarifier
Returned activated sludge Sludge
(a)
(b) Figure 4.2: A typical activated sludge wastewater treatment process The mixed liquor flows from the aeration tank to secondary clarifier where the activated sludge is settled out (where microorganisms are starving). Most of the activated sludge is returned to the aeration tank and hence is called return activated sludge (RAS) to maintain high population of microbes that permits rapid breakdown of the organic matter, but a portion of the sludge is diverted to disposal units for treatment and disposal.
Usually, more activated sludge is produced in the aerated tank than needed, and the activated sludge treatment is controlled by wasting a portion of the microorganisms each day in order to maintain the proper amount of microorganisms to efficiently degrade BOD. Wasting means a portion of the microorganisms is discarded from the process. The discarded microorganisms are called waste activated sludge (WAS). In conventional activated sludge systems, wastewater is typically aerated for 6-8 hours in long, rectangular aeration basins. Sufficient air is provided to keep the sludge in suspension. About 8 m3 of air is provided for each cubic meter of wastewater treated. Figure 4.3 shows the schematic diagram of a conventionally activated sludge treatment plant, and Figure 4.4 gives the photo of an operating aeration tank.
Figure 4.3: Process diagram of a typical activated wastewater treatment plant
Figure 4.4: A typical aeration tank

Process Calculation The activated sludge process was first used in Manchester, England. It is now perhaps the most widely used process in secondary wastewater treatment. A number of activated sludge processes and design configurations have evolved since its early conception (dated back to the early 1880s). In present process calculation for a completely mixed aeration tank, the main parameters involved are shown in Figure 4.5. Parameters of Aeration Tank Loadings
Q inflow rate [m3/day] Q-Qw effluent rate [m3/day] AERATION TANK V volume [m3] X volatile SS in tank [g/m3] S dissolved BOD5 in tank [g/m3] MLSS mixed liquor SS [g/m3] Q + Qr SETTLING TANK
S dissolved BOD5 in the effluent [g/m3]
S0 BOD5 in inflow [g/m3] X0 volatile SS in the influent [g/m3]
Qr return sludge flow [m3/day] S dissolved BOD5 in effluent [g/m3] Xr volatile SS in return sludge [g/m3] SSr SS in return sludge [g/m3]
Xe volatile SS in effluent [g/m3] SSe SS in effluent [g/m3]
Qw- excess sludge wasted [m3/day]
Figure 4.5: Parameters of aeration tank loadings (sludge can be wasted from either the tank or the return sludge line). Descriptions of Basic Parameters Hydraulic detention time (aeration time), [day] represents the average time the wastewater being aerated in the aeration tank:
V Q
(4.3)
V volume of the aeration tank [m3] Q wastewater inflow into the tank [m3/day] The value of varies between 3-30 h (4-8 h recommended for conventional systems) BOD loading (or BOD load) [g/(m3 day)] is mass of BOD applied per day per unit volume of liquid in the aeration tank:
BOD load S0 Q V
(4.4)
S0 concentration of BOD5 in the wastewater inflow (into the tank) [g/m3] BOD load is typically in the range of 0.3 to 3 kg BOD5, per m3 per day.
The food to microorganisms ratio, F/M [day-1], is a ratio between BOD5 (food) input and the mass of microorganisms (represented by volatile SS) in the system:
F/M S 0Q VX S0 X
(4.5)
X [g/m3] concentration of volatile suspended solids in the aeration tank F/M is a commonly used parameter in regulating the performance of the activated sludge treatment process. Typical value for F/M = 0.05~1 day-1.
Exercise 4.2
(5 minutes)
Calculation of F/M ratio An activated sludge tank has an influent BOD5 concentration of 140 mg/L, influent flow rate 18900 m3/d, and 16100 kg of suspended solids (SS) under aeration in the tank. Assuming 80% of the SS are volatile suspended solids, what is the value of F/M in this tank?
Answer: d-1
Specific Utilisation Ratio, U [day-1], is the percentage of F/M that has been utilised in the tank:
U F/M E 100
S0 S 100 S0
E [%] is the tank efficiency in terms of BOD removal: E

U F/M E 100 S0 S0 S X S0 S0 S X rsu X
(4.6)
S [g/m3] - concentration of BOD in effluent in the tank (and leaving the tank) rsu [g/(m3 day)] - BOD utilisation rate: rsu
S0 S
Sludge age, c [day], (or mean cell residence time, or solids retention time - SRT) is mean residence time of microorganisms in the system (due to sludge recirculation it is higher than ). It s a measure of the average detention of the organisms in the system, typically ranging from 6 to 15 days.
c
QwXr
V X Q Qw Xe
(4.7)
X [g/m3] volatile suspended solids in the tank Xe [g/m3] volatile suspended solids in effluent Qw [m3/day] flow rate of the sludge wasted from the tank
In a very well designed and operated settling unit (secondary clarifier), the mass of microorganisms (activated sludge) flowing out with the effluent, Xe(Q-Qw), should be very small and could be neglected. Then, Equation 4.7 becomes:
c
V X QwXr
(4.8a)
Xr [g/m3] volatile suspended solids in return activated sludge If sludge age ( c) is known, the amount of sludge wastewater can be calculated as:
Qw V X cXr
(4.8b)
Net rate of bacteria growth in the tank, rg [g/m3 day], represents the increase in the mass of microorganisms (i.e. volatile SS) in the aeration tank, as a result of food (BOD in the wastewater) and oxygen supplies for microbial activities.
rg Yr su k d X
(4.9)
rsu [g/(m3 day)] substrate (BOD) utilisation rate Y [g/g] maximum yield coefficient in bacterial growth kd [day-1] endogenous decay coefficient for the microorganisms Sludge Return, Qr [m3/day]. The purpose of sludge return is to maintain a sufficient population of microorganisms in the aeration tank. The pumping rate for sludge return can be determined from a mass balance around the settling tank in Figure 4.5; assuming that the amount of sludge in the settling tank is constant (steady-state conditions) and that suspended solids in the effluent are negligible (SSe=0):
Q Q r MLSS
Q r SS r
Q w SS r
(4.10a)
Solving for the return sludge flow from the mass balance we obtain:
Qr Q MLSS Q w SS r SS r MLSS
(4.10b)
Microorganism Mass Balance A mass balance for microorganisms in the entire activated sludge system (including tank and clarifier) can be written as: Rate of microorganism accumulation in the system
V(dX/dt)
Rate of inflow of organisms

QX0
Rate of outflow of microorganisms
Rate of net growth of microorganisms in aeration tank

rgV
QwXr + (Q-Qw)Xe
Expressed in mathematical form:

V dX dt QX 0 rg V QwXr Q Qw Xe
(4.11)
dX/dt [g/(m3 day)] rate of change of microorganism concentration in the system X0 [g/m3] microorganism (i.e. volatile SS) concentration in the influent Under steady-state operating conditions (dX/dt=0) and assuming no microorganisms in the influent (X0=0), Equation 4.11 is combined with Equation 4.9 to give:
QwXr Q Qw Xe XV Y rsu X kd
(4.12)
The left-hand side of Equation 4.12 is the inverse of the mean cell residence time (or sludge age) as defined in Equation 4.7. Therefore:
1
c
rsu X
kd
(4.13a) (4.13b)
or
1
c
YU k d
Process Design Combining Equation 4.13 and the definition of rsu, the following equation is developed for the calculation of aeration tank volume:
V S0 S X 1 kd c
c QY
(4.14)
In a design situation, parameters Q (daily sewage flow), S0 (wastewater BOD5 value), S (treatment standard) are usually provided with the design problem. Kinetic coefficients (i.e. Y, kd, etc) vary from site to site, depending on factors such as wastewater characteristics, climate, etc. Typical kinetic coefficients for activated sludge facilities in domestic sewage treatment are given in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Typical kinetic coefficients for domestic wastewater treatment in an activated sludge facility Coefficients Kd, day-1 Y, g VSS/g BOD5 Range 0.025-0.075 0.4-0.8 Typical value 0.06 0.6
The values of X and c are related to other parameters, such as the food-to-microorganism ratio; appropriate values of these parameters should be determined by designers (civil and environmental engineers), as a function of the type of activated sludge process selected and economic factors. A summery of loadings and operation parameters for different activated sludge processes is presented in Table 4.2:
Table 4.2: Typical loadings and operation parameters in different aerated sludge processes
Process BOD load [g/(m3 day)] Conventional Step aeration Contact stabilisation High rate High purity oxygen Extended aeration 300-700 480-800 480-800 >1280 >1920 160-320 F/M [day-1] 0.2-0.6 0.2-0.5 0.2-0.5 0.5-2 0.6-1.5 0.05-0.2 Sludge age
c
[day] 5-15 5-15 5-15 3-10 3-10 >20
Aeration time, [hour] 6-7.5 5-7 6-9 1.5-3.5 1-3 20-30
Return Sludge Rate, Qr/Q [%] 20-40 30-50 50-100 50-100 30-50 50-100
BOD removal efficiency, E [%] 80-90 80-90 75-90 70-85 80-90 85-95
A process is selected according to required removal efficiency of BOD (E). One of the parameters is picked, and others are then calculated. All parameters should be in the given ranges. Note: The process is usually designed based on Average Dry Weather Flow.
Example 4.1 Calculation of aeration tank for an activated sludge process A domestic sewage after primary treatment has an inflow rate, Q=50000 m3/day and a BOD5 concentration of S0 = 140 mg/l. Design the aeration tank and estimate the sludge age and return sludge flow for a step aeration activated sludge process, provided that there are negligible amounts of microorganisms in the influent and the required treatment standard is: BOD5 concentration in the effluent S=20 mg/l. It is known that: (1) SS in return sludge SSr = 10000 mg/l (80 % is volatile); (2) mixed liquor suspended solids MLSS = 3000 mg/l (80 % is volatile); and (3) the typical values of kinetic coefficients in Table 4.1 provide appropriate kinetic constants for the calculation. Solution: Tank efficiency:
E S0 S 100 S0 140 20 100 140 86%
Volatile SS (microorganisms) in the tank: Select: F/M = 0.4 day-1
0.8 3000 2400 mg/ L
F/M
Tank volume:
S0 Q V X
Thus : 0.4 [day 1 ]
140[ g / m3 ] 50000[m3 / day] V 2400 [ g / m3 ]
V = 7292 m3
10
Aeration time:
V Q
7292 50000
0.1458 d
3.5 hr
This is too short in comparison with the recommended values in Table 4.2. Try another F/M! Select: F/M = 0.25 day-1 V = 11667 m3 = 5.6 hr BOD loading:
BOD load S0 Q V 600 g m 3 d
this is fine this is fine
Sludge age can be calculated from Equation 4.12 as well as typical kinetic coefficients of Y=0.6 gVSS/gBOD5 and Kd = 0.06 d-1:
U
1
c
F/M E 100
YU k d
21.5%
0.215 0.6 0.06 0.069
= 14.5 days
V X cXr V MLSS c SS r 11667 3000 14.5 10000
fine
241 m 3 d
Wasted sludge flow: Q w
Return sludge flow:
Qr
Q MLSS Q w SS r SS r MLSS
50000 3000 241 10000 10000 3000
21084 m 3 d
Qr Q
*
21084 50000
42%
fine for step aeration
Note that a volume of 11667 m3 is too big for a typical aeration tank. Three tanks could be designed, each having a volume of 3900 m3 (Depth = 4 m, Width =18 m, Length =54 m). Sludge Production The amount of sludge (bacterial cell materials will eventually become sludge) produced in an aerated sludge treatment facility needs to be calculated because it is directly related to the sludge handling and disposal. The amount of sludge that must be wasted each day is the difference between the amount of increase in sludge mass and solid loss in the wastewater. Net sludge produced per day in a treatment facility, Px [kg/day], is:
Px Yobs Q S 0 S
(4.15)
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Px [kg/day] net waste activated sludge produced each day in terms of VSS Yobs [kg/kg] observed yield (kg VSS / kg BOD5 removed) Yobs is related to other parameters in that:
Yobs Y 1 Kd
(4.16)
c
[day] mean cell residence time kd [day-1] endogenous decay coefficient for the microorganisms Y [g/g] yield coefficient in bacterial growth (dismal fraction of food mass converted to biomass)
c
Oxygen Requirements and Transfer Oxygen is consumed by aerobic microorganisms for the decomposition of carbonaceous pollutants (represented by BOD5). The amount of oxygen requirement in an aeration tank can be estimated by:
M O2 Q S0 S f 10
3
1.42Px
(4.17)
MO2 [kg/day] daily oxygen consumption rate Px [kg/day] net waste activated sludge produced each day in terms of VSS f a conversion factor from BOD5 to ultimate BODL (typical value = 0.68) The conversion factor (f = BOD5/BODL) can be calculated from the following equation if the reaction constant of BOD decomposition (k, unit day-1) is known.
f 1 e
5k
(4.18)
When calculating the air supply requirement, students should be aware of the composition of air, as well as the transfer efficiency of oxygen from air to wastewater (see below). Other factors to be considered in process design Transfer efficiency To calculate the total amount of air that should be pumped into the tank, the following should be taken into account: 1 m3 of air contains 0.279 kg of O2. The transfer of O2 from air to water has a typical efficiency of about 10%. To meet peak organic loadings it is often recommended that the aeration equipment is designed with a safety factor (for example, a safety factor of 2.0). Nutrient requirements For a biological wastewater treatment system to function properly, nutrients (for the microorganisms) must be available in adequate amounts. Principal nutrients are nitrogen and phosphorous. Other nutrients include: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium and chlorine. Trace quantities of iron, copper, manganese, zinc, and cobalt are also necessary.
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Environmental requirements The two most important factors are temperature and pH. Temperature affects biological reaction rates and therefore alters the volume of the aeration tank required. The control of pH is often required, i.e. typically greater than 6.2 and preferably in the range 6.6 to 7.6. In addition, the alkalinity of wastewater is reduced in some biological reactions (e.g. nitrification of ammonia into nitrite and nitrate) which needs to be controlled. The characteristics of treated effluent Organic content is a major parameter of effluent quality. The organic content of effluent from biological treatment is usually composed of the following three constituents: (i) soluble biodegradable organics (escaped treatment; cell depth, etc) (ii) suspended organic material (colloidal organic solids) (iii) non-biodegradable organic matters (originally present in the wastewater, byproducts of biological degradation) In a well-designed and operated activated sludge plant treating domestic wastewater, the soluble carbonaceous BOD5 in the effluent typically ranges between 2-10 mg/l.
4.1.3 TRICKLING FILTERS

Trickling filters (as shown in Figures 4.6 and 4.7) can be used either as a complete secondary treatment facility or as a means of reducing the biological load on some other treatment processes. A trickling filter consists of a bed of coarse material (stones, slats, or plastic media) over which wastewater is applied (usually by a rotating arm), as shown in Figure 4.6. As the wastewater trickles through the bed, microbial communities are being established in the form of biofilms on the surface of the stone (media grains). The passing of wastewater provides contact between the microorganisms and organic pollutants in the wastewater, and biological degradations allow the pollutants to be removed from the wastewater.
Figure 4.6: Cutaway view of a stone-media trickling filter

13
Figure 4.7: Photo of an operating trickling filter Trickling filters do not just provide a filtering process. The bed provides a large amount of surface area where microorganisms cling and grow in slimes on rocks and feed on organic the matter contained in the wastewater. The effluent from trickling filters contains high level of SS (washed from the bed) and should be clarified in a secondary sedimentation. A complete trickling filter plant flow diagram is shown in Figure 4.8.
Primary treatment disposal screenings grit Recycled flow scum Primary sedimentation tank Qr Secondary sedimentation tank Treated effluent Q, S High rate trickling filter Disinfectant (chlorine) Secondary treatment
Raw sewage Fine bar screens Grit chamber Primary sludge
Q, So
Sludge thickening
Anaerobic digestion Sludge treatment
Belt press or
Sludge disposal
sludge lagoon
Figure 4.8: Schematic layout of a trickling filter wastewater treatment plant

14
In an operating trickling filter, the recirculation of a portion of the effluent is often practised in stone filters for the following reasons: (i) to increase contact efficiency, (ii) to dampen variations in loading, (iii) to raise the DO value in the effluent, (iv) to improve distribution over the filter surface, and (v) to prevent biofilms to dry. The main filter characteristics are:
Hydraulic loading(surface loadingrate) = Daily sewegevolume Filter area Q Q r m3 A m 2 day
Q [m3/d] wastewater inflow Qr [m3/d] recalculated flow A [m2] the horizontal cross-section area of the filter
Recirculation ratio, R
Qr Q Daily BOD load Q S 0 kg Organic loading = 3 Filter volume V m day
S0 [kg/m3] BOD5 concentration in influent (primary effluent) V [m3] superficial volume of the filter medium Trickling filters are classified according to applied hydraulic and organic load, which are considered in system design, as shown in Table 4.3. Table 4.3: Design guidance for trickling filter
Design characteristics Hydraulic loading [m/d] Organic loading [kg BOD5/m3d] Depth, [m] Recirculation ratio Filter media Low or standard rate 1 to 4 0.08 to 0.32 1.5 to 3 0 to 1 Rock, slag Intermediate rate 4 to 10 0.24 to 0.48 1.5 to 2.5 0 to 1 Rock, slag 2-8 Varies Some nitrification 50 to 70 High rate (stone media) 10 to 40 0.32 to 1.0 1 to 2 1 to 3 Rock, slag, synthetic material 6-10 Few Nitrified at low loadings 65 to 80 Super rate (plastic media) 40-200 0.8 to 6.0 4.5-12 0 to 4 Synthetic material redwoods 10-20 Few or none Nitrified at low loadings 65 to 85
Power requirements 2-4 [kW/103 m3] Filter flies Effluent quality BOD5 removal, % many Well nitrified 80 to 85
15
An ideal bed material should have: (i) large surface area on which life can grow (ii) large enough voids to allow growth without clogging (iii) a structure which distributes the sewage over the whole bed to facilitate oxygen transfer (iv) The materials in current use are: rocks 25-100 mm in diameter (clogging may occur), modules of corrugated plastic sheets and plastic rings (large surface and voids; light) Table 4.4 gives the physical properties of several filter media commonly used in trickling filters. Table 4.4: Physical properties of several filter media Media Nominal size [mm] Mass/unit volume [kg/m3] 125-1450 800-1000 900-1200 800-1000 30-100 30-100 150-175 Specific surface area [m2/m3] 55-70 40-50 55-70 45-60 80-100 100-200 40-50 Void space [%]
River rock Small 25-65 Large 100-120 Blast furnace slag Small 50-80 Large 75-125 Plastic Conventional 600 600 1200 High-specific 600 600 1200 surface Redwood 1200 1200 1200 Design Formulas The design of trickling filters is based on the reaction kinetics involved (instead using only the loads described in Table 4.3). Unfortunately, no universal equation is available. The most widely consulted literature source for system design is Metcalf and Eddy series of Wastewater Engineering. Several editions of this book are available in the University library. 40-50 50-60 40-50 50-60 94-97 94-97 70-80
Exercise 4.3
(5 minutes)
Understanding trickling filters (1) Where are microorganisms located in trickling filters? (2) How does the size of medium material affect the treatment of wastewater in a trickling filter?
16
4.1.4 SECONDARY CLARIFIERS

Secondary clarifiers or sedimentation tanks (Figure 4.9) settle out the treated effluent (from activated sludge tanks or trickling filters). At this stage, BOD can be further reduced and most suspended solids are removed from the effluent.
Figure 4.9: Secondary sedimentation tank Most secondary sedimentation tanks are circular, but they can also be in rectangular or square shape. Figure 4.10 demonstrates a typical design.
Figure 4.10: Schematic diagram of a secondary sedimentation tank Secondary clarifiers are designed using the same procedure as for primary clarifiers that have been explained in a previous section. Some design guidelines used in the USA are outlined in Table 4.5.
17
Table 4.5: Typical Design Guidelines for Circular Secondary Clarifiers Parameter Detention time For peak flow Surface loading rate For average dry weather flow For peak flow conditions Sidewater depth Floor slope Maximum diameter Value 1.5 and 2.5 hours 16 - 29 m3/m2/day 41 - 65 m3/m2/day 3.0 - 5.5 m Nearly flat to 1:12 46 m
Example 4.2 Determine the size of two identical circular final clarifiers, operating in parallel for an activated sludge system, with a design flow of 20,000 m3/day, and a peak hourly flow of 32,000 m3/day. The maximum surface loading rate is 33 m3/m2/day at design flow, and 65 m3/m2/day at peak flow. The minimum requirement for detention time at design flow is 2 hours. Solution At design flow, surface area required for each tank Check peak surface loading rate for each tank:
32,000 2 303
53 m 3 /m 2 /day 65 m 3 /m 2 /day
20,000 m 3 /day 2 33 m 3 /m2 /day
303 m 2
(this is fine)
Tank diameter:
D2 4
303
303 4
19.6m
Area Depth Flow rate
Detention time:
Tank volume Flow rate
2 hours
2 Depth >
20,000 2 303 24
2.75m
Make the depth 3.5 m (recommended for tank diameter > 15m, the depth is typically around 3.4 m); this will also give a reasonable detention time at peak flow rate.
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4.1.5 ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTRACTOR

Rotating biological contactors (RBC) came to be used commercially in wastewater treatment in the 1960s. An RBC, as shown in Figure 4.11, is constructed of a series of closely spaced circular disks (typically 3 to 3.5m in diameter) attached to a shaft, forming a cylinder of media. The disks are submerged in wastewater and rotated through it.
Figure 4.11 Photo of a rotating biological contactor In operation, microorganisms grow on the surface of the disks and eventually form a layer of biofilm. The rotation alternately contacts the biofilm with pollutants in the wastewater, and then exposes the surface of the disks to the atmosphere; this affects the oxygen transport and maintains the biofilm in an aerobic condition, enabling aerobic decomposition of the pollutants to take place. The rotation is also the mechanism for removing excess solids from the disks by the shearing forces it creates. Rotating biological contactors are good for small groups of houses (camp-site). Typical efficiencies of the systems are: BOD removal rate = 90% or higher SS removal rate = 85% or higher Running cost 1/2 of activated sludge method
Figure 4.12: RBC with plastic discs
Figure 4.13: A RBC treatment plant
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4.1.6 OXIDATION PONDS

A photo of a typical wastewater pond is presented in Figure 4.14. Screened and de-gritted wastewater is passed through a series of ponds with total retention in the range of 10-50 days. Microorganisms in the ponds oxidise pollutants and work symbiotically with algae that provide oxygen to the microorganisms through photosynthesis. In return, the algae obtain CO2 for cell synthesis.
Figure 4.14: A photo of treatment ponds The term oxidation pond is used as a collective term for the following types of ponds: 1. Aerobic ponds: Shallow ponds, less than 1 m in depth, where DO is maintained throughout the entire depth, mainly by the action of photosynthesis (during the day) and by wind mixing (surface re-aeration). The decomposition of organic pollutants is accomplished mainly through the action of aerobic bacteria. Aerated lagoons are types of aerobic ponds, which are oxygenated through the action of surface or diffused air aeration. 2. Anaerobic ponds: Deep ponds that receive high organic loading such that anaerobic conditions prevail throughout the entire pond depth: applied BOD load exceeds oxygen production from photosynthesis. Proper design of these ponds must result in environmental conditions favourable to methane fermentation. They are used primarily as a pre-treatment process, and are particularly suited for the treatment of hightemperature, high-strength wastewater. 3. Facultative ponds: These are ponds that are 1 to 2.5 m deep and have an anaerobic lower zone, a facultative middle zone, and an aerobic upper zone maintained by photosynthesis and re-aeration. The treatment mechanism is outlined in Figure 4.15. They are the most common type, selected as wastewater treatment system for small communities.
20
These systems have long retention times to facilitate the management of large flow fluctuations; their operating and maintenance costs are usually less than that of other biological systems. US criteria for the design of facultative lagoons are: (i) BOD5 loading rate should not exceed 22 kg/ha.day, and (ii) the detention time in the lagoon must be in the order of six months.
Figure 4.15: Treatment processes in facultative ponds
4.1.7 DISINFECTION
In some secondary wastewater treatment plants, the last treatment step is the addition of a disinfectant to treated wastewater, in order to eliminate pathogens. As an example, the addition of chlorine gas or some other form of chlorine is the disinfection process most commonly used in the USA. Chlorine is injected into the wastewater by automated feeding systems; wastewater then flows into a basin where it is held for around 15 minutes to allow the chlorine to react with pathogens. There are arguments regarding whether disinfection by chlorine is necessary or, indeed, effective in killing the pathogens. Other processes, such as ultraviolet light radiation could be used in place of chlorine injection.
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4.2 TERTIARY TREATMENT AND EFFLUENT DISPOSAL

Learning Outcome: (1) understanding the needs for tertiary treatment, the common route of nitrogen and phosphorus removal from wastewater, and the roles of filtration and carbon adsorption in tertiary treatment; (2) knowing the common disposal route for treated wastewater; (3) knowing the basic working principles and components of five alternative wastewater treatment systems.
After the secondary treatment, where the bulk organic matter is removed from the wastewater, nutrients (e.g. nitrogen and phosphorus) and other substances (e.g. heavy metals, and endocrine-disrupting chemicals - EDCs) remaining in the wastewater can still cause damage to the receiving watercourse. If these pollutants are of major concern, a tertiary treatment, also called advanced wastewater treatment (AWT), must be carried out before discharge to the natural water ways. In some circumstances, the quality of effluent from tertiary treatment is adequate for reuse purposes.
4.2.1 NUTRIENT REMOVALS

Nitrogen and phosphorous are the key nutrients that should be removed from wastewater because they often cause a particular type of pollution known as eutrophication, indicated by excessive growth of algae in lakes and bays. Nitrogen Removal Nitrogen is a water pollutant, mainly in four of its oxidation states that are all part of the N cycle in nature: Organic N ammoniacal N nitrite N nitrate N
Total nitrogen, TN, in water is the sum of all forms of nitrogen. In many wastewaters, there are only negligible amounts of nitrite N and nitrate N so that the value of TN is close to the Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN) the sum of organic nitrogen and ammoniacalnitrogen: TKN = Organic N + Ammoniacal N It is often desirable to reduce TN in wastewater to below 10 mg/l; this process can be done by oxidising Kjeldahl N into nitrate N, and then transforming into nitrogen gas (N2) that is inoffensive. This is achieved in two steps: 1. Nitrification : 2. Denitrification: Ammoniacal N nitrite N Nitrate N N2 (gas) nitrate N
Nitrification is done by nitrifying bacteria, while denitrification is a result of a complex consortium of microorganisms. Nitrification and denitrification require different environments, but they could take place in the same tank throughout different zones and operation times. The conditions are characterised mainly by: (1) dissolved oxygen (DO)
22
levels in the wastewater, (2) organic loading rate (mass of BOD inflow per m3 of wastewater). Students should know that: 1. Nitrification takes place primarily in aerobic environment 2. Denitrification takes place primarily in anoxic environment
Box 4.2: Nitrification Transformation by Nitroso-bacteria:
2NH4
2NO 2
3O 2
O2
2NO 2
2NO 3
4H
2H2O
(4.19)
Transformation by Nitro-bacteria:
(4.20)
The nitrification process is very oxygen demanding. Approximately 3.4 g of oxygen are needed to oxidise 1 g NH4-N into NO2-N, and 4.5 g are needed to oxidise 1 g NH4-N into NO3-N. Thus nitrification can only occur in the aerobic regions of a wastewater treatment system; the availability of oxygen is often the limiting factor for the efficiency of NH4-N removal. In the nitrification process, a large amount of alkalinity is also consumed (8.64 g HCO 3 per g NH4-N oxidised into NO3-N). Inorganic carbon is used for the synthesis of cell materials of nitrifying bacteria. Very limited amounts of biomass are produced in terms of either NH4-N or NO2-N removed during the process of nitrification. In the oxidation of 1 g NH4-N only 0.15 g (dry weight) of bacterial biomass in the form of Nitrosomonas is produced, and 0.02 g (dry weight) of the cell material of Nitrobacter when NO2-N is further oxidised to NO3-N. Therefore, wastewater treatment facilities for nitrification purposes usually produce less biomass and consequently a smaller amount of sludge. When a small amount of nitrogen for cell synthesis is subtracted, the following equation can be used to estimate the oxygen consumption (g) for NH4-N removal by nitrification.
Oxygen consumption = 3.23 increase in NO2-N + 4.35 increase in NO3-N (4.21)
Because nitrifying bacteria are autotrophic microorganisms, they multiply relatively slowly (in comparison with heterotrophic microorganisms); it is estimated that nitrifying bacteria have a doubling time of 2-6 days.
Box 4.3: Denitrification Denitrification is a series of reduction reactions where electrons are added to nitrate or nitrite nitrogen, resulting in the production of nitrogen gas, nitrous oxide (N2O), or nitric oxide (NO). Nitrate is gradually reduced to nitrogen gas, by various groups of chemoheterotrophic bacteria; they are capable of replacing O2 with NO 3 as the terminal electron acceptor for the chemical oxidation-reduction reactions, by which they obtain energy for cell synthesis and reproduction. Their respiration proceeds with the reduction of nitrate to nitrite, nitric oxide, nitrous oxide and nitrogen gas. This process is shown in simple form in the following equation.
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NO 3
NO 2
NO
N2O
N2
(4.22)
Box 4.3 Denitrification Process (continued) Alkalinity is produced during the conversion of nitrate to nitrogen gas, resulting in an increase in pH of the wastewater. The observed rate of bicarbonate production by this process is about 3.0 g of CaCO3 per gram of reduced NO3-N. Temperature affects the removal of nitrate, because the denitrification microorganisms are sensitive to it. Denitrification can only proceed at a very low rate, if at all, at a temperature below 5 0C. The overall stoichiometric nitrate dissimilation reaction, based on methanol (CH3OH) as a carbon source, is summarized as follows by the US EPA (1993):
NO 3 0.833 CH3 OH 0.5N2 0.833 CO 2 1.167 H2 O OH
(4.23)
From the stoichiometry of Equation 4.23, 1.9 g of methanol (or another equivalent carbon source) is required to support the denitrification of 1 g of NO3-N. In the absence of this carbon source, conventional denitrification is inhibited.
Much detail on the routes of nitrogen and phosphorus removals will be introduced in the fourth year in CIV4268 Water Resources Management. It is desirable to have nitrification and denitrification happening in a logical order. Figure 4.16 presents a system that is designed to remove nitrogen biologically. Wastewater, rich in ammonia but also nitrate, enters a tank that is anoxic (no aeration or mixing to maintain low O2 level). Here, denitrification takes place. The effluent then goes into a fully aerobic tank where DO > 2 mg/L (this is achieved by mixing and air injection). An essential return cycle of nitrified effluent is returned to an anaerobic tank. Only fully oxidised effluent is sent to a secondary clarifier. As such, nitrogen removal can be improved by linking several anaerobic and aerobic tanks in a row.
anoxic
aerobic
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Figure 4.16: Nitrification-denitrification system Phosphorous Removal It would be highly damaging if a large amount of phosphorus in wastewater were to be discharged into lakes, bays and slow moving rivers, because phosphorus is a major source for eutrophication. Phosphorus exists in nature in different organic and inorganic forms, and it can be dissolved in water but also particle bound. Total Phosphorus, TP, is the sum of all P forms. In domestic wastewater treatment, phosphorus is often required to be reduced to below 2 mg/l. Biological phosphorus removal is based on forcing the micro-organisms to accumulate more P than required for cell growth (a typical P content of microbial solids is about 1.52% of dry matter). It was observed that if wastewater is exposed to aerobic conditions followed by anaerobic conditions, some microorganisms are capable of taking up P at levels above average to thrive. In this environment the biomass accumulates P to levels of 4-12 % of microbial solids. When the biomass (sludge) is wasted, 2.5-4 times more P removal occurs than in conventional systems. In other words, P levels in wastewater could be reduced by 70-80%, from typically 10 mg/l down to 2-3 mg/l. If further reductions are necessary they can be achieved by chemical precipitation. Traditionally, phosphorus has been removed by chemical precipitation using one of three compounds: Ferric chloride Alum Lime FeCl3 Al2(SO4)3 CaO
For example, in an activated sludge treatment facility, FeCl3 can be added into the aeration tank or into the wastewater before primary sedimentation, and then removed by sedimentation in the clarifier (i.e. phosphorus removal occurs during secondary treatment in the first case and primary treatment in the second case).
Exercise 4.4
(5 minutes)
Chemical precipitation for phosphorus removal If a wastewater has a soluble orthophosphate concentration of 4.0 mg/L as P, what theoretical amount of ferric chloride will be required to remove the phosphorus completely from the wastewater? Note: The molar mass of FeCl3 is 162.21 g/mol, and the molar mass of P is 30.97 g/mol.
Answer: mg/L
25
Combined Biological Nitrogen and Phosphorous Removal This is still an area of intensive research. A number of systems are being developed and tested. Figure 4.17 (Bardenpho process) gives an example of combined removal.
Figure 4.17: Modified Bardenpho process for combined P and N removal
4.2.2 FILTRATION
Filtration, especially filtration by sand filters, is a unit operation that is commonly used in tertiary treatment. Filtration processes, similar to that used in drinking water treatment plants, can further remove the residual suspended solids in the effluent from secondary treatment. If designed and operated effectively, filtration processes can reduce suspended solids to undetectable levels. Figure 4.18 shows the photo of a typical wastewater filter. In sand filters wastewater passes through graded sand and gravel filters as shown in Figure 4.19. After a certain period of operation, backwash is needed to remove trapped solids in the filters. Traditionally, sand filtration is one of the principle unit operations used in the treatment of potable water. Nowadays, the filtration of effluent from secondary wastewater treatment processes is becoming more common because of the requirement for higher effluent quality and the need for wastewater reclamation and reuse.
Figure 4.19: General feature of a sand filter: (a) flow during filtration cycle, and (b) flow during backwash cycle
Figure 4.18: A photo of wastewater filter
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4.2.3 CARBON ADSORPTION

After secondary treatment, soluble organic materials that are resistant to biological breakdown may persist in the effluent. The persistent materials are often referred to as refractory organic compounds, which can be detected in the effluent as soluble COD. After the secondary treatment of domestic sewage, the soluble COD in the effluent is often in the range of 30-60 mg/L. These soluble organic materials (represented by COD) can be removed by adsorbing on activated carbon prepared from organic materials, such as woods, bones, coal, etc. A photo of an activated carbon adsorption facility for wastewater treatment is shown in Figure 4.20.
Figure 4.20: Activated carbon adsorbers in tertiary wastewater treatment
Further detail on a number of tertiary treatment processes will be introduced in the fourth year in the wastewater part of CIV4261 Integrated Urban Water Management.
4.2.4 EFFLUENT DISPOSAL

Once wastewater has been sufficiently treated, it has to be returned back to the environment, i.e. disposed into a receiving natural water body. The single most important element of effluent disposal is the associated environmental impact. There is a regulatory framework which deals with issues such as the selection of discharge locations, the selection of outfall structures, and the level of treatment required. Thus, sewage treatment and disposal are linked and cannot be considered in isolation. Disposal Options Treated sewage is either re-used or disposed of into the water environment. Disposal is by far the most common methodology and since this is a re-entry into the hydrological cycle, it can also be seen as the first step in indirect and long-term re-use. The most
27
common method of disposal is discharge into river systems or larger open water bodies such as oceans. It should be noted that another means of disposal is by discharge on land where part of the treated sewage seeps into the ground and recharges underlying groundwater aquifers and the other part of the sewage evaporates (in desert areas, the evaporated fraction can be substantial). Note that land applications are not covered in this section. River Outfall Many existing effluent discharges into rivers are poorly designed. They often comprise open-ended pipes which achieve minimal initial mixing. In shallow streams, open-ended discharges on the bank may fall directly onto the water surface, creating the potential for foaming problems. Such problems can often be minimized by utilising a submerged discharge point located farther out within the stream. Where rivers are navigable, however, the outfall design requires special attention and is likely to be closely regulated. Rapid initial mixing of effluent discharge into a river can be achieved with a multi-port diffuser. Such a structure discharges the effluent through a series of holes or ports along a pipe extending into the river. For shallow rivers, very rapid vertical mixing is achieved over the full river depth. Turbulent entrainment then draws river water into the effluent plume, promoting rapid dilution. This situation is shown schematically in Figure 4.21, which also shows a typical elevation of a riser.
Figure 4.21: Plan and elevation view of a typical river diffuser
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Figure 4.22 shows a typical river diffuser arrangement. The port spacing adopted is usually of the same order as the water depth. At the outboard end of the diffuser, a large cleanout port is provided to facilitate flushing. The primary purpose of a multi-port diffuser is to distribute the flow evenly along the entire length of the structure. For this reason, the discharge of wastewater per port should be as uniform as possible along the length of the diffuser. This is achieved by decreasing the diameter of the diffuser pipe in steps as shown in Figure 4.22.
Figure 4.22: Schematic diagram of a typical diffuser outfall The initial dilution, S, achieved in the near field, defined as being within approximately one diffuser length, is given by:
S UHL 1 2QD 1 2QDUD cos U2LH
(4.23)
Where:
U - the river flow velocity (m/s) H - the river depth (m) L - the diffuser length (m) QD - effluent discharge requirement (m3/s) UD - the discharge velocity through each port (m/s) - the orientation (angle) of the ports above the horizontal
The diffuser length, L, is often the most important parameter as it largely determines the cost of the structure. Equation 4.23 can be used to determine the length of diffuser (L) required to achieve a prescribed level of dilution (S). The equation is applicable to shoreattached as well as mid-river diffusers.
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In practice, the port velocity (UD) should not exceed 3 m/s, although this may be exceeded where circumstances warrant it and especially during infrequent high-flow events. The use of Equation 4.23 in practice is illustrated with the following example.
Example 4.3 Effluent disposal into a river Determine the length and number of discharge ports for a multi-port diffuser that will provide a dilution rate of 10 when discharging a maximum flow of 1.5 m3/s of wastewater effluent into a river. Under low flow conditions, the river water depth is 1.2 m and the current speed is 0.6 m/s. For the shallow water conditions prevalent under low river flow conditions, the maximum discharge velocity, UD, is suggested to be around the value of 2 m/s and lower than 3 m/s to reduce the risk of bottom erosion and hazards to boat traffic. Because of the shallow depth, the ports will discharge horizontally in the same direction as the river flow. Solution: Calculate required diffuser length using Equation 4.23:
S UHL 1 2Q D
10
2Q DUD cos U2LH

1 2 1.5 2 1 0.6 2 L 1.2
0.6 1.2 L 1 2 1.5
Solve by trial:
L=18m
Determine the required number of ports: Port spacing water depth
No. of ports = 18/1.2 +1 = 16 Determine port diameter:

Q 1.5 No. of ports D2 0 UD 4 16 3.14 D 2 0 2 4
D0
4 1.5 16 2
0.244 m
Nearest standard pipe size = 0.25m
30
Check required number of ports:

N U Q D2 0 4 15 4 2 0.25 2 15.3
Select 15 ports Port velocity UD

Q N D 4
2
1.5 4 15 0.25 2
= 2.04 m/s Dilution rate:

S 0.6 1.2 18 1 2 1.5 1
(OK)
2 1.5 2.04 1 = 10.1 0.6 2 18 1.2
(OK)
Diffuser length: Number of ports: Port diameter: Port spacing: Port velocity: Ocean Disposal
18 m 15 250 mm 1.29 m 2.04 m/s
Oceans and large lakes are used for effluent disposal by many communities. Provided that the outfall structure is appropriately designed, water bodies like oceans and large lakes provide extensive assimilation capacities. Sewage effluent is typically carried to an offshore discharge point by a pipe or tunnel. The actual discharge may be through a single port or multi-port diffuser. The characteristics of the effluent plume are complicated by the density difference that exists between the lighter effluent and the denser sea water. In the initial mixing region between the effluent and ocean, also known as the discharge near field the effluent is strongly buoyant and rises rapidly in the water column. At some point during the rise of the plume, its density may become equal to that of the surrounding water and the plume will rise no further. Beyond the initial mixing region is the so-called far field where the effluent travels on ocean currents and is further diluted by turbulent diffusion. It is clear that the dilution mechanisms acting in the near field and the far field are very different and, for this reason, they are treated separately. The details
31
of the dilution mechanisms are outside the scope of this manuscript. The configuration of a typical effluent plume in the ocean is shown in Figure 4.23.
Figure 4.23: Schematic diagram of the plume of effluent discharge in an ocean
4.2.5 ALTERNATIVE TREATMENT PROCESSES

Land Treatment Land treatment is the application of effluent (usually secondary treated) on the land by certain conventional irrigation method. It is an alternative to AWT processes for producing high-quality effluent. Treatment is provided by natural processes as the effluent moves through the natural filter provided by soil and plants. In semiarid areas it is a very useful irrigation method. In some cases, land treatment can be considered not only as a disposal technique but also a form of wastewater reuse. There are three basic approaches: (i) Slow rate irrigation
32
Slow rate irrigation involves the application of wastewater to vegetated land to provide treatment and meet the growth needs of the vegetation; the wastewater provides both water and nutrients to enhance plant growth. The applied water is either consumed through evapotranspiration or percolates vertically and horizontally through the soil profile, as shown in Figure 4.24. Any surface runoff is usually collected and reapplied to the system. Treatment occurs as the applied water percolates through the soil profile. In most cases, the percolate will reach the underlying groundwater, but in some cases, the percolate may be intercepted by natural surface water or recovered by under-drains or recovery wells.
Figure 4.24: Slow-rate irrigation for wastewater treatment: (a) hydraulic pathway, (b) surface distribution, and (c) sprinkler distribution.
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In a slow-rate system, wastewater can be applied to crops or vegetation by various sprinkling methods (Figure 4.24c) or by some surface techniques. Intermittent application cycles, typically every 4-10 days, are used. Irrigation rates are typically 3.5-15 mm/day (mm of water per day per m2 of land per day), depending on the crop type. It can not be used to irrigate vegetables that are eaten raw. The seasonal nature of irrigation water needs, possible transport of pathogens, and the high cost of irrigation distribution systems are the main disadvantages of this techniques. Two major new wastewater irrigation projects are being developed in Melbourne for Melbourne's Eastern and Western regions: Werribee Irrigation District Recycled Water Project - This significant project delivers up to 8,500 million litres of recycled water a year to about 90 farmers in the Werribee area (http://www.water.vic.gov.au/initiatives/recycling/werribee). Eastern Irrigation Scheme - In total 60km of pipeline have been built to carry recycled water from the Eastern Treatment Plant, at Bangholme, to Five Ways, south of Cranbourne. During the initial stages of the project, the equivalent of 3,200 Olympic swimming pools of recycled water have been made available to customers each year (http://www.topaq.com.au/). (ii) Overland flow This is a biological treatment process (used instead of conventional secondary treatment), as shown in Figure 4.25, in which water is applied over upper reaches of sloped terraces and allowed to flow across the vegetated surface to runoff collectors. As a side effect, nutrients and BOD removal is achieved. A typical application rate is 18 mm/day or higher.
Figure 4.25: Overland flow treatment (iii) Rapid infiltration In rapid-infiltration systems, wastewater is applied on an intermittent schedule usually to shallow infiltration or spreading basin, as shown schematically in Figure 4.26. Application of wastewater by high-rate sprinkling is also practised. Vegetation is usually not provided in infiltration basins but is necessary for sprinkler application. Because the loading rate of wastewater is relatively high, the evaporative loss is only a small fraction of the applied water, and most applied wastewater percolates through the soil where treatment occurs.
34
Figure 4.26: Rapid infiltration hydraulic pathways: (a) hydraulic pathway; (b) recovery pathway using under-drains; and (c) recovery pathway using wells. Ecological Treatment Methods Ecological treatment systems are generally decentralised wastewater treatment systems. Most of them make use of natural purification processes that take place through the interaction of wastewater, soil and vegetation. Currently, the predominant ecological treatment system is the constructed wetland.
35
(i) Constructed wetland Figure 4.27 shows a constructed wetland that is used in the tertiary treatment of domestic sewage. Such wetlands consist of a wetland matrix that is filled with medium materials (such as gravel) and planted with aquatic plants (macrophytes). At the upstream end of the wetland, an inlet structure distributes the inflow either over or into the top section of the bed. At the downstream end, an outlet structure collects the treated wastewater.
Figure 4.27: Wetland for domestic wastewater treatment (ii) Living machines These are relatively new systems for the treatment of domestic wastewater. Their layout consists of a preliminary septic tank where sedimentation takes place. The water then enters, where required, a greenhouse, where the first phase of aerobic treatment takes place in a closed tank. The water then flows into open aerobic reactors. Floating on plant racks, macrophytes grow with their roots submerged in the wastewater. In this phase, BOD and TSS are reduced and ammonia is nitrified. Oxygen is constantly bubbled into the reactors. Clarifiers then settle solids left in the treated effluent from the aerobic reactors. Denitrification takes place in a subsequent stage - the ecological fluidised beds. Live fish in the final effluent ensure an effective Figure 4.28: Living machine indication of quality control
36
of wastewater treatment. (iii) Aquaculture Aquaculture consists of large ponds in which different plants and fish live. The plants feed on the nutrients from either raw, screened sewage or secondary treated effluent. The fish in the pond feed on the plants and normally grow to full size in one vegetative season. They are then harvested and sold. Plants for human consumption can also be reared in aquacultures. Aquaculture treatment is a good measure to directly recycle human waste. However, after being used for centuries, it was abandoned in Europe towards the end of the 20th century. This was due to the spatial requirements, the need to employ fish-keepers and their locations on the fringes of expanding cities where land prices rose significantly, rendering them economically unattractive. The only remaining large aquaculture in Europe is the basin in Munich that serves as a polishing treatment stage for the refurbished treatment works.
37
4.3 SLUDGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL

Learning Outcome: (1) knowing the common unit operations for sludge treatment, and understanding the concept of thickening, digestion, conditioning, dewatering and reduction; (2) knowing the common routes for the disposal of treated wastewater sludge.
In the process of wastewater treatment, another major problem is created: sludge. Wastewater sludge is made of materials settled from the raw wastewater and of solids generated in the wastewater treatment processes (in all stages of the treatment). It still has very high moisture content (93-97% water). The following are common types of sludge that are different to some extend: Primary or raw sludge from primary clarifiers; it has 3-8 % solid content, consisting of approximately 70% organics. Secondary sludge from secondary clarifiers; 2-5 % solids, of which 90% are organics. Tertiary sludge from advanced treatment processes; the sludge can be similar to the sludge from the secondary treatment, but if chemical treatment is used, it can be of very different nature. Sludge can be treated in many different ways. In Figures 4.3 and 4.8 two possible sludge treatment processes have already been indicated. The basic processes that can be used for sludge treatment are: (1) Thickening: separating as much water as possible by gravity or flotation. (2) Digestion (stabilisation): converting the organic solids to more refractory (inert) forms so that they can be used without causing a nuisance. (3) Conditioning: the sludge could be treated by heat or chemicals so that the water can be readily separated. (4) Dewatering: separating water by subjecting the sludge to vacuum, pressure, or drying. (5) Reduction: convening dewatered sludge to a stable form by incineration.
4.3.1 THICKENING
Gravity thickeners (Figure 4.29) are similar in design and operation to the primary clarifiers, based on gravity sedimentation. Purely primary sludge can be thickened from 13% to 10% solids. This thickening method is less effective on secondary sludge. Floatation thickening process. Air is injected into the sludge under pressure. The air bubbles attach themselves to sludge solids particles and float the solids to the surface. The floating layer at the top of the tank is removed by skimming mechanisms. This thickening process is fairly effective on activated sludge.
38
Figure 4.29: Photo of a sludge thickener
Exercise 4.5
(5 minutes)
Calculation in relation to sludge thickening process A wastewater treatment plant produces sludge at a daily rate of 100 m3/d. Through a thickening process, the solid concentration is reduced from 4 to 7 percent. Estimate the percentage volume reduction achieved for the sludge during the thickening process.
Answer: %
4.3.2 DIGESTION (STABILISATION)

The principle purposes of sludge stabilisation are to bio-chemically breakdown organics, so that they are more stable, and to reduce the mass of sludge. The most common means of sludge stabilisation is biological degradation. There are two basic processes in use: anaerobic digestion and aerobic digestion Anaerobic digestion is by far the most common process for dealing with primary wastewater sludge. There are two types of anaerobic digestion tanks: (1) standard-rate anaerobic digester, and (2) high-rate anaerobic digester. The standard-rate anaerobic digester (Fig. 4.30) is typically heated at 35 0C with a retention time ranging from 30 to 60 days. The mixing of sludge is not
Gas Relief
Gas Scum Layer Influent Supernatant Activated Layer Stabilized Solids Effluent
Solids Removal
Figure 4.30: A standard-rate anaerobic digester
39
employed, and the contents are stratified into different zones, as illustrated in Figure 4.30. A high-rate system (Figure 4.31) contains two separate units: (1) mixed and heated tank, and (2) stratified tank.
Figure 4.31: The high-rate anaerobic sludge digestion system Gas produced in sludge digestion (CH4 and CO2) can be used for electricity generation. In some large treatment plants a substantial percentage of energy used in the plant could be generated in this way. Aerobic digestion is effectively a continuation of the activated sludge process. Aerobic sludge digestion is accomplished by aerating the wastewater sludge in a tank resembling an activated aeration tank. The aerobic digestor must be followed by a settling tank unless the sludge is to be disposed of on land in liquid form. The effluent (supernatant) from the clarifier is recycled back to the head of the plant.
Figure 4.32: Egg-shape sludge digesters
4.3.3 CONDITIONING
Chemical conditioning is accomplished by addition of coagulants (ferric chloride, lime, aluminium sulphate). Polymers are also popular. When chemical coagulants are added into the sludge, the coagulants act to clump the solids together so that the solids are more easily separated from the water. Heat treatment is done by heating the sludge at high temperature (175 to 230 0C) and pressure (1000 to 2000 kPa). Under such conditions, much like those of a pressure cooker, water bounded up in the solids is released, improving the dewatering characteristics of the
40
sludge. Heat conditioning has the advantage of producing a sludge that dewaters better than chemically conditioned sludge. This process has the disadvantages of (1) relatively complex operation and maintenance, and (2) the creation of highly polluted cooking liquors which, when recycled in a wastewater treatment plant, impose a significant added treatment burden.
4.3.4 DEWATERING
Sludge drying beds are the traditional and the most popular dewatering method. The operational procedure involves the following steps: (1) 0.2-0.3 m of stabilised liquid sludge is pumped onto the drying bed surface; (2) chemical conditioners are added and the sludge is dried for 2 weeks in summer and up to 2 months in winter; and (3) the removal of the dewatered sludge. Sand drying beds are the oldest, most commonly used type of sludge drying beds; they are particularly popular in small treatment plants because of their simplicity in operation and maintenance. However, when space is limited and climate conditions make the sand drying beds prohibitively expensive, vacuum filters may be used for sludge dewatering. Vacuum filtration is accomplished by a vacuum filter that consists of a cylindrical drum covered with a filtering material or fabric, which rotates partially submerged in conditioned sludge (Figure 4.33). A vacuum is applied inside the drum to extract water, leaving solids on the filter medium. As the drum completes its rotation cycle, a blade scrapes the solids from the filter, before the cycle starts again.
partially dry sludge vacuum blade sludge
Figure 4.33: Vacuum filter for sludge dewatering
4.3.5 REDUCTION
If the use of sludge as a fertilizer or soil conditioner is not practical, or if a site is not available for landfill using dewatered sludge, city authorities may turn to the alternative of sludge reduction, i.e. incineration. Incineration completely evaporates the moisture in the sludge and combusts organic solids to sterile ash. To minimise the amount of fuel used, the sludge must be dewatered as completely as possible before incineration. The exhaust gas from an incinerator must be treated carefully to avoid air pollution.
41
4.3.6 SLUDGE DISPOSAL

Ultimately, sludge needs to be disposed of on the land, in the ocean, or in the air (by incineration that in practice is often not the preferred disposal route). Land Spreading The practice of spreading treated wastewater sludge (biosolids) for the purpose of recovering nutrients, water, or reclaiming despoiled land (such as a strip of mine spoils) is called land spreading. If applicable, land spreading can be the most beneficial route of sludge disposal. Land spreading is a land-intensive process, and the application rate of sludge on the land is governed by the character of soil and the ability of the crops or forests, on which the sludge is spread, to accommodate the sludge. Landfilling This is effectively the planned burial of wastewater solids at a designated site. The solids are placed into a prepared site or trench and covered with a layer of soil on designated landfill sites. Dedicated Land Disposal Dedicated land disposal refers to the application of heavy sludge loadings to some finite land area that has limited public access and has been dedicated for all time to the disposal of wastewater sludge. Dedicated land disposal does not mean in-place use of the sludge. No crops may be grown. Dedicated sites typically receive liquid sludge. Utilisation The sludge is utilised for agriculture purposes or for other purposes such as compositing to produce garden fertilizers. Sludge transport could be expensive. The demand is seasonal and, sometimes, the waste itself maybe unsuitable for specific utilisations.
Further detail on the disposal of biosolids will be introduced in a fourth year module: the wastewater part of CIV4261 Integrated Urban Water Management.
42
CHAPTER REVIEW
After students have completed the study of this topic, they should be able to demonstrate the following knowledge and ability: 1. Describe the role of microorganisms in secondary wastewater treatment and the basic conditions needed for biological wastewater treatment. 2. List four common biological wastewater treatment systems. 3. Describe the basic components and operation of activated sludge treatment system. 4. Know how to carry out various calculations related to the activated sludge treatment process. 5. Briefly describe the working principles and operations of secondary clarifier, trickling filter, rotating biological contactor, and oxidation pond. 6. Explain how nitrogen and phosphorus can be removed from wastewater in a tertiary treatment process. 7. Explain the basic working principles of filtration and carbon adsorption in tertiary wastewater treatment. 8. Describe where and how treated wastewater effluents are commonly disposed. 9. List four alternative treatment systems and briefly explain how these systems work. 10. Capable of carrying out simple calculations, based on mass balance, on volume reduction in sludge thickening process. 11. Describe four basic processes in the treatment of wastewater sludge (i.e. thickening, digestion, conditioning, and dewatering). 12. List four common routes of sludge disposal.
FURTHER READING
American Public Health Association, 1995. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 19th Ed., Washington DC, USA. Environmental Protection Agency, 1993. Nitrogen Control Manual, Office of Research and Development EPA Report 625-R-93-010, USA. Forster, C. F., 2003. Wastewater Treatment and Technology, Thomas Telford Publishing, London, UK. Gray, N. F., 2004. Biology of Wastewater Treatment, 2nd Ed., Imperial College Press, London, UK. Lin, S., 2001. Water and Wastewater Calculations Manual. McGraw-Hill, New York, USA. Metcalf and Eddy, revised by Tchobanoglous, G., Burton, F. L., Stensel, H. D., 2003. Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse. 4th Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, USA.

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CIV3264: URBAN W ATER AND W ASTEWATER SYSTEMS Topic 4: Wastewater Secondary, Tertiary Treatment and Sludge Processing

Topic 4: Secondary & Tertiary Treatment and Sludge Processing

Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University CIV3264 Revised 5/2012

4.1 SECONDARY TREATMENT

Secondary treatment unit

These treatment facilities will be introduced in this chapter.

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4.1.1 MICROORGANISMS AND POLLUTANT DECOMPOSITIONS

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4.1.2 ACTIVATED SLUDGE TREATMENT

Returned activated sludge Sludge

Figure 4.3: Process diagram of a typical activated wastewater treatment plant

Figure 4.4: A typical aeration tank

S0 BOD5 in inflow [g/m3] X0 volatile SS in the influent [g/m3]

Xe volatile SS in effluent [g/m3] SSe SS in effluent [g/m3]

Qw- excess sludge wasted [m3/day]

E [%] is the tank efficiency in terms of BOD removal: E

Rate of inflow of organisms

Rate of outflow of microorganisms

Rate of net growth of microorganisms in aeration tank

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Expressed in mathematical form:

Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University CIV3264 Revised 5/2012

[day] 5-15 5-15 5-15 3-10 3-10 >20

Aeration time, [hour] 6-7.5 5-7 6-9 1.5-3.5 1-3 20-30

Volatile SS (microorganisms) in the tank: Select: F/M = 0.4 day-1

0.8 3000 2400 mg/ L

Thus : 0.4 [day 1 ]

140[ g / m3 ] 50000[m3 / day] V 2400 [ g / m3 ]

Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University CIV3264 Revised 5/2012

this is fine this is fine

Wasted sludge flow: Q w

Return sludge flow:

50000 3000 241 10000 10000 3000

fine for step aeration

Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University CIV3264 Revised 5/2012

4.1.3 TRICKLING FILTERS

Figure 4.6: Cutaway view of a stone-media trickling filter

Raw sewage Fine bar screens Grit chamber Primary sludge

Anaerobic digestion Sludge treatment

Figure 4.8: Schematic layout of a trickling filter wastewater treatment plant

Qr Q Daily BOD load Q S 0 kg Organic loading = 3 Filter volume V m day

Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University CIV3264 Revised 5/2012

Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University CIV3264 Revised 5/2012

4.1.4 SECONDARY CLARIFIERS

20,000 m 3 /day 2 33 m 3 /m2 /day

Tank volume Flow rate

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4.1.5 ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTRACTOR

Figure 4.12: RBC with plastic discs

Figure 4.13: A RBC treatment plant

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4.1.6 OXIDATION PONDS

Figure 4.15: Treatment processes in facultative ponds

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4.2 TERTIARY TREATMENT AND EFFLUENT DISPOSAL

4.2.1 NUTRIENT REMOVALS

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Box 4.2: Nitrification Transformation by Nitroso-bacteria:

Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University CIV3264 Revised 5/2012

Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University CIV3264 Revised 5/2012

Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University CIV3264 Revised 5/2012

Figure 4.17: Modified Bardenpho process for combined P and N removal

Figure 4.18: A photo of wastewater filter