9

Friction and the inclined plane

The purpose of this experiment is to determine the coecients of kinetic and static friction for particular surfaces, and to determine what factors the coecients depend upon. The apparatus consists of an adjustable ramp whose angle of tilt can be measured, a weight set, wooden blocks, a pulley and a table clamp.

9.1

Frictional forces

Friction is the resistive force that impedes the motion of a body when one tries to slide the object along a surface. The friction force acts parallel to the surfaces in contact, opposes the relative velocity of the body with respect to the surface, and its magnitude depends on the nature of the particular materials that are rubbing together, but not on other variables, such as the area of contact. This will be veried experimentally, and is true only in the macroscopic sense, since on the molecular level things are much more complicated. For the case where the surfaces are in motion relative to each other, the force is called the force of kinetic friction, and is found to be proportional to the normal force acting at the region of contact, and always in opposition to the velocity of the body relative to the surface of contact; v Fkin = k |N | |v | Thus the magnitude of the friction force can be written as |Fkin | = k N where the constant of proportionality, k is the coecient of kinetic friction. If the two bodies in contact have no relative velocity, an even larger static frictional force must be overcome in order to initiate slipping. This is of the same form Fstatic = Fe only now Fe is the externally applied force that is attempting to cause to bodies to slip. This static friction only acts to cancel out the external forces to prevent relative motion, and has a maximum magnitude |Fstatic |max = s |N | where s is called the coecient of static friction. As indicated above, for most surfaces we nd that k s . Air resistance is another example of a non-conservative, energy dissipating force. For a projectile this force also opposes the velocity Fa.r. = b v |v |a where the exponent a depends on whether or not the projectile is fast or slow, and b depends on the density of the medium and the surface area of the projectile.

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We can investigate kinetic friction by observing the motion of a block along a level surface under the inuence of an applied force. The block has a mass m 0 , and extra masses m can be added to it. A second mass M , hanging at the end of a string passing over a pulley, applies a constant force to the block with its added masses, causing the system to move. As the mass M falls, the block slides toward the right, and its motion is retarded by the friction force pointing toward the left. If the mass M is chosen so that its weight just balances the friction force, then the masses move at constant speed. Under this condition, the equations describing the motion of the masses are M g T = 0, and

T k (m0 + m)g = 0 When T , the string tension, is eliminated from these equations we get M = k (m0 + m)

If we then plot M versus m, the result should be a straight line with slope k and intercept k m0 . To study static friction, we can use an inclined plane. As the angle of inclination is increased from zero, the component of the blocks weight pointing down the plane increases. Because of the variable nature of static friction, the magnitude of the friction force keeps increasing as the ramp is raised. At a certain critical angle, however, the friction force reaches its maximum value, and any further increase in the angle will cause the block to begin sliding down the ramp. At that critical angle, the forces on the block are described by m0 g sin c s m0 g cos c = 0 58

from which we nd s = tan c Thus, by measuring the angle of inclination at which the block just begins to slide, we can determine the coecient of static friction.

9.2

Experimental procedure

There are two parts. 9.2.1 Kinetic friction

Measure and record m0 , the mass of the block. Place the board in a horizontal position so that its pulley extends beyond the edge of the lab table. If necessary, wipe the block and the board so that they are free of dirt and grime. Place the block with its largest surface in contact with the board. Pass a string from the block over the pulley and place a weight hanger on the free end of the string. Begin adding masses to the hanger until the block begins to slide slowly with a constant speed, and record that mass in your data table. This involves a judgment call; it may be quite dicult to determine whether the block moves uniformly or accelerates. The computerized version involving the use of sonic range nders can alleviate this issue. It will be necessary to give the block a slight tap for each increase in mass on the hanger, in order overcome the static friction and initiate motion. The slightest tap will be required when the added mass is just enough to overcome the static friction. If you simply add masses until the block begins to slide, it will always accelerate, since the magnitude of the kinetic friction force is less than that of the maximum static friction force. Repeat the above procedure placing masses of m = 200, 400, 600, 800, and 1000 grams successively on top of the block. Record the load on the hanger needed for constant speed in each case. To explore the relevance of area of surface contact, turn the block on its side(to reduce the contact area) and carry out the procedure just described with masses of 400 and 600 grams on top of the block.

9.2.2

Static friction

Use the board as an inclined plane to measure the coecient of static friction. Place the block on the plane with its largest area in contact, and gradually raise the plane until the block just breaks loose and begins to slide down the ramp. Measure the angle at which this occurs. Static friction is overcome at angle c satisfying

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ma = 0 = mg sin c s mg cos c ,

tan c = s

Repeat this process 5 times, lowering the board to its horizontal position at the beginning of each trial. If block faces with dierent materials are available, carry out this procedure for two samples. Identify the sample in the top line of the data table. Repeat this phase of the experiment with the block placed on its side to reduce the area of contact.

9.3

Analysis

To analyze your data and determine k in the rst part of the experiment, compute the for each m value of 0, 200, 400, 600, 800 and 1000 grams, and plot M average mass M versus m and determine k from the slope of the line. You should run a linear regression to determine the slope of the line of best t and use it to get k . A program for performing the least squares linear regression is available on the web interface. Error formulas for s If s = tan max , then ds = s = dmax = dmax (1 + tan2 max ) cos2 max max s = tan

= max (1 + tan2 max ),

Notice that this formula should be used with angles measured in radians. To compute the static coecient, calculate values for s using tan c = s and compute an average value and standard deviation for both large and small surface contact areas, and for each surface sample. If you were able to use blocks of dierent materials, comment on which is slickest, and why.

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9.4

Pre-lab questions

1. In the gure below, a block M = 1.0 kg slides on a surface with k = 0.1, with velocity vector shown, but with a pointing to the left. In what direction does the force of friction exerted by the surface on the block point?

2. If in the gure above, the block were accelerating to the right, in what direction does the force of friction exerted by the surface on the block point? Find its magnitude. 3. In the gure below, a block M1 = 1.0 kg rests on a frictionless surface. A second block M2 = 0.5 kg rests upon M1 . There is friction with k = 0.1, s = 0.12 between the two blocks. A force |F | = 0.1 N is applied to M1 . In what direction does the force of friction acting on M2 point if M2 does not slip on M1 ? Find its magnitude.

M2

M1

4. In problem 3 above, nd the largest possible acceleration that a force F applied to M1 can give to both blocks such that they co-accelerate without slipping on one another. 5. In problem 3 above, suppose that | F | is so great that both blocks accelerate but do slip. While M2 slips on M1 , nd its acceleration (magnitude and direction). 6. Take the same blocks with M1 resting on a frictionless surface. Apply F to M2 . In what direction does the force of friction acting on M 1 point?

M2

M1

What is the largest co-acceleration that the blocks could have?

9.5

Lab report
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Friction and the Inclined Plane

Experimenter 1 Experimenter 3 Mass of the block, m0 =

Experimenter 2 Experimenter 4 kg

Table 1: Static Friction Data Trial 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

max

max = s = ,

max = s =

Table 2: Kinetic Friction Data m

Slope of M versus m; k = Intercept of M versus m;

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