Leadership Theories

Fiedler's Contingency Theory & a Leader's Situational Control Fiedler's contingency theory states that there are three elements that dictate a leader's situational control. The three elements are task structure, leader/member relations, and positioning power. Fiedler's Theory Have you ever wondered why some managers really get to know their employees and others focus only on getting the job done? Fiedler's contingency theory will help to explain why managers can behave so differently. Fiedler's contingency theory contends that there is no one single leadership style that works for all employees. He recognized that there are situationalcontingent factors that affect a leader's ability to lead. The effectiveness of workers depends on how good a match exists between the leadership style of the leader and the demands of the situation. There are two factors that result from this: leadership style and situation favorableness (or situational control).

Leader ship Style Leader ship style is determi ned by rating a leader' The contingency theory will help to explain why managers can behave so differently. s least preferred co-worker on the least preferred co-worker (LPC) scale. A leader is asked to rate someone he or she least liked working with (presently or in the past) on a scale of 1-8 in the following areas:

Unfriendly/friendly Uncooperative/cooperative Hostile/Supportive Guarded/open

The leader tallies up the score. This test is not about how horrible the least preferred co-worker was to work with. It is about the leader's behavior towards the co-worker. The leader who scores high is most likely relationship oriented. These high LPC leaders like to build relationships with employees. They are more likely to avoid conflict. They also are better equipped to make complex decisions.

The lower-scoring LPC leader is task oriented. This leader is more interested in assigning duties and getting the work done. This leader does not care much about building relationships. A high LPC leader is capable of leading a team in a favorable situation, while a low LPC Two factors that depend on the demands of a particular situation leader can lead a team in both favorable and unfavorable situations because the low LPC leader focuses on tasks rather than on relationships. The essential element of this theory is that there are different leadership styles for different situations. The style of leadership is contingent upon the particular situation. So, if the situation is fast decision making, the high LPC leader fares well. If the situation is high production, the low LPC leader is better equipped to handle that because that leader does not care much about whether the employees like what he or she is doing. Once a leader determines his or her leadership style, the situational control needed for a particular situation must be determined.

Three Dimensions of Situational Favorablenes s Situation favorableness occurs when the three dimensions leader-member

This leader is more interested in assigning duties and getting the work done. relations, task structure, and leader position power - are high.

Leader-member relationships refer to the degree of trust, respect, and confidence that exists between the leader and the workers. Task structure refers to the degree to which tasks are clearly explained and structured for workers. Leader position power refers to the degree to which the leader possesses inherent power in his or her position. If employees and the leader have trust, respect, and have confidence in each other, there are clear and structured tasks, and the leader possesses formal authority in his position, the situation is considered favorable. Let's look at a few examples of how each dimension works.

Professor Smart holds several degrees from universities all over the world. He is the lead professor in the physics department. He has a great reputation for helping students with tutoring and homework. His students love his class because he provides a typed agenda for the day, assignment schedule, and hands-on direction to There are different leadership styles for different situations. complete classroom activities. Professor Smart has a high LPC and is relationship oriented. His classroom environment is situation favorable. Low LPC leaders tend to be effective in both favorable and unfavorable situations, while high LPC leaders tend to be effective in favorable situations.

Joey 'Tin Can' Bruno is a trash-sorting supervisor for Trash Management Company (TMC). He supervises 30 trash sorters. TMC is a union shop, so Joey has little autonomy to hire or fire employees. In fact, he cannot even discipline an employee without a Professor Smart has a situation-favorable classroom environment. formal hearing. Joey doesn't get to know the guys in his facility, either. Joey tends to stay in his office during breaks and lunch. While working, he tends to watch over the guys as they sort trash, often giving strict direction. Joey has a low LPC and is task oriented. His trash-sorting department is situation unfavorable. Lesson Summary In summary, Fiedler's contingency theory argues that there is no one leadership style. There are situation-contingent factors that determine for a particular situation. These factors are leadership style and situational favorableness. Leadership style is determined by rating a leader's least preferred co-worker on the least preferred co-worker (LPC) scale. A leader is asked to rate someone he or she least liked working with (presently or in the past) on a scale of 1-8 in the following areas:

Unfriendly/friendly

Uncooperative/cooperative Hostile/Supportive Guarded/open

Situation favorableness occurs when the three dimensions - leader-member relations, task structure, and leader position power - are high. There are three dimensions of situation favorableness. Leader-member relations refers to the degree of trust, respect, and confidence exists between the leader and the workers. Task structure refers to the degree to which tasks are clearly explained and structured for workers. Leader position power refers to the degree to which the leader possesses inherent power in his or her position. When all three dimensions are high, a leader will be more effective. However, leaders who ranked a low LPC are effective in both favorable and unfavorable situations. Leaders who ranked a high LPC are generally effective only in favorable situations. Hersey-Blanchard's Model of Situational Leadership Hersey-Blanchard's Model of Situational Leadership assumes that follower maturity is a major indicator of an employee's readiness to perform work. There are four leadership styles associated with the model: delegating, participating, selling and telling. Situational Leadership and Follower Maturity Hersey-Blanchard's situational leadership contends that leaders must adjust their leadership style according to the maturity of their 'followers' or employees. The maturity of the employee directly influences their readiness to work.

Situational leadership assumes that follower maturity is an indicator of readiness to work. As we learn about the readiness factors, let's look at how situational leadership works in the sales department of Conglom Financial Services, Inc. Conglom Financial is a large investment firm. The sales team is made up of many employees with varying abilities and confidence levels. Some employees have a lot of experience selling investment products like stocks and insurance

policies. Others are enthusiastic about selling but lack experience doing the job. And there are some employees in between. Mr. Cash, sales director at Conglom Financial, looks at two factors to determine the maturity level of his followers (or employees): follower ability and follower confidence. Follower ability is the degree to which a follower has the skills and ability to perform a task. A follower who possesses experience at a particular skill will need less instruction than one who has little experience. Interns with little experience in the financial world would need far more instruction than a seasoned salesperson. When an employee does not possess the skills to perform a task, he will need plenty of direction.

Follower confidence is the degree to which a follower believes he or she can perform a particular task. A follower with a high level of confidence will need less direction than one who feels little confidence in his or her ability to complete the task. A salesperson with tenure at Conglom has a high level of confidence, so he needs less direction than a newer salesperson. This employee is highly motivated, and that makes learning the skill easier. The Leadership Style Matrix

Experienced followers need less instruction.

Leaders must be able to change their leadership style to deal with different employees possessing various skill levels. The right leadership style for each employee or group of employees is decided by using a matrix. The matrix is divided into four sections representing four possible leadership styles: delegating, participating, selling and telling.

Delegating is necessary when the follower is ready, willing and able to perform a particular task. This follower has a high level of confidence in his or her ability to perform. Decisions are turned over to this follower. There is little need to build a relationship because the follower shows The matrix refers to delegating, participating, selling and telling. a high level of maturity and can perform with little to no direct supervision or instruction. This is defined on the matrix as lowtask, low-relationship style.

At Conglom Financial, Mr. Cash uses a delegating style for his most senior salespeople. These employees have been with the company for many years. They worked on major sales projects and wrote many insurance policies over the years. They are given client names and phone numbers and left to do their job without any further direction or supervision. Participating is necessary when the follower is able but unwilling to perform a particular task. The unwillingness is generally due to low confidence in his or her ability to perform. The leader must participate by sharing ideas with the follower. There is need to build a relationship because although the follower shows a medium level of maturity and the ability to perform, he or she needs the extra coaching from the leader. This is defined as low-task, high-relationship style.

When working with newer salespeople, Mr. Cash uses a participating style. These workers have been trained but only worked with clients while working with a more senior salesperson. These newer salespeople are able to open accounts and sell securities but are concerned that they may do something wrong. Mr. Cash participates in the sales The leader participates by sharing ideas with the follower. pitch and offers advice along the way. This approach eases their jitters, and they are able to sell their services. Selling is necessary when the follower does not possess the skill or ability to perform but is confident and willing to learn. The leader must explain the task and any decisions regarding how to perform the task to this follower. Although the follower demonstrates medium maturity, there is a need to focus on tasks and build a relationship with the follower. The leader must persuade this follower to take direction. A persuasive leader can sell the decisions to the follower. Training and follow-up are necessary. This is defined on the matrix as high-task, high-relationship style.

There are a few interns at Conglom Financial who do not have the experience or training to sell financial services, but they are eager to learn and sell. Mr. Cash likes to give these employees a chance to learn the business by working directly with them. He meets with these eager employees to discuss strategies, offer advice and give direction. He convinces them that they can do it through kind words of encouragement. The leader must explain the task to his follower. Telling is necessary when the follower does not possess either the ability or the confidence to perform a particular task. Because of this

follower's low maturity, the leader must provide explicit direction and close supervision at all times. Sometimes Mr. Cash takes on high school students as interns, and they are just not as eager and need more than persuading. They also lack work experience. They arrive at Conglom with no experience and no confidence. This is a bit trickier for Cash because he has to direct their every move. So, he tells them exactly what to do and monitors their progress at every step.

Lesson Summary HerseyBlanchard's Model of Situational Leadership states that leaders should The telling style refers to a leader who provides clear direction and supervision. adjust their leadership style based on the maturity of their followers. There are two factors used to determine the maturity level of followers. Follower ability is the degree to which a follower possesses the skills and ability to perform a particular task, and follower confidence is the degree to which a follower believes in his or her ability to perform a particular task. Leaders can use any one of four different leadership styles, depending on the follower's maturity level. A leader can use a delegating style with followers who possess the skills, ability and confidence to perform the task. This is a low-task, low-relationship style. A leader can use a participative style with followers who possess the skills and ability but lack the confidence to perform the task. This is a low-task, high-relationship style. When a follower does not possess the skill or ability but has a high level of confidence, the leader can take a more persuasive leadership approach - selling. The leader may use convincing language to explain how to perform the task. This is a high-task, high-relationship style. Finally, a follower who has little skills and ability and lacks confidence would benefit from a telling style. The leader must provide clear direction and supervision at all times. The Path-Goal Theory and Leadership Styles

Path-Goal is a type of leadership theory that focuses on establishing a clear path to goal achievement. Leadership styles that are associated with this theory include: achievementoriented, directive, participative and supportive leadership. The Path to Goal Achievement Robert J. House, founder of Path-Goal theory, believes that a leader's behavior is contingent to employee satisfaction, employee motivation and employee performance. Path-Goal theory states that a good leader provides clear direction, sets high goals, gets involved in goal achievement and supports his employees. The employees, as a result, will be a more satisfied and productive team. It also states that employees will accept a leader's direction if the employee believes that there will be an immediate or future benefit that results from work.

Let's apply Path-Goal theory to a football team. The team is made up of many different people, including coaches, players and supporting members. Each contributes to a different function of the team. Each team member must know the plays, be encouraged to do their part to win games, feel the coach's commitment and have the support of others in order to perform at their best. Robert J. House founded Path-Goal theory. Path-Goal Leadership Styles

There are several different directions a running back can take to get from the 50-yard line to the end zone. Depending on the circumstance, he may run directly to the end zone, serpentine from one sideline to the other or charge into a group of opposing players. Path-Goal leadership styles work in similar ways. Just as there are different paths to the end zones, there are different paths to leading a team. There are various leadership styles associated with Path-Goal theory:

Achievement-oriented leadership Directive leadership Participative leadership Supportive leadership

Achievement-Oriented Leadership In achievement-oriented leadership challenging goals are set, high performance is expected and management has a high level of confidence in the employee's ability to achieve the goals. This A team is made up of coaches, players and supporting members. style of leadership is well suited for quarterbacks to use on other team members. The coordinator or coach gives the quarterback a set of goals and plays. The main goal is to win games, but there are smaller, equally important goals for the execution of plays during a game. The coordinator provides the quarterback with the playbook and sets the expectation for performance - all with a high level of confidence that the quarterback can direct the team to execute the right plays at the right time and win games.

Directive Leadership The quarterback uses a different leadership style with different players. A quarterback gives directives by assigning specific plays to the team and to individuals. Directive leadership involves giving specific advice or directives, clarifying expectations and assigning

In achievement-oriented leadership, challenging goals are set. tasks to individuals or a group.

During a huddle, the quarterback gives players the directives (or plays) and manages from the field. An individual player, like a wide receiver, may be directed to be in a certain area of the field to receive the ball. He may also be directed where to run with the ball. A group of linebackers may be directed to tackle certain players on the opposing team. Regardless of the position, each player must carry out the play according to the quarterback's expectations.

Participative Leadership The quarterback does not always have the final say. The team is given the opportunity to participate in play strategies. Directive leadership involves giving specific advice to groups or individuals. This is a participative leadership style. Participative leadership involves sharing information between the manager and the group to gather input for goal achievement. When the team gathers in the locker room prior to the game, the head coach, coordinators, quarterback and players discuss the overall game strategy and individual plays for the day. Team members provide feedback. The plays are discussed between members of the group to determine the best possible strategies for winning the game. Supportive Leadership Some players require a more sensitive leadership style simply because of their position. While all players play hard on the field, some are more prone to injury. Running backs are especially prone to injuries. Players in this position must be able to run fast, move out of the way of burly linebackers and make nimble jumps over piles of downed players. Supportive leadership is necessary for these players. Managers foster good relations and show personal concern for the health and well-being of the individual or group. Coordinators know that running backs have a physically challenging position. Running backs are often taken out of the game for rest periods. There is also more than one running back on the field. This reduces the physical stress on any one running back. Running backs are also given special massages and even therapies for their leg and shoulder muscles.

Lesson Summary Path-Goal theory establishes a clear path to goal achievement. There are various leadership styles that managers can use to do this:
In achievement-oriented leadership managers set challenging goals, have high performance expectations and have a high level of confidence in the employee's ability to achieve the goals.

Supportive leadership fosters good relations.

Directive leadership involves giving specific advice or directives, clarifying expectations and assigning tasks to individuals or a group. Managers who use participative leadership share information with the group to gather input for goal achievement. Supportive leadership fosters good relations between managers and employees. Managers exhibit personal concern for the health and well-being of the individual or the group.

Machiavellianism in Organizations: Justifying the Means by the Ends Sherri has taught college business and communication courses. She also holds three degrees including communications, business, educational leadership/technology. Manipulation can be a powerful tool that is frequently put into practice by people who have a Machiavellian personality. This lesson describes characteristics of Machiavellianism in both high and low Machs. Niccolo Machiavelli Do you remember hearing the name Niccolo Machiavelli while sitting in history class? Perhaps you associate the term Machiavelli with the idea of being a master of deceit. You might even think of someone you know who is an opportunist and think of them as having a Machiavellian personality. Even if you do not know of Machiavelli, you may have heard of the phrase 'the ends justify the means.'

Portrait of Niccolo Machiavelli Machiavellianism in Organizations

The reason why we associate the idea of a person manipulating someone else for personal gain with Niccolo Machiavelli is conceivably due to his most famous writing: The Prince, a nobleman's guide to the acquisition and use of power. In this book, Machiavelli details the correlation between manipulation, control and personal gain. Machiavelli believed that if a choice had to be made between being loved or being feared, being feared was the better choice.

Machiavellianism , often abbreviated Mach, is a personality trait that is characterized with the use of manipulation to achieve power.

Psychologists have developed a series of instruments called Mach scales to measure a person's Machiavellian orientation. The continuum spans from being highly manipulative to being highly submissive. High Machs are those who would be considered highly manipulative, not easily persuaded, but persuade others more than low Machs, successful in reaching their goals and tend to win more. People with a high Definition of Machiavellianism Mach personality tend to be calm, unattached, calculated and look for ways to exploit loose structures or vulnerability in people. High Machs flourish in face-to-face settings where there are limited rules and structure and when emotions hold little value in goal achievement. Therefore, high Machs are best matched in professions that reward their 'do whatever it takes' attitude such as sales or jobs that offer commission for results.

Characteristics of high Machs

Low Machs are on the opposite side of the Mach spectrum and are characterized as being highly submissive. Those individuals with a low Mach orientation are willing to accept direction imposed on them and thrive in highly structured situations. Low Machs are less motivated by things such as power, status, money and competition than high Machs are. Winning is not everything for low Machs; they operate with a much higher set of ethical standards than their high Mach counterpart.

Machiavellianism can be both positive and negative in organizations depending on how it is used. When Machiavellianism is used to increase managerial effectiveness by providing necessary direction to subordinates to accomplish organizational goals, it is considered a positive attribute. However, when Machiavellianism is used for personal gain at the expense of subordinate or organizational success, it would be considered highly negative. Machiavellian Orientation in Practice

Characteristics of low Machs

To better understand Machiavellian orientation let's take a look at two different people: Maria the high Mach and Martin the low Mach. Maria is a sales representative at Portable Pet Pods. In this past quarter, Maria has surpassed her sales quota and in many cases outsold her coworkers by 50%. As with most sales people, what makes Maria successful is how persuasive and convincing she can be when selling products for Portable Pet Pods. As a high Mach, Maria approaches each sale with logic, precision and assertiveness so that she can increase her chances of selling a product to her customers. She uses manipulation to convince her customers to buy her product line and has even been known to stretch the truth to make a sale. Maria has been referred to as a 'cut-throat' salesperson because she is willing to do whatever it takes to make a sale.

Example of Machiavellianism

She has even been accused of stealing sales leads from her coworkers. Maria makes no apologies for her aggressive tactics she uses to earn her spot as the top selling representative in the company. The fact that Maria is able to communicate with her customers in a face-to-face setting only further helps Maria in using her Machiavellian style. She comes off as confident and relaxed to her customers who interpret that as her reassurance in the products she is selling.

Martin is also a sales representative at Portable Pet Pods, but unlike Maria, Martin is a low Mach. As a low Mach Martin is guided by ethical considerations and does not believe that it is necessary to lie or cheat to makes sales. Instead, Martin focuses on the features that each product offers and works to find ways to match customer needs with particular products. After all, this is the way he was trained to make sales and as a low Mach, Martin believes in accepting the direction that was imposed on him. Even when a lead is dropped by one of his coworkers, Martin makes an effort to pass that customer back to the initial representative that contacted the customer because he believes it is the right thing to do and hopes that the favor will be returned someday. Even without all the aggressive sales tactics that his coworker Maria uses, Martin is still able to be an effective sales representative. Lesson Summary Let's review. Machiavellianism is a personality trait that is characterized with the use of manipulation to achieve power. Machiavellianism can be both positive and negative in organizations depending on how it is used. Psychologists have developed a series of instruments called Mach scales to measure a person's Machiavellian orientation. The continuum spans from being highly manipulative to being highly submissive. High Machs are those who would be considered highly manipulative, not easily persuaded but persuade others more than low Machs, successful in their reaching their goals, and tend to win more. People with a high Mach personality tend to be calm, unattached, calculated and look for ways to exploit loose structures and vulnerability in people. High Machs flourish in face-to-face

settings where there are limited rules and structure and when emotions hold little value in goal achievement. Low Machs are on the opposite side of the Mach spectrum and are characterized as being highly submissive. Those individuals with a low Mach orientation are willing to accept direction imposed on them and thrive in highly structured situations. Low Machs are less motivated by things such as power, status, money and competition than high Machs are. Winning is not everything for low Machs; they operate with a much higher set of ethical standards than their high Mach counterpart.