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TOPIC 2. THE VERB SET READINGS GREENBAUM, S. and R. QUIRK (1990). A Student's Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman. Sections 3.1-3.10. PALMER, F.R. (19872). The English Verb. London: Longman. Section 11.3. QUEREDA RODRGUEZ-NAVARRO, L. (19972). A Morphosyntactic Study of the English Verb Phrase. Granada: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad. Chapters 6, 8, 9 and 11. SYNOPSIS 2.1. THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE ENGLISH VERB 2.1.1. Derivational morphology: verb suffixes There are a few verb-forming suffixes in English, of which the only highly productive one is '-ize'. All of them form transitive verbs with causative meaning from other categories (mostly adjectives and nouns): -ATE: hyphenate, differentiate -EN: deafen, lengthen -IFY, -FY: simplify, codify -IZE (-ISE): modernize, symbolize. 2.1.2. Inflectional morphology All lexical verbs consist of stem or stem + inflectional suffix. The stem (without any suffix) is called the BASE FORM of the verb and is used for: . Bare infinitive . With 'to' ('To-Infinitive') . Imperative . Subjunctive . Present Simple with genderless subject (1st, 2nd person singular and plural, 3rd person plural). The stem + inflectional suffix is used for: . Present with a gender subject (3rd person singular) . Simple Past (ed1) . -ing form . Past Participle (ed2) These four functions are called INFLECTIONAL CATEGORIES and they are affected by some pronunciation and spelling phenomena (complete with Greenbaum and Quirk (1990: 3.1-3.10): As far as pronunciation is concerned, we are mainly concerned with: - The three allomorphs of the -s inflection (/iz/, /z/ and /s/). - The three allomorphs of the -ed1 and -ed2 inflections (/id/, /d/, /t/). With regard to spelling we can speak of the following issues: - Doubling of final consonant before a suffix - Deletion of and addition of e - Treatment of final -y.
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Bearing in mind the inflectional distinctions of Simple Past and Past Participle we distinguish between REGULAR and IRREGULAR verbs. 2.1.2.1. Regular verbs Regular verbs have predictable inflected forms because they just add the different inflections (-s, -ing -ed1, -ed2) to the base. They constitute the majority of verbs in English and this is the pattern new verb coinages adopt. 2.1.2.2. Irregular verbs Irregular verbs have unpredictable forms. They are not very many in number (approximately 250 verbs) and some of them have one predictable form and another unpredictable. Palmer (19872:250-256) speaks of several phenomena that can help us to understand some irregular forms: - Secondary -ed formation: o Devoicing o Vowel shortening o Consonant reduction. - Back vowel formation. - -(e)n suffix. Idiosyncratic forms. 2.1.3. English verb modifications We will consider five major modifications in the English verb: tense, phase, aspect, mood and voice. There are also two minor modifications (number and person) which are of reduced use in English, since they appear only in the third person singular of the Present Simple in lexical (full) verbs. We will briefly refer to the five major ones here because they will be studied in more detail in the following topics. For a clear introduction to them Quereda (19972: chapter 5) is strongly recommended. Tense is a grammatical category that has to be distinguished from the philosophical concept of "time". In English it refers to the contrast between remote (marked) and non-remote (unmarked) forms, that is to say, present and past forms. Phase is based upon the distinction phased (marked) and non-phased (unmarked) forms and it carries the semantic idea of "relevant anteriority". It is realized by means of the auxiliary "have" + the past participle. Aspect establishes the dichotomy between progressive (marked / action in the middle of the process) and non-progressive (unmarked / action as a whole). It is formed with the auxiliary "be" + the -ing form. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards an event, action or state. We distinguish between modal (marked) and non-modal (unmarked) forms. Mood can be realized synthetically (by means of (lack of) inflection) and analytically (with modal verbs). Voice affects not only the verb, but the whole sentence. It establishes the contrast between passive (marked) and non-passive (unmarked) forms and it is formed with the auxiliary "be" + the past
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participle. It is a syntactic process that allows us to see the action from two different angles.

2.2. TENSE, PHASE AND ASPECT In this section we will study the English verb forms which are not affected by mood and voice, that is to say, all of them are non-modal and active. Mood and Voice will be studied in detail in the following sections. The combination of the three modifications -tense, phase and aspect- provides us with a wide range of forms that have traditionally been called "tenses" but that are more appropriately called "verb forms" because it is evident that they are not only affected by "tense". As Quereda points out, although we can speak of "standard" uses of the different verb forms, in many cases most typical labels assigned to them are purely contextual and it is the speaker's personal interpretation of the reality that is the deciding factor. Since the future does not constitute a "tense" in English, we are not going to deal with it here. The different ways to express "future time" in English are realized by means of modal auxiliaries or semiauxiliaries which will be covered later. For a detailed study of the expression of future time in English you can consult Leech (19872: Chapter 4). What follows is a summary of the main ideas in Quereda (1997 2: Chapter 6) and some ideas in Leech (19872: Chapters 1,2,3). This has to be completed with the reading in detail of the aforementioned chapter. 2.2.1. The present simple Non-remote non-phased non-progressive verb form. It views the action as a whole. It is the most neutral form and, therefore, the form which allows the widest range of uses, which can be summarised as follows: 1. Timeless reference. 2. Present time reference. 3. Future time reference. 4. Past time reference. 5. Imaginary use. 2.2.2. The present progressive Non-remote non-phased progressive verb form. It views the action as if it were in the middle of its process. The speaker includes her/his act of speech within the same perspective as the time of speaking. These are the contexts in which it appears: 1. Present time reference. 2. Future time reference. 3. Timeless reference. 4. Past time reference. 2.2.3. The past simple Remote non-phased non-progressive verb form. The speaker locates the action as something distant,
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remote from her/his actual perspective. It can be used in context with different temporal references: 1. Past time reference. 2. Past habitual reference. 3. Future-time reference. 4. Present time reference. 2.2.4. The past progressive Remote non-phased progressive verb form. Action in the past, viewed as in the middle of the process. It presents the following temporal references: 1. Past time reference. 2. Past habitual reference. 3. Future-in-the-past reference. 4. Present time reference. 2.2.5. The present perfect simple Non-remote phased non-progressive verb form. It covers two points of reference: a past situation with present relevance. It is less flexible than the previous forms and occurs in the following contexts: 1. Present time reference. 2. Past time reference. 3. Future time reference. 2.2.6. The present perfect progressive Non-remote phased progressive verb form. It adds the aspectual modification (temporariness, incompleteness) to the present perfect simple. 1. Present time reference. 2. Past time reference. 2.2.7. The past perfect simple Remote phased non-progressive verb form. Usually defined as past-of-the-past because it covers both the past simple and the present perfect simple, as can be seen from its uses: 1. Definite past reference. 2. Resultative / continuative / habitual past. 3. Indefinite past reference. 4. Future-in-the-past reference. 5. Hypothetical past reference. 2.2.8. The past perfect progressive Remote phased progressive verb form . It emphasizes the idea of activity in progress. It covers an area equivalent to both the past progressive and the present perfect progressive, as can be seen from its uses: 1. Definite past reference. 2. Resultative / continuative / habitual past.
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3. Indefinite past reference. 4. Hypothetical past reference. 2.3. MOOD AND MODALITY As pointed out, MOOD is one of the grammatical categories which characterize the verb group. Up to now we have dealt with the 'unmarked' INDICATIVE mood (cf. the chart of the English verb conjugation in Quereda, pp. 104-105, which leaves aside both subjunctive and imperative and it concentrates only on indicative). Mood has to do with the speaker's attitude towards an event, action or state. Apart from some lexical items that express mood (hope, anxious, probably, insistence, willingness), the mood system in English presents the dichotomy of modal forms (marked) and non-modal forms (unmarked -indicative). In clauses marked with modal VPs, the event is always presented as non-factual and they can be realized by inflection (imperative and subjunctive, inherited from Old English) or by means of auxiliary modal verbs. The semantic contrast between a non-modal and a modal form can be explained as a contrast between "factuality" (proposition presented as a fact) and "non-factuality" (proposition presented as doubt, possibility, intention, hypothesis, obligation, advice, etc.). Anyway, it is better to characterize the nonmodal forms as "neutral to non-factuality" (cf. QUEREDA 19972: 90-100). 2.3.1. The imperative Basically this mood can be characterized by means of two features: it is realized by the base form of the verb and it is used to express COMMANDS (directives), one of the four major syntactic classes in English. It is severely restricted as to tense, aspect, voice and modality. The structural types of command are the following: . Without Subject: 1st person: --2nd person: Open the door. 3rd person: --. With Subject: . Without 'let': 1st person: --2nd person: You open the door. 3rd person: Someone open the door. . With 'let': 1st person: Let me open the door / Let's open the door. 2nd person: --3rd person: Let someone open the door. (Complete with QUIRK 1985: 827-833 and QUEREDA 19972: ch. 7, section 1) 2.3.2. The subjunctive (Cf. QUIRK 1985: 155-158 and complete with QUEREDA 19972: ch. 7, section 2). Practically, English has no subjunctive. According to Quirk et al., there are three types of Subjunctive in English:
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a) MANDATIVE: the form is the base. It goes in contexts expressing recommendation, demand or suggestion. In the main clause there is always a verb which indicates something related to these values or meanings. The register of this type of Subjunctive is very formal. Besides, it is much more used in AmE than in BrE. b) FORMULAIC: the form is the base. It goes in set phrases, idiomatic sentences expressing a wish; usually they have come from the past: God save the Queen! / God bless you! / Heaven forbid that! / Be that as it may!.This Subjunctive is not productive. c) HYPOTHETICAL: either in the base form of the verb (very rare) or with the so-called 'WERE Subjunctive': If I was / were rich. ('Was' is more common in less formal style). This distinction affects the verb TO BE. It does not appear with other verbs: If I had a car. It is no use discussing whether this is a subjunctive or a hypothetical past, so it is better to call it HYPOTHETICAL PAST, which occurs in several contexts. The only real case of subjunctive in English is WERE and modern grammars assert that WAS is also possible, remarking that the use of WERE suggests hypothetical meaning in a stronger way. These are the main possibilities in English to render the Spanish subjunctive: . Indicative . Modal verbs . Non-tensed forms . Imperative . Subjunctive . Rephrasing

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2.3.3. Modal verbs 2.3.3.1. The morphology of modal verbs As we know, modal verbs have the NICE properties of auxiliaries (negation, inversion, code and emphatic affirmative) together with others which are also shared by other auxiliaries (negative contractions, pre-adverb position, pre-quantifier position and independence of subject). In addition, there are some properties that are specific to them: . Followed by bare infinitive . Only tensed forms (but a defective system) . No 3rd person inflection . Abnormal time reference . Central modals cannot co-occur According to Quereda, we can classify modal verbs as follows: CENTRAL MODAL VERBS: can, may, shall, will, could, might, should, would, must, ought to . MARGINAL MODALS: used to, dare, need. MODAL SEMIAUXILIARIES: . With "be": is to, be going to. . With "have": have to, have got to, had better. 2.3.3.2. Epistemic (knowledge) modality The term comes from Greek ('episteme' -knowledge- and 'logos' -discourse-; 'epistemology' is the science that investigates the origin, nature, methods and limits of knowledge, this is the reason why it is also called 'knowledge modality'). An epistemic modal is used to express a judgment by the speaker about the truth of the proposition he is presenting ('what he is talking about'). Quirk et al. call it 'extrinsic' because it does not primarily involve human control of events, but does typically involve human judgment of what is or is not likely to happen. The nuances expressed by epistemic modals are the following: logical possibility (prediction) and logical necessity (guess, inference). Both of them can be neutral or tentative. For a detailed study of them, please consult Quereda 19972: ch. 8. 2.3.3.3. Deontic (influence) modality The term also comes from Greek: 'deontology' / 'deon -dein' -to bind- and 'logos' -description-: the theory of duty or moral obligation / ethics). A deontic modal actually does something: it is performative in that the speaker gives permission, lays an obligation or in some way influences or directs the behaviour of his addressee (or, with shall, of himself). That is why it is also called 'influence modality'. It was previously called 'discourse oriented' by Palmer. Quirk et al. call it 'intrinsic' because it involves some kind of intrinsic human control over events. This type of modality covers the wide area of 'compulsion' ('that force or influence that makes a person do something'), which involves three semantic fields: obligation, desire (volition and advice) and permission. For a detailed study of them, please consult Quereda 19972: ch. 9.

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2.4. VOICE 2.4.1. Definition Voice is one of the four grammatical categories which are characteristic of verbs. As we know, the category of voice appears in both tensed and non-tensed verb forms. As Quereda (1997 2: 257) points out, "this is the least verbal of all modifications, since it affects not only the VP but also the structure of the whole sentence. Voice, more than a verb modification, is a syntactic process which involves at least three elements: the Subject, the Predicator and the Object of the sentence" . That is to say, it is a grammatical category by which we can see the action of a verb from two different angles. In English voice constitutes a two-fold system, with an unmarked term (active voice) and a marked one (passive voice). Let's define the passive voice from the semantic, formal and syntactic points of view. SEMANTICALLY: That construction in which we are not interested in how an agent performs an action (if we are, we use the active voice) but rather in how an object (patient) is affected by a certain process. Both structures convey more or less the same meaning, i.e. the passive provides an additional way of saying what may also be expressed by the active voice. However, they are not interchangeable. FORMALLY: The passive construction is formed by Auxiliary + ed2, particularly BE + ed2, although GET can also appear. SYNTACTICALLY: we obtain the passive construction from a transformational process by which the Subject of an active sentence becomes the passive "by Agent" and the active Object becomes the passive Subject. The three definitions pose some problems in English, which makes us conclude that probably "there is not even one single property which all these constructions have in common" (Siewierska 1984:1). 2.4.2. The notion of "ergativity" Just as we know it today, the term VOICE and its concept are strongly influenced by the classical tradition, i.e. Greek and Latin grammars. Greek grammarians distinguished three voices: ACTIVE, PASSIVE and MIDDLE. ; this one was thought of as intermediate, signifying either an 'action', like the active, or a 'state', like the passive. We can notice that the middle voice has to do with both the reflexive sentences and the so-called REFLEXIVE PASSIVE in Spanish. In English it has to do with reflexive sentences and with ergative or pseudo-intransitive constructions. The notion of "ergativity" is morphological in origin; it designates one of the cases, i.e. the ergative (a direct object in a transitive sentence becomes the subject of the same verb and the real agent is dropped: John opened the door / The door opened). Palmer (19872):90-93) speaks of LEXICAL PASSIVES (active sentences that are both semantically and syntactically like the passive) where he includes those constructions where the object of the transitive verb is the subject of the intransitive (ergative constructions), which he calls "'case' relations", obviously making reference to the ergative case and what he calls "'adverbial' passives", which exemplify some uses of the active in the 'passive' sense. Later on, Latin grammarians recognized only two voices: ACTIVE and PASSIVE; the middle voice was merged with the passive. And this is the division that has survived throughout the years. So, the division is fairly arbitrary.

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2.4.3. Elements 2.4.3.1. The Subject Simple Sentences: 1. The Od becomes the S of the passive. 2. The Oi of the active voice (that can be the noun of a prepositional phrase - to John- or not) becomes the S in the passive voice. 3. The Head-noun of a prepositional phrase. Complex Sentences: 4. Impersonal / Anticipatory 'it': 5. The Subject of the nominal clause becomes the S of the passive voice. Common verbs taking these two passive constructions are: SAY, THINK, FEEL, EXPECT, KNOW, BELIEVE, UNDERSTAND, CONSIDER, FIND, REPORT. 2.4.3.2. The Verb Phrase (auxiliary verb + past participle) There are two verbs which can be the auxiliary of the passive voice: BE, GET. The first one is the most used. BE offers two types of constructions: (a) BE + -ed: verbal character (actional passive) (b) BE + -ed: adjectival character (statal passive). In the second case the past participle can be modified by intensifiers (very, quite, rather) or comparison (with 'more'), preceded by 'already' with the present simple form and coordinated with adjectives. In addition, BE can be replaced by other intensive verbs. These constructions do not normally accept a byAgent and do not have a clear active counterpart. For a deeper discussion of 'BE+ -ed2' constructions see QUEREDA 19972:267-276. In connection with "the passive gradient" we can say that with central passives, the -ed form has verbal character; with statal or pseudo-passives, it has adjectival character; and with semi-passives, the -ed form has both. The GET-passive has a colloquial character and is avoided in formal English. It gives an idea of quick change. The construction with causative GET (get + O + -ed: I got my house painted) is in a way related to the passive voice. The passive voice has the same type of conjugation as the active voice, excepting the PASSIVE IMPERATIVE, which is rare in English. When it appears it is generally with the verb GET in the affirmative or with BE in the negative. Sometimes affirmative passive imperatives are also possible. Although the PROGRESSIVE aspect may be used in passive, as a matter of fact, only the Present and Past Progressive have passive voice. With respect to NON-FINITE FORMS, both Infinitive and -ing form have passive constructions. An active infinitive with a passive meaning is called 'retroactive'. Causative verbs (MAKE) or verbs of physical perception (SEE, HEAR) take bare infinitive in the active voice but infinitive with 'to' in the passive. Passive -ing form is less used than the passive Infinitive. It is found after verbs requiring an -ing form and when the context requires a passive voice. We can also speak of 'retroactive -ing form', limited to the verbs 'need' and 'want'. With PREPOSITIONAL VERBS the noun group of the prepositional phrase (functioning as object) becomes the subject of the passive sentence. Many prepositional verbs are transitive in English and can be changed into the passive. They retain the preposition. Structures like 'V + Noun + Preposition' also retain the prepositions. Verb phrases with MODAL VERBS take passivization in the following infinitive. Remember that epistemic and deontic modals are neutral to passivization, while dynamic modals are not.

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THE PASSIVE GRADIENT Central (actional) passives Verbal character: o Active transformation o Possibility of Agent Heart of Darkness was written by Joseph Conrad (with Agent) The terrorist was arrested (agentless) The thieves were prosecuted (agentless) Employees were offered better salaries by the firm (ditransitive) Susans old mother was looked after by a nurse (V + preposition) This bed has not been slept in (V + preposition) The problem seemed to be solved by the detective (catenatives) The party began to be spoilt by the rain (catenative) Pseudo passives Adjectival character: o Attributive / predicative use of past participle o Intensifiers o Comparison o Already o Coordination with adjectives o Other intensive verbs are possible (with current copular verbs: BE, FEEL, SEEM, LOOK / with resulting copular verbs: GET, BECOME, GROW o Lexically restricted The problem is complicated The stadium is crowded Her possibilities are limited She is sophisticated The students are prepared for the exam The apartment was situated near the beach

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Statal passives Similar to pseudo passives in their adjectival character. BUT: o Resultant state (the result of an active idea) o Not lexically restricted They are divorced The table is broken Nobody is hurt The garden is dug The trees are cut down The exams are finished PAY ATTENTION: The door was OPEN (adjective: state) The door was OPENED (past participle: action) The ship was SUNKEN (adjective: state) The ship was SUNK (past participle: action) The car was DRY (adjective: state) The car was DRIED (past participle: action) Semi- passives They share both adjectival (see pseudo passives) and verbal character (see central passives) They admit quasi-agents with prepositions other than by: He was embarrassed by the situation I felt let down by the accident She was elated by her success They were all worried about the matter The teacher was surprised at her actions Her parents were satisfied with her behaviour Dad is disappointed in you My teacher is interested in ELT I was impressed by/with her elegance Your parents are concerned at/by your future Grandparents are delighted with/by their grandchildren.

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2.4.3.3. The Agent This element is optional. It is not much used because if we are interested in the agent we use the active voice. Four out of five English passive sentences have no expressed agent. It is introduced by the preposition 'by', although some prepositional verbs do not change their preposition to introduce the agent. Traditionally, three criteria are used to define the passive Agent: it is introduced by the preposition 'by', it corresponds to the Subject of the active voice and its meaning is that of 'performer'. These criteria are not always clear, because we can have 'by-agents' in constructions which are not formally passive, 'byagents' whose semantic role is not that of 'performer' and agents introduced by prepositions other than 'by' (quasi-agents). This is why Quereda suggests we should consider the passive agent as an Adjunct just like any other active or passive Adjunct. Some structures of adjectival character have PSEUDOAGENTS. They are not really agentive, although they are the subjects in active voice. Quirk calls them 'SEMI-PASSIVES. (For further details see QUEREDA 19972:262-264) 2.4.4. Functions 1. TOPICALIZATION We use the passive voice when we want to emphasize the undergoer of an action ('marked theme'). Palmer calls it 'thematization', ie the placing of a certain noun phrase in subject position for the purpose of prominence. This is particularly useful in narrative to retain the same subject in successive sentences (or in a sentence with coordinate clauses). So, the passive voice is preferred when we want to maintain a certain word order. The passive voice is also common where the agent is long (in terms of number of words, and especially when the agent is coordinate (two or more noun phrases joined by 'and')) (Svartvik 1966:71). The passive is to some degree a device for placing long (and 'weighty') agents in final position ('end focus/weight'). There is some connection between theme, subjectivization and animacy in the sense that if an animate agent is present it must be in subject position, that is to say, it must function as the grammatical subject. In general, with non-personal (living) subjects the passive voice is preferred.

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2. IMPERSONALIZATION It is achieved by the removal of the underlying agent. This can occur with vague or indefinite subjects and whenever we want to make the sentence impersonal. 3. REGISTER Sometimes the use of the passive is a stylistic device. Quirk asserts that the passive voice is much more used in INFORMATIVE PROSE, whereas the active voice is preferred in DESCRIPTIVE / NARRATIVE PROSE. In informative prose (scientific language) the writer tries to be impersonal and that is why he uses the passive voice. This is the case of academic, bureaucratic, literary and journalistic texts. (Cf. Palmer 19872: section 5.1.5., Quereda 19972: 279-280 and Greenbaum & Quirk 1990: 45-46). BIBLIOGRAPHY. TOPIC 2 Tense, phase and aspect BUYSSENS, E. (1968). Les deux aspectifs de la conjugaison anglaise au XXme sicle. tude de l'expression de l'aspect. Presses Universitaries de Bruxelles. CLOSE, R.A. (1977). 'Some observations on the meaning and function of verb phrases having future reference' in BALD, W.D. & R. ILSON (eds.) (1977). Studies in English Usage: The Resources of a Present-Day English Corpus for Linguistic Analysis. Frankfurt: Lang, pp. 125-156. COMRIE, B. (1976). Aspect: An Introduction to the Study of Verbal Aspect and Related Problems. Cambridge: C.U.P. CRYSTAL, D. (1966). 'Specification and English tenses'. Journal of Linguistics, 2: 1-34. HIRTLE, W.H. (1967). The Simple and Progressive Forms. An Analytical Approach. Qubec: Les Presses de l'Universit Laval. HIRTLE, W.H. (1975). Time, Aspect and the Verb. Qubec: Les Presses de L'Universit Laval. KING, C.D. (1983). 'The semantics of tense, orientation and aspect in English'. Lingua, 59, 2/3: 101154. LJUNG, M. (1980). Reflections on the English Progressive. Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis. McCAWLEY, J. (1971). 'Tense and time reference in English' in FILLMORE & LANGENDOEN (eds.) (1971). Studies in Linguistic Semantics. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. McCOARD, R. (1976). The English Perfect: Tense Choice and Pragmatic Inferences. Amsterdam: North-Holland. SCHEFFER, J. (1975). The Progressive in English. Amsterdam: North-Holland. WEKKER, H.C. (1976). The Expression of Future Time in Contemporary British English. Amsterdam: North-Holland. Imperative BOLINGER, D.L. (1967). 'The imperative in English' in To Honour Roman Jakobson. The Hague: Mouton, pp. 355-362. LEVIN, S. (1979). 'The imperative in relation to other verbal forms or functions'. The sixth LACUS Forum 1979. Columbia, S.C.: Hornbeam Press, pp. 162-169. Subjunctive FENTE GMEZ, R., J. FERNNDEZ & L.G. FEIJO (1972). El Subjuntivo. Madrid: S.G.E.L., S.A. TURNER, J.F. (1980). 'The marked subjunctive in contemporary English'. Studia Neophilologica 52:

271-277. KHLEBNIKOVA, I.B. (1976). The Conjunctive Mood in English. The Hague: Mouton. Modals and Modality AIJMER, K. (1978). 'Epistemic modal auxiliaries in English' in GREGERSEN, K. (ed.) (1978). IV Scandinavian Conference of Linguistics. Odense University Press, pp. 161-168. COATES, J. & G. LEECH (1980). 'The meanings of the modals in modern British and American English'. York Papers in Linguistics 8: 23-33. COATES, J. (1983). The Semantics of Modal Auxiliaries. London: Croom Helm. HALLIDAY, M.A.K. (1976). 'Modality and modulation' in KRESS, G. (ed.) (1976). Halliday: system and function in language. Oxford: O.U.P., pp. 189-213. HALLIDAY, M.A.K. (1985). An Introduction to Functional Grammar . London: Edward Arnold. Sections 4,5 and 10.4. HERMEREN, L. (1978). On Modality in English, Lund Studies in English 53, Lund: Gleerup / Liber. JACKENDOFF, R.S. (1971). 'Modal structure in semantic representation', Linguistic Inquiry 2: 478514. JENKINS, L. (1972). Modality in English Syntax. Bloomington, In.: Indiana University Linguistics Club. LEECH, G. (19872). Meaning and the English Verb. London: Longman. Chapter 5. LEECH, G. & J. COATES (1980). 'Semantic indeterminacy and the modals' in GREENBAUM, S., G. LEECH & J. SVARTVIK (eds.) (1980). Studies in English Linguistics for Randolph Quirk . London: Longman, pp. 65-78. LYONS, J. (1977). Semantics. Cambridge: C.U.P. Vol. 2, ch. 17, pp. 787-849. PALMER, F.R. (1977). 'Modals and actuality'. Journal of Linguistics 13: 1-23. PALMER, F.R. (1979). Modality and the English Modals. London: Longman. PALMER, F.R. (1980). 'Can, Will and Actuality' in GREENBAUM, S., G. LEECH & J. SVARTVIK (eds.) (1980), pp. 91-99. PALMER, F.R. (1983). 'Semantic explanations for the syntax of the English modals' in HENY, F. & B. RICHARDS (eds.) (1983). Linguistic Categories: Auxiliaries and Related Puzzles . Dordrecht: D. Reidel, pp. 205-217. PERKINS, M.R. (1983). Modal Expressions in English. London: Frances Pinter Publ. SVARTVIK, J. (1968). 'Plotting divided usage with dare and need'. Studia Neophilologica 40: 130140. Voice BOLINGER, D.L. (1975). 'On the passive in English', in A. Makkai & V.B. Makkai (eds.). The first LACUS Forum. Columbia, South Carolina: Hornbeam Press, 57-80. COUPER-KUHLEN, E. (1979). The Prepositional Passive in English. A Semantic-Syntactic Analysis, with a Lexicon of Prepositional Verbs. Tbingen: Max Niemeyer. DAVIDSON, A. (1980). 'Peculiar passives'. Language 56/1: 42-66. FREIDIN, R. (1975). 'The analysis of passives'. Language 51/2: 384-405. GRANGER, S. (1983). The Be + Past Participle Construction in Spoken English with Special Emphasis on the Passive. Amsterdam: North-Holland. LANGACKER, R.W. & P. MUNRO (1975). 'Passives and their meaning', Language 51/4: 789-830. MIHAILOVIC, L. (1967). 'Passive and pseudo-passive verbal groups in English'. English Studies, 56: 316-326. POLDAUF, I. (1969). 'The so-called medio-passive in English'. Acta Universitatis Carolinae. Prage Studies in English, 13, 15-34. SIEWIERSKA, A. (1984). The Passive: a Comparative Linguistic Analysis . London: Croom Helm. STEIN, G. (1979). Studies in the Functions of the Passive. Gunter Narr Verlag: Tubingen. SVARTVIK, J. (1966). On Voice in the English Verb. The Hague: Mouton.

PRACTICE MATERIAL. TOPIC 2 THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE ENGLISH VERB I. Look at the following lists of adjectives and nouns. Put the corresponding verb in the space provided. Adjective Verb Noun Verb different ................ economy ............... national ...... ...... ....

frie nd ...... ...... ... wide .......... hard .......... modern deep horror ............... ................ memory ............... ................ beauty ............... ................ sympathy ............... ................ apology ............... ...... .......... fat light ............... ................ fantasy ............... ...... ......

intense false short

glory ............... sterile .......... length ............... II. Comment on the spelling, phonological realization, morphological features and (ir)regularity of the following forms. give their meaning. watches said says worn rang trafficking admitted shown hidden stooping travelled ......

tingeing

III. Give the past simple and the past participle forms of the following verbs and state the type of irregularities according to Palmers criteria. Provide their meaning. dwell swe ep cut feel sen d mee t find beat win feed buy

lear n hide swe ll IV. Form a verb ending in en on the basis of these adjectives, if possible. light yellow broad blue little smooth sour flat green dim sweet small thin fat damp

TENSE, PHASE AND ASPECT V. Put the verbs in brackets in these passages into the appropriate form. In some cases you may need the help of an auxiliary modal verb. Be careful with the position of adverbs. Read the whole texts before attempting an answer. A. - "Do you know that Napoleon ..................... (get) married yesterday?" - "Really? I ..................... (hope) it ..................... (be, not) to that awful girl Josephine. I ..................... (meet) her two months ago, and she .................... (strike) me as the most arrogant woman I .................... (ever, see)". - "Well, I'm afraid she .................... (become) Mrs Bonaparte! After all, he ..................... (know) her for a long time, and even though their temperaments ..................... (be) different, I ..................... (think) that they ..................... (be) reasonably happy. Anyway, it ..................... (be) a very splendid wedding, except that Napoleon ..................... (drop) the ring as he ..................... (put) it on Josephine's finger. They ..................... (go) to Elba for their honeymoon tomorrow morning; ..................... (you, be) there?" - "No, but I ..................... (believe) it's very beautiful at this time of the year; anyway, it's time Napoleon ..................... (have) a holiday - he ..................... (work) too hard recently". - "I agree with you. Why ..................... (he, want) to invade England next month in any case? If I ..................... (be) him, I ..................... (leave) the English to their fish and chips". B. I ..................... (feel) rather poorly lately, so this morning at nine I ..................... (go) to see my doctor. I ..................... (find) him alone in his waiting-room, where he ..................... (stand) surveying a pile of well-thumbed magazines. "All alone?" I ..................... (say). "What ..................... (you, do) with your patients? ..................... (you, cure) them all?" - "No", he ..................... (say). "The reason why people ..................... (not, crowd) into this room now is that on Wednesdays I ..................... (not,

begin) my consultations here until half past ten. Such ..................... (be) my habit for the last twentyfive years" - "I'm so sorry. I .................... (come) too early", I said, "I'll go away and come back later". - "Oh, no. I ..................... (prefer) early patients to late ones. In the course of my practice I ..................... (notice) that late-comers ..................... (be) usually not serious cases. Many people .................. (come) to a doctor for sympathy, you ..................... (know). They are like a dog that once .................... (come) here with a sore paw. I ..................... (bandage) it for him and while I ..................... (do) this he looked at me with great lonely eyes. He ..................... (come) back the next day and every day until his paw was well. I .................... (find) out that his master was dead and a kindly old couple ..................... (look) after the dog. He ..................... (miss) his master and ..................... (want) special sympathy. So, although he was well, he .................... (take) to coming to see me two or three times a week. He is old now but he ..................... (still, come)". VI. ESSAY: Comment on the different values of the verb forms in the preceding texts, according to the semantic, pragmatic and contextual features studied in the Topic. VII. Explain the difference in meaning between the sentences in the following pairs. Justify it in grammatical terms. a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) k) My son always plays football on Sundays. My son is always playing football on Sundays. The unfortunate child was drowning. The unfortunate child drowned. Who has been drinking my beer? Who has drunk my beer? He's being very foolish. He is very foolish. Jane wears glasses. Why aren't you wearing your glasses, Jane? She was eating the baby's meal. She ate the baby's meal. His brother has been blind all his life. His brother was blind all his life. Now, where have I put my pen? Now, where did I put my pen? Wait till I have finished. Wait till I finish. The little girl was jumping when the teacher entered the room. The little girl jumped when the teacher entered the room. Have you seen Titanic? Did you see Titanic?

VIII. Translate the following sentences into English, with special attention to the verb forms. 1. Pero t no te preocupes, que yo encuentro trabajo.

2. Djame a m. Yo lo hago. 3. Se cay una de las estanteras y por poco me aplasta. 4. Tengo ganas de dormir. Llevo tres das sin pegar ojo. 5. Hace poco tiempo que la conozco. 6. Estoy aqu desde las dos. 7. Haca media hora que la esperaba. 8. Juan estaba sin trabajo desde la huelga de Octubre. 9. Hola, Pablo. Aqu estoy. Vengo a charlar contigo. 10. Si lo llego a saber en aquel momento, me muero. MOOD AND MODALITY

IX. Comment on the use of the subjunctive in the following sentences. Suggest a less formal alternative where possible. 1. We suggest that this applicant apply next year. 2. If I were feeling over-tired, I wouldn't go on. 3. I would much rather we stayed at home this evening. 4. Be that as it may, our expenditure is bound to increase. 5. It is highly desirable that every effort be made to reduce expenditure and that every member of the staff economize wherever possible. 6. The Committee recommends that the annual subscription be increased to three pounds. 7. Is it not time we set our own house in order?. X. Translate the following sentences into English. Be careful with the Spanish subjunctives. 1. Oir la emisora que le guste. 2. Nadie deca nada que fuera juicioso. 3. Me gustara comprar una casa que d al mar. 4. En cuanto venga tu padre, cenamos. 5. Aunque hayan jugado bien, no han ganado. 6. Te presto el dinero con tal de que me lo devuelvas. 7. Me miraron como si no supiesen de lo que yo estaba hablando. 8. T crees que porque te vayas all veinte das vas a saber ms?. 9. Llegar hasta donde me permitan mis fuerzas. 10. Pudo salir sin que la vieran. 11. Sin que me volviera a mirar, reconoc la voz de Martn. 12. Sal temprano no fuese a perder el tren. 13. Mi marido me ha llevado a San Sebastin a que vea una corrida de toros. 14. Voy al mdico a que me mire la garganta. 15. Voy a llevar unos pasteles porque no crean que soy un gorrn. 16. Colcate aqu para que no te vean. 17. Dame el billete, no vaya a perder el tren. 18. La entrada de la cueva era demasiado estrecha para que el tigre pasara. 19. Es posible que sea un holgazn y que beba demasiado. 20. Sera mucho mejor que estudiaras un poco ms. XI. Choose the best answers in this dialogue. - Why didn't you go to work yesterday?

- I (needn't have gone / didn't need to go / mustn't go / couldn't have gone) - Actually I thought you always worked on Tuesday evenings? - I (might / must / would / used to) years ago, but not now, thank goodness. - In fact at one time I (ought to / had to / must / was to) work two evenings a week. - That (can't have been / couldn't be / mustn't be / shouldn't have been) very pleasant. - Oh it wasn't so bad. I had lots of friends there. We (might have / will have had / would have / would have had) lots of fun. - Looking back, I find it odd that I (would enjoy / I would have enjoyed / I should have enjoyed / ought to have enjoyed) evening work so much. - But now, am I right? You (may not / mustn't / needn't / used not to) work evenings. - That's right. - Of course. You did tell me. I (could remember / may have remembered / should have remembered / might remember). XII. Read the following text first to get a sense of what is said. Then fill in the banks with the appropriate modal verb. Dr Faustus was sitting quietly in his study one winter evening when there was a knock at the door. '............... I come in?' said a soft, distinguished voice. Faustus looked up from his book and saw that the door was ajar: he ...............left it open when he came in. 'I ............... made sure it was shut' he grumbled to himself. 'Oh, all right,' he said moodily, 'come in if you ...............' 'Thank you, you're too kind,' said the voice. And a tall stranger, dressed in black, who ................ have come straight out of a stage melodrama stepped into the room. Faustus looked at him carefully and ................ scarcely suppress a shiver when he saw the icecold light in the blue eyes which belied the smile on the lips of the stranger. 'Perhaps I ............... tell you that I'm here on business,' he said. 'I hope we'll ................ get it over quickly -I've ................ go to another appointment in an hour.' 'Well,' replied Dr. Faustus calmly, 'I think we ................ (not, probably) take as long as that. I've got an idea I ................ know what you've come about.' 'Oh good,' replied the tall dark man, 'that makes things much easier. I ................ (not) remind you, then, of the agreement we made some years ago.' 'No, you don't,' replied Faustus, 'but I ................ as well tell you that I have no intention of keeping my part of the bargain. So you ............... (not) come here at all tonight -your journey was quite unnecessary.' As soon as the words were out of his mouth, Faustus knew he ................ (not) uttered them. The room suddenly felt cold, very cold. ('What's happening?' thought Faustus in fright. 'The fire ................ gone out, but I don't think it has.') At Faustus's words the stranger's eyes narrowed and his voice took on a hard edge: 'Really?' he said softly but menacingly. 'I'm afraid you ................ be under some misapprehension: I have the agreement here, signed in your blood; so you see, there's no doubt about it -you ................ get out of it.' And he stretched out a bony hand and took Faustus by the wrist. At the touch of the ice-cold flesh Faustus ................ help crying out with fear. The stranger looked pained: ................ you make such a noise? he said. 'It gets o n my nerves so. No, please come along quietly, ................ you?' 'Keep away from me! shouted Faustus hysterically; 'you ................ take me yet' 'Oh, ................I?' said the stranger. 'No, it's not twelve o'clock yet.'

At that moment the church clock in the square outside began to chime. Faustus collapsed sobbing on the floor. 'I don't want to go! I don't want to go! he mumbled. 'You ................ thought of that before you made the agreement' said the stranger calmly. And with a terrific pull he lifted Faustus off the floor. Faustus still struggled, but the stranger ................ get him down the stairs into a big black coach, drawn by six black horses. Despite the cold, the horses were sweating: they ................ come from somewhere warm -where ................ it possibly be? And where was the stranger taking Faustus?. XIII. Translate these sentences into English, using a modal verb or expression. 1. Debes ir a todas las conferencias. A lo mejor aprendes algo. 2. Me dejas que te haga una sugerencia? No deberas perder el tiempo tan estpidamente. 3. No tuve ms remedio que coger un taxi, ya que todos los autobuses venan completos. 4. Es poco probable que alquilemos el apartamento este verano. Estamos muy mal de dinero. 5. Seguro que fuiste t el que me regal el reloj. 6. Yo que t cogera el coche, pero es muy fcil que llueva. 7. Estbamos all pero no omos nada. 8. Sabes conducir? -No, pero s montar en bicicleta. 9. Puede que me escriban pronto. 10. Tienes que trabajar ms para aprobar el examen. 11. Debe haber sido horrible ver morir a tantos hombres. 12. Deberas haber ido a Madrid antes. 13. Es posible que lo haya dicho, pero lo dudo. 14. No ha podido usted despertarse a tiempo esta maana? 15. No pudimos entrar porque no encontramos la llave. 16. No podremos jugar al tenis si no para de llover. 17. Quieres ir al cine? -No s, tendr que preguntrselo a mi padre. 18. Sabes conducir, pero debes practicar ms. 19. Tal vez no haya llegado todava. 20. Este chico debe entender espaol bastante bien -est leyendo a Unamuno. VOICE XIV. Use the verbs in the passive in the correct tense to complete the following passage. Pay attention to the position of adverbs. Before Victoria, British sovereigns (expect) both to reign and to rule. But when political parties began to compete under rules as strict as those for cricket, the sovereign (send off) .. the playing field for ever. He could not take the side of any party lest he (defeat) with it. With certain ritual functions, the sovereign's task was to act as a sort of supreme weapon, never (used) . but there always as the source of order. He had to represent the authority he could not command. But, in theory at least, if Parliament had decreed that he (execute) ., he (be bound) .. constitutionally to sign his own death warrant. King Edward VII (be born) .. while this odd and excellent system (change) ., and played the King to the hilt even though his influence (limit) severely. He (be born) .. to Victoria and Albert on 2 December 1841. XI. Complete the following in a suitable active or passive tense using the verbs given. A soldier (SHOOT) .................... and critically wounded as he (SIT) .................... in his car outside an army careers office in north London yesterday. Two men who (BELIEVE) ..................... to be

members of a terrorist organization, (APPROACH) ..................... his car on a motorcycle just after 1 pm. The pillion passenger (RUN) ..................... towards the car, which (PARK) ..................... outside the office. He (SHOOT) ..................... the soldier three times, then (RUN) ..................... back to the motorcycle and (FLEE) ..................... in the rush-hour traffic. The victim, a 28-year-old married man, (HIT) ..................... in the chest. He (SAY) ..................... to be in a critical but stable condition in hospital. Anti-terrorist detectives later (CORDON) ..................... off the area. 'This attack (PLAN well) ..................... and it is likely that the office (TARGET) ..................... for some time.' A motorcycle later (FIND) ..................... abandoned about ten miles away, but it (not KNOW) ..................... yet whether this was the getaway machine. XV. Put the verbs in brackets into an appropriate form of the passive voice (except for two verbs, which should have a form of the active infinitive). In the past few years various kinds of nuclear weapons ..................... (PRODUCE) by many countries. This is a new and terrible development in the history of man. In the event of any nuclear war, thousands of towns could ..................... (DESTROY), and very few people could be expected ................... (SURVIVE). When nuclear energy .................... (DEVELOP) earlier in this century, few people considered its negative potential. They thought it would .................... (ONLY, USE) for peaceful purposes, not for war. But now these idealistic people ..................... (SEE) ..................... (BE) wrong. For in 1945 two atomic bombs ..................... (DROP) on Japan, and it is possible that atomic weapons .................... (EMPLOY) in future wars. At the moment negotiations ..................... (CONDUCT) between America and Russia to try and limit the development of these weapons. These talks ..................... (USUALLY, HOLD) in a tense atmosphere, but everyone hopes that positive results ..................... (ACHIEVE). XVI. Put the following sentences into the passive voice. 1. People say tortoises live longer than elephants. 2. I should love someone to take me out to dinner. 3. His grandmother brought him up, and he got his education in Paris. 4. Naturally one expects you to interest yourself in the job they have offered you. (3 PASSIVES) 5. It must have disappointed him terribly that people told him they didn't want him. (3 PASSIVES) 6. They must have given you the paper they meant for the advanced candidates. (2 PASSIVES) 7. Someone had already promised me a watch for my birthday when they presented me with one as a prize. (2 PASSIVES) 8. It surprised me to hear somebody has robbed you. (2 PASSIVES) 9. When women have disappointed you as many times as they have him, you can truly say bad luck has dogged you. (3 PASSIVES) 10. We haven't moved anything since they sent you away to cure you. (3 PASSIVES) XVII. Translate the following sentences into English, using the passive voice when necessary. 1. Los resultados de las elecciones se sabrn la semana prxima. 2. Qu se debe hacer cuando sube una persona mayor al autobs? 3. Por qu no le dieron el primer premio a tu hermano? 4. Me han robado la cartera y las llaves. 5. Siempre me han dicho que no llegue tarde y que no salga con desconocidos. 6. No le permitieron defenderse en el juicio. 7. Se cree que la figura del protagonista est inspirada en un personaje real. 8. Concedieron becas de investigacin a los alumnos ms brillantes. 9. La conozco porque estuvo cuidando a mi abuelo durante aos. 10. La gente piensa que se necesitan medidas ms contundentes para atajar el paro.