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Usage andapplicability of pseudo-3D stress analysis in borehole stability problems in petroleum drilling andproduction operations
G.G. Ramos & B.S.Wilton
ABSTRACT: In a drilling/production operating environment, wellbore instabilities arise in allthree stages of a well's lifespan: drilling, stimulation and production phases. Thetiming and severity of theoccurrence of such borehole problems dictate which method ofstability analysis should beused. Pseudo-3D codes areplane-strain, non-isotropic subsets of full3D numerical andanalytical codes. Their speed, portability, andease of usehave popularized them among operations engineers. There are numerous versions ofpseudo-3D stress analysis, from simple linear-elastic to sophisticated poro-elastic-plastic, each withitsownadvantage thatsuits a particular wellbore problem. Simple linear elastic codes are re-emerging in popularity because of ease of useandfieldcalibration schemes.
1 INTRODUCTION
Conventionally, thechoice of muddensity or well pressure Pw isdictated bythe highest formation pore pressure Pr along the well path,Figure1. Other operational andgeological factors listedbelow
must be considered:
2. completion andstimulation, and 3. flow tests, production, anddepletion. Thesedifferentusesandstages in the life of a well
shoulddictatewhich methodof stabilityanalysis is
Commonly encountered instabilities and their presumed mechanisms of failure arelisted in Table 1, assuming thatmudchemistry hasalready been optimized. Instability simply means thatat some point, therock shear strength ortensile strength has
been exceeded, and its severity ranges from
to collapse. pressure Pwduring all thethree phases. Although negligible good drilling andcompletion plans include rock
mechanicalanalysis, in any field operation, unforeseen instabilities may still arise, and the timing of such events mayalsodictate themanner in which thestability analysis is performed.
collapse problems areshear-failure induced, butin case of loss of drilling circulation, themechanism is
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IN-SlTU
Stresses
Observed Problem
Failure Mode
Breakouts
Shear &/or Tensile Shear Shear Shear Shear Shear &/or Tensile Shear&/or Tensile
Tensile
well via perforations,and if required, hydraulic fracture(s) canbe propagated. This operation could fail if the rock adjacentto the cementedcasingis
non-elastic. There are also cases where the
recommendations to be relayed within hours or a few days. The analysthas to decidewhich logs,
bottomhole treatingpressures mustbe minimizedin order to prevent chemical reservoir formation damage. 2.3 Flow tests, production anddepletion Prior to full production,downhole tests that are performed include open-hole logging, fluid sampling, build-up, drawdown, injection, and deliverability tests. It is not unusual to induce failure and/orcollapseduring a well testingphase. An aim of the stability analysis should be to maximize hydrocarbon productionand minimize ground/sandcontrol measuresStability analysis shouldinclude fluid flow and geometricalfactors which are functions of the completion method: open-hole or bare-foot completion, perforated behind cementedcasing, packed with liners or screens, and hydraulically fractured. As the hydrocarbonsare depleted, the drainage region compacts and may fail, compounding the problem of solidsproduction.
cores, seismic data,offset-weB, anddrillingrecords are relevant,if they exist at all, and then gleanout from the availableinformation the necessary input such as elastic modulus, failure strength
xnput data and the need for quick answersmay justify the use of speedy, conventionallinearlyelastic methods.
On the other hand,in a rigorousfield pre-drilling study,as in multi-well development planningof a 100-million+ barrel oil field, the analysthas the benefitof weeksof lead-time,goodcoredata,pilot hole 'engineering' well data, and a staff of technologists and consultants. An example of an integrated field studyis in the development of the Cusianafield (Columbia), an active thrust-faulting environment (Last andMcLean 1995). Similarly,in a post-mortem failure analysis, applicable toolsvary from the simple to sophisticated 3D. Backcalibration of a basic linear-elastic method is
Confronted with various types and severity of instabilities, productionobjectives, expediency, and schedulingconstraints,an operationstechnologist has a choice of analytical tools. Recentreviews of modeling technology, wellbore stability, and drilling advances are given by McLean and Addis (1990), Charlez (1994), and Payneet al (1995). The significant advances are in rock mass characterization, computation, modeling, monitoring, and logging tool developments. The availabilityof desktop andlap-topcomputers (PCs) with programsfor wellbore stress-strain analysis have contributedto wider field applicationsand acceptance of rock mechanicalmodels.Numerical
codes such as finite elements, disllacement
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trajectory, Bradley(1979), Roegiers andDetournay (1988), Aadnoy and Chenevert(1987), Last and McLean (1995) among others, have given expressions for thestresses anddisplacements at the borehole wall, assuming linear elasticity and isotropy, and theseare not presented herefor the sakeof brevity.Figure 1 illustrates the general case of an ERD and the major input requirements in a stabilityanalysis which includeinsitustresses (Sv, Shm, Shmin)' (Pt)' wellborepressure (Pw),cohesive strength (C), andintergranular frictional angle Although a well traversesmultiple layers of varying properties andporepressures (Fig. 1), a full three-dimensional model of the borehole alongits entire lengthis not alwaysnecessary because only the problematic formationneedbe analyzed.And
even if a full 3D numerical model can be created,
Poroelastic
PC
Anal.
Conservative
Elastoplastic Perfectly PC
Anal.
Numl.
Less
plastic
Strain Unix
conservative
Least
softening
Chemical effects
Stress
conservative
Unix
PC
Anal.
Numl.
Prototypes only
Less
dependent
conservative
input data requirements would be very intensive. Someof thesewellborestress-strain analysis codes are pseudo-3D programs - a smallersubset of full threedimensional elasto-plastic wellboremodels. A pseudo three-dimensional (P3D or pseudo-3D) type of analysis is a plane-strain methodof estimating stressesin the vicinity of the wellbore in an anisotropic medium.Thus,the P3D models focus only on a given cross-section normalto the bore
axis, and assume that there are no strains
Linear elastic-limit
(displacements) alongthisborehole axis.With P3D (or plane-strain codes), the borehole stability problemis one of computingthe inducednearwellbore stresses which exceedrock strength.The solution to this problem could be performed analytically or numerically, in mainframes(e.g. UNIX) or desktops(e.g. PC), dependingon the additionalassumptions aboutrock behaviorunder stress. Rock response to strainor stress falls into a
of instabilityand collapseis at the elasticlimit, the most conservative option.The applicabilityof this approachseems arguably limited to hard, brittle formations, may be justified in the following
circumstances:
few categories suchas purely(linearly)elastic(LE), poroelastic (P-E), non-linear elasticandelastoplastic(E-P). Rock strength properties are commonlygiven in terms of the Mohr-Coulomb failure parameters cohesive strength C andintergranular frictionangle (alpha). When stresses exceedrock strength,the rock is described as non-elastic (or plastic).If pore fluid pressure gradient is included in the
calculationsof effective stresses, then the method is
3. Scarcity of datarelatinglaboratory-measured plasticstrains to observed shearfailuremodes. 4. Simplifiedinputandoutputwhichpromotes fastercomputation, parametric analysis, back calculation, andinterpretation. 5. Urgentneeds for results. For example,in an unexpected, urgentproblemof imminentcollapseof a deviated borehole wherethe input in-situ stress and strength propertiesare uncertain, quick but apparently conservative
answers obtained from a linear elastic model would
calledporoelastic. Table 2 compares thesevarious solutionschemes, numerical(Numl.) or Analytical (Anal.), andthe computing platform(Unix or PC). The linearlyelastic method is thebase case because it assumes that failure is equalto the elasticlimit, thus acquiring the label as 'conservative' or pessimistic(Charlez 1994). An elasto-plastic method implies that even after straining the boreholebeyondits elastic limit, the non-elastic region remainsintact and load-bearing,and not necessarily in a collapsed state,and thuslabeled
'less conservative'.
suffice.An engineer facedwith inputdatafrom logs only, may opt for a less data intensive code. Usually,field logs,poreand mud pressures are the only known variables, but with simpler elastic codes,it is fast and effortlessto iterativelybackcalculate the unknown variables (like insitu stress gradientand strength).The use of elastic-plastic modelsin a data-poorfield case would give less
conservative estimates but it also reduces the
engineer's marginof safety.Furthermore, the speed and flexibility of linearly-elastic(L-E) brittle rock modelshave enabledoperators to back-calibrate or performpost-mortems for data-poor field cases,an example of which is given by Zoback and Peska (1995).
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A novel approach considers mud and shale interactions in terms of chemical activity coefficients (Wanget al 1994),reduces the strength
of the shale with time, and still retains the elastic-
limit constraints. This is applicablewhen dealing with reactiveshales. Non-linearelasticity in terms of confining-stress dependentYoung's modulus (Santarelli,Brown, and Maury, 1986) also gives more conservative answers andrelieson laboratory
triaxial data.
Mohr-Coulomb,and otherlesspopularcriteria are Von-Mises, Tresca and Drucker-Prager.McLean andAddis(1990) andCharlez(1994) compare these criteria with example applications. The classic Mohr-Coulombcriterion,hasemerged as the most popular because of the availability of data on cohesive and frictionalstrength properties of rocks, and its proven applicabilityin mine/tunneldesign.
The other criteria are more sensitive to the
Poroelasticity includesthe fluid or pore pressure distribution nearthe borehole in calculating strains and effectivestresses (Cui et al 1995, Detournay, Roegiers,and Cheng 1987, Mody and Hale 1993, among others). This implies that stability is a
function of time. Most of these formulations are still
underdevelopment andrequireextensive field and laboratory validation.During well-completion, it is desirable to perforate into an elasticrock, or a zone with minimalplasticstrain.If hydraulic fracturing is planned, formation breakdown and fracture propagation are the primary concern,and therefore the appropriate analysisis a poroelastic formulation (e.g. Weng 1993, Wang and Dusseault,1991). In a production mode, maximum flow rates can be obtained when the borehole or perforation is allowed to exceedthe elastic-limit (i.e. plastic). Thus,thesedesign stages call for elasto-plastic and poroelastic codes.
3.3 Anisotropy
magnitude of the intermediate in-situ stress and morepopularin numerical methods. A novelelastoplastic or EP (Drucker-Prager) approach includes the effect of water contenton shalestrength (Mody andHale, 1993) andwouldbe an appropriate model for reactiveshales. An exampleDrucker-Prager E-P application, performed in a PC spread-sheet is given by Lal andGuild (1995). Elastic-plastic models extend the stress-strain analysisbeyondthe elasticlimit. A mathematically
convenient formulation is to assume that no stresses
exceedthe elasticlimit, i.e., perfectplasticity,the mostcommonfeatureamongelasto-plasfic models. Analytical andnumericalsolutions canestimate the region aroundthe well that is non-elastic, which is looselyreferredto as plasticized, dilated,disturbed, damaged, or dis-aggregated. Variousinterpretations
of such zones could be the reaction fronts between
drilling mud and shale,spallingskin,breakouts, the damaged region around a perforation, and the ablatedring aroundopen-hole completions, to name
a few.
Like plasticity,transverse anisotropy or othotropic anisotropy is an attractive featurebut not a popular one, owing to lack of field data on coefficientsof anisotropy and the relative insensitivity of the computed outputto the coefficients of anisotropy.
There are information on elastic toodull,
particularlyin the seismicand dynamicdomains, and still less published data regarding static mechanicalproperties. In spite of the lack of field data, formulationsusing anisotropyare easier to implement in P3D thanin FEM. Anisotropyin cohesiveand frictional strength is moredifficultto implement. One usefulapplication of non-isotropicstrength includes the effects of bedding and joints or any plane of weakness.A formulationby Liao and Mear (1991), considers a tensionlessMohr-Coulomb joint, in addition to transverse anisotropy. This simulates a weak plane which could intersect the boreholeat any arbitrary angle.This is a convenient andpowerfulfeature in analyzingthe formationof doglegs, ledgesandloss of circulationalongpre-existingfrictional surfaces. Exampleapplications are in evaluating the impact of clay partings, bedding joints,or fault-crossings.
Again, the acceptability and significance of a plasticzone depends on the stageof life of the well. During drilling of an ERD, a plasticzonemay not be an acceptable risk sinceit is 'unsupported' for periodsof weeks.In this stage, the engineer usually opts for the conservative high-mud wt recommendations from a L-E model, just to ensure the well remains open. However, if the same well has another formation uphole which would breakdown(i.e. fracture)with suchmud pressure, then a less conservativeelasto-plasticmethod should be used. In the stimulation phase, the engineer may look at the plasticzoneas a zoneof
low stress, and it serves to lower the fracture
initiation pressure. And in the acid-stimulation and production stages, the dilatedor non-elastic zone is a region of enhanced permeability, and the developmentof a plastic zone is tolerable, if not highly desirable,up to point of massivesanding. For example,our North Seaoil-fieldexperience has demonstrated thata horizontal well canbe designed for maximizing production,as an elastic-plastic open-hole,especiallyif the input to the model are laboratory and log data (Ramos et al, 1994). McLellan and Wang (1994) givesan exampleof a poro-elastic-plastic application in an acidified
sandstone.
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3.5 Data availabilityandsensitivity Availability of, or lack of data can sometimes dictate the course of the stability analysis.The sensitivityof the resultsdepends mainly on two boundary-condition input parameters: insitustress and rock strength. In mostcases, the requiredinput dataare available.However,as a logicalalternative, the method of back-calculating 'unknown' boundaryconditions is becomingpopular,made feasibleby fasterPC's. For example,it takesonly a few seconds to iterativelychange (in the PC) input valuesfor in-situstresses, to comeup with a critical mudwt whichconforms to theknownfield collapse
failure conditions. The same back-calculation
pressures arelowerby 20%. On theotherhand,the well perpendicular to Shmax is more stable, breaking down at CDP=4300 psi and failing in shear with CDP of 710 psi. (The model is not suitable for investigating otherwellboreazimuths.)
The model also calculated the annular volume
whichis plasticized, usually from radialdistances of 0.05r to 1.Sr. The benefits of this kind of analysis arethe calculated magnitudes of the following: the extentof non-elastic'failed' region effectof permeability & pore-pressure gradient materialanisotropy, Kv:Kh effectof residual strength of theplastic zone
effect of non-linear material behavior
scheme is done to derive unknown strength parameters, sincethemajorgeometrical constraints, azimuth, deviation,are alreadyknown. This backcalculation option is commonly performed in interpreting leak-off testsin deviated wells, lossof circulation problems, breakouts, washouts, andeven laboratory hollow-cylinder testdata.
Its disadvantages arethe requirements for: a meshor grid of cellsor elements material properties for eachelement or cell the borehole alignedwith a principalstress mainframe-type computing power voluminous results andprintouts pre- andpost-dataprocessor
With the numericalapproach above,it was not possible to investigate arbitrarily oriented horizontal
wells. In actual field cases, the orientation of a
4 EXAMPLE
COMPARISON
horizontalor ERD well is the foremost production design criterion. If the 0-deg.azimuthis not stable, the alternative 90-degree azimuth may not be acceptable to the reservoirandfacilitiesengineers. Thus, we use a P3D code (one by Liao and Meat, 1991, amongothers)to determine otherhorizontal azimuthal options.From Figure 2, the analytical
solution shows that for horizontal wellbore
of comparison. The numericalmodel requires that the well is alignedwith one of the principalinsitu stresses, e.g. the azimuthfrom Shmaxis either0 or 90 degrees. The criticaldifferential pressure CDP is
The2D FEM analysis presented above implies that thehorizontal well maynotfeasible if parallel to Shmax because tensile fracturing initiates at420psi
overbalance, while shear failure starts at
overbalance pressures below 710 psi. With the poroelastic, penetrating fluid case,the breakdown
Table 3. Horizontal Well Linear Elastic and ElasticPlastic Critical Differential Pressures CDPs
azimuthswithin 40 degrees of Sh .... either shear failure or breakdowndevelops,suggesting major difficultiesof drilling wells within +40 degreesof Sh. Thus,to reachthe desired target,the operator has the option of other more favorable well trajectories, i.e. +50 degrees from Shmin. In serious casesinvolving loss of well due to collapse, the effectsof Sv, Sh .... and Shmin are easilyanalyzed with the analyticalP3D The polar (stereographic) plot of Figure3 illustrates the effectson trajectory of an ERD well (Payneet al, 1995) of two typesof insitu stressregimes.The top quadrant(Fig. 3) is for a normal gravity-stress regime, similar to the previous example (Table 3), showing the minimum P,for shear stability, increasing with deviation and azimuthal proximityto Sh. The lowerquadrant is for a tectonic regionwhere Sh > Sv> Sh.. andimpliesthatthe verticalwell is the leaststable, the 30-degree deviation requires 13.5 ppgwhile the 85-degree deviation requires12.5 ppg. The examplesabove give azimuthsrelative to Sh, whoseorientation and magnitude are not usually known. In an actual field case, to quantify the bounds of insitu stresses and strengths, the logical recourse is to study thepilot-hole's caliper
and leak-off data. With this minimal amount of
deg.
0 90
CDP psi
>710 >710
CDP psi
415 4300
flow
none none
type
L-E L-E
0 90
>710 >710
320 3324
Darcy Darcy
E-P E-P
1 o71
information, a sensitivity analysis or backcalculation scheme can be performed in orderto create a field-validated modelor input-data set.
5.00 4.50
Max,
Hor,
Stress
4.00
3.50
3.00
2.50
2.00
Tensile Failure
Shear Failure
40 60 80
lOO
60
0, Normal .gravitatio
1.50 1.00
0.50 0.00
. 30
20
60
greater than vertical
90
Top quadrant= Normalstress regime Bot. quadrant = Thrust fault stress regime
Typeof Problem
Geological hazards
Abnormally pressured
formations
Depleted & Fractured formations Prevent circulation loss in zone Reactive clays Optimize mudwt belowcollapse pressure
Operational Factors Risk of differential sticking
Kicks and risk of blow-outs
Mud / clayinteraction
Difficulties while drilling
Optimize mudwt belowcollapse pressure Reduce mudwt to the minimumpossible Optimize mudwt belowcollapse pressure
Poroelastic,Chemical
coupling Linearelastic,Anisotropic
Linear elastic
Increase mud wt
Optimizemudwt
Leakofftestinterpretation
Completion andProduction
Stimulation difficulties Optimize treating pressure Well flow tests sanding, collapse Decrease drawdown pressure Sanding during production, Decrease drawdown pressure collapse
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Elasto-plastic, Poroelastic
Elasto-plastic, Poroelastic Elasto-plastic, Poroelastic
5 CONCLUSIONS
Basedon pastandrecent experience in dealing with field casesof wellboreinstabilityproblems, there are numerous toolsand options to help solvesuch problems. Table 4 summarizes commonly encountered difficulties during drilling and production, andpresents strategies andfeatures of thepreferred analytical toolsfor eachsituation. The suggestedapproach could be linearly elastic, poroelasticor elasto-plastic, depending on the perceived cause andproposed strategy. Thereis no singleintegrated model,analyticalnor numerical, applicable to all cases of instability.However, with additional research or field and laboratory data, each model shouldbe revisedto suit a particular field or well, even to the extent of creatingsemiempiricalformulations.
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