Grafton. 1998. Cardano

Girolamo Cardano and the Tradition of Classical Astrology the Rothschild Lecture, 1995 Author(s): Anthony Grafton Source:
Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 142, No. 3 (Sep., 1998), pp. 323-354 Published by: American Philosophical Society Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3152240 . Accessed: 10/10/2013 14:42
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of Cardano andtheTradition Girolamo Classical Astrology 1995 TheRothschild Lecture,

Princeton University DodgeProfessor ofHistory,
I. CONTINUITIES OF IDEOLOGY AND TECHNIQUE ANTHONY GRAFTON
to predict order thecareers ofindividuals, theresults ofcommercial oftheentire ventures, thefortunes ofindividual countries, andthehistory world. The oldest surviving individualhoroscopesare the work of 1 in thefifth century B.C., and after Mesopotamian astrologers, prepared that drawn most recent ones could still claim scientific status were up The in advancednaturalphilosophers by some of the most technically Rome and London.2No modernuniversity has a seventeenth-century ofastrology, butit stillflourishes across thewestern world, department in elegantoccult bookshopsfromGeneva to Pasadena as well as in and thebackpagesoftabloidnewspapers. To judgefrom supermarkets the expensive carsthatregularly park outsidethe house of one of my an astrologer who didpioneering workon thedevelopment of neighbors, forrapidand accurate of horoscopes, composition computer programs thisancient ofthemodern socialandintellectual elitestillfind members artofconsiderable interest. who attempts to study an individual segment ofthis Anyhistorian must risk andevenancient, traditional, longhistory repeatedly mistaking fornew ones.For thehistorian ideas and methods ofclassical astrology a tradition confronts that lastedmany centuries, one that combined
1 On theorigins see theclassicstudy ofastrology ofA. Sachs,"Babylonian Horoscopes," Journal ofCuneiform Studies 6 (1952), 49-75,andthemorerecent workofF. RochbergHalton, e.g."NewEvidence for theHistory ofAstrology," Journal ofNearEastern Studies 43 (1984): 115-40and"Babylonian Horoscopes andtheir Sources," Orientalia 58 (1989): 102-23. For surveys of thehistory of astrology in theancient world, see S. J.Tester, A Historyof Western Astrology (Woodbridge, 1987), and T. Barton, Ancient Astrology ofexisting evenifthey do notfillall (LondonandNew York,1994),which havethemerit needs.
2
ortwoanda half theskies in millennia, astrologers havescrutinized
e natura See respectively G. Ernst, Religione, ragione (Milan,1991),chaps.10-11,andP. and Power(Princeton, Curry, Prophecy 1989).
PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, VOL. 142,NO. 3, SEPTEMBER, 1998
323
324
ANTHONY GRAFTON
then, of astrology, The historian settings. and professional institutional and the must somehowmanageto do justiceto both the durability a sense ofthescientific dure'e longue to combine ofthetradition: flexibility withan eyeforthecontinual transformation of achieved thatastrology and ideas of which it the social worldsit servedand the techniques consisted. tradition unmatched The continuity oftheastrological is,perhaps, in ancient All astrologers-whether ofthewest. in theintellectual history thattheyunderstand thelanguage Babylonor Hitler'sMunich-assume thattheypossessa setofhermeneutical rules, of thestars. They believe the book of theheavens.This analogy whichenablethemto decipher fashion may sound verymodern,even modish.Currentintellectual Efforts to treat all systems of to texts. ofevents thecomparison dictates recent bookshaveshednew flourish as languages original wildly: symbols Butin the and ofclothing.3 ofpolitics, offlowers, on thelanguages light the analogyitself formspart of a long-established case of astrology, a treatise De rebus whopublished GiovianoPontano, tradition. Giovanni thatthelanguage ofthe as longago as 1512,argued explicitly coelestibus of humans.The in all essential starsconformed ways to the language he pointedout, could be of the Roman alphabet, letters twenty-six new words.Verysimple ofwaysto form in tensofthousands combined in sense. The adjective in spelling caused avidus, majorchanges alterations avidiorbecomes becomes themoreintense avidior, forexample, readily in its turn,sinks and avidissimus, the stillmore intensive avidissimus, transformation minor avidulus after Every downto become surgery. only itsmeaning.' ofthesigntransforms of a cosmic formed the letters Pontanoargued, Starsand planets, external appearance, speedof attributes-color, alphabet.Clear,simple
inEarlyModern Europe(Cambridge, ofPoliticalTheory ed.,TheLanguages 3A. Pagden, Sex and Suits 1993);A. Hollander, ofFlowers(Cambridge, 1987); J.Goody,TheCulture (New York,1994).
to a commitment witha durable flexibility in application remarkable of The astrologers uniform setof ideasandtechniques. recognizably in theageof ofBaghdad theastrologers Romein thetimeof Cicero, of ofNiirnberg inthegeneration andtheastrologers HarunarRashid, premises, projected Diirer worked from cosmological thesame Albrecht for andused andthreatening into the heavens, images same beneficent the for Butthey worked thesamemathematical techniques. themost part different and clients, and in radically different societies radically
"The libri 14 (Basel, 1530); cf. C. Trinkaus, De rebus coelestibus G. G. Pontano, Renaissance GiovianoPontano," ofGiovanni Culture CosmosandRhetorical Astrological 38 (1985): 446-72. Quarterly
GIROLAMO CARDANO
325
thecharacter oftheindividual Theredcolor motion-expressed planets. characterized for revealed itshot,dry, thatsupposedly Mars, example, hadnotonly ownqualities, warlike nature. its Every planet but moreover, andopponents theother alsoitsallies thestars, andthe among planets, oftheZodiac. A taxonomic that andsigns tookboth degrees grid qualities into andrelationships account enabled toestablish theastrologer a full set foreachcelestial of qualities bodyand place.Venus,as Mars'schief hadtheopposed coldandwetness. opponent, necessarily qualities, inother Every the role ofa letter planet, words, played with defined oftwoor more qualities. Every astrologically significant configuration for a word ora phrase, planets-a conjunction, the example-resembled ofwhich theastrologer could sense determine. Theconjunction ofMars a simple andVenus offers what a beneficent when example: happened and a maleficent met ontheZodiac. planet knew inthis Every that astrologer would overcome herbrother, caseVenus as loveis stronger than anger. Thisapparently both thephilosopher simple principle inspired Marsilio who devoted to it a splendid setpiecein hiscommentary Ficino, on Plato's andtheartist Sandro Botticelli, whoembodied Symposium, it,in inhispanel a spectacularly erotic ofMars and Venus, form, now painting intheNational London.' Gallery, made use not only of this celestial European astrologers which cameoriginally from butalsoofa hermeneutics, Mesopotamia, which came from cosmology, Greece. originally to According thescheme first laid out by Platoandthenmuch moreelaborately developed by Aristotle andothers, the universe hastwomain theupper realm parts: of thecelestial which around revolve theearth, andthelower spheres, realm In theupper ofthefour elements. "tout n'est etbeaute, realm, qu'ordre calme etvolupte." Thestars andthe luxe, embedded incrystalline planets, create theunchanging music ofeternity. In thelower spheres, realm, by andcreatures ofthefour contrast, things composed elements, earth, air, fire andwater, areborn andgrow, become oldanddie.Downhere, things the elements an change incessantly: which play unending seems drama, to have no clear But that which iscomplete script. anddoesnotchange, and movesin a uniform thanthat which way,is higher Andthe changes. rules thelower. themusic higher rightly ofthespheres in Accordingly, theupper realm extends itsinfluence totheliving inthelower creatures realm. follow it-tothelimited andimperfect They extent allowed bythe and changeable matter of which messy The cosmology theyconsist. the justified hermeneutics: itexplained, asdozens ofmanuals andlecture courses madeclear, patiently whytheastrologer couldinfer from the smooth andperpetual movements oftheplanets thejerky anduneven
S See E.
H. Gombrich, Symbolic Images(Oxford, 1972; repr. 1978),66-69.
326
ANTHONY GRAFTON
on earth.6 andhumans animals ofplants, future movements dataand on a setofmathematical relied finally, The astrologer, of and discoveries which combinedthe methods techniques, ofsome those andGreek astronomers andastrologers-and Mesopotamian and tablesenabledastronomers Astronomical of theirsuccessors. their and planets of the thefuture movements to predict astrologers Astrologers accuracy. with reasonable positions significant astrologically oftheZodiac ofthesigns tolayoutthepositions techniques usedthese of orconception that ofthebirth ata significant moment: andthe planets the Zodiac upinto alsoused todivide the them for They example. a client, of planetary the effects calledhouses, thatdefined twelve segments, in how succession, in these determined, ofplanets Thepresence influence. andhowmuch would possess, what talents they would live, clients long setof ofall,they useda simplified Mostfrequently would prosper. they exercise would at what influence the planets determine to computations ina client's Short-term life. predictions moment a particularly important from and ofdrugs proscriptions prescriptions investment, marriage, about basis.7 a sound all be quantitative could given politics ambitious Themost intellectually varied widely. tasks Astrologers' The world to investigate history. usedastrological principles of them reach twenty years, every and that Saturn conjunction rule Jupiter simple as a bassfor world a sort ofground history couldbecome for example, inturn usedittofix andEuropean astrologers asPersian, Arabic, whole, of liketherise inworld for thegreat history, points turning andaccount a Frenchman, Pierre end.8 D'Ailly, andtopredict history's newreligions, A.D. 1789.9 French sense-in a special, Ordinary correctly-in set this quite working thousands, bythe configurations specific investigated astrologers tohousemaid's lovesickness from for a cure for anything outthe prospects thesame, remained taskof theskilled The central astrologer knee.10 that todraw millennia: and horoscopes centuries upthe the over however, individual of character formed the influences howcelestial would explain thewax." "asthehotsealstamps andcountries, cities, people,
6 For a good introduction in and illustrated as itwas known tradition to thiscosmological
(San Marino,1974). ofSweetHarmony Touches see S. K. Heninger, Europe, modem early
and terminology astrological 1984), describes Sky(Oxford, J.C. Eade, TheForgotten see J.North, outhoroscopes, ofthewaysoflaying study technical Fora more techniques. (London,1986). andHistory Horoscopes
7
8 J.North, 24 (1980): Centaurus ofChurches," andtheFortunes "Astrology
181-211.
9 L. Smoller, 1994). Smollerprovidesan and theStars (Princeton, Prophecy History, astrology. modem andearly to medieval introduction general excellent 10 1981). Bedlam(Cambridge, M. MacDonald,Mystical
GIROLAMOCARDANO OF FUNCTION II. CONTINUITIES
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The long-term similarities between ancient and earlymodern extend the realmof theory astrology beyond and technique. Any thesocialhistory of astrology historian who wants to study in the with a marvelous should bookabout thesocial Renaissance begin history inHellenistic Franz ofastrology Cumont's des Egypt: L'Egypte astrologues. a world ofallastrology," ofclients Here,"stripped to appears appealing foradviceand helpin a range the astrologer of personal and public that with situations therange ofsituations matches, surprising precision, inwhich Renaissance alsocarried In Egypt outtheir astrologers jobs."1 as inItaly, counseled allorders ofsociety. astrologers andprinces, Emperors tookadvice In Egypt merchants andhousewives from them. as inItaly, a cosmic became with theolderofficial religion cult.The intermingled refused proudLeonoraof Aragon to prayuntilthe Ferrarese court Prisciani toher that sheshould imitate the astrologer Pellegrino explained kingsof Greece(whomhe did not identify further). Theyprayed, when Prisciani told themoonreached with and her, conjunction Jupiter conditions which othernecessary werefulfilled, explained whythey their InEgypt asinItaly, theastrologer always obtained wishes.12 finally, determined codesofconduct, from events to tiny great public private TheFlorentine a bastion ofearly decisions. Republic, political rationality, their batons ofcommand at astrologically sanctioned gaveitsgenerals moments. Leonello a tasteful anderudite the of d'Este, prince, prize pupil ofVerona, hiswardrobe Guarino made decisions astrologically. Every day he woreclothes of a colorchosen to drawdownfavorable celestial InRenaissance asinHellenistic theomnipresence Europe Egypt, of refutes todraw firm distinctions astrology between and anyefforts high andpopular low,elite culture. for thecaseofDiirer. Consider, example, He drewon astrological and ideasin his subtle and erudite images heaimed ata coterie Melancolia that I, a mysterious of engraving public humanists. Buthealsodidso inhissimple which heproduced broadsides, men inthemarketplace for theordinary andwomen his (where, indeed, wife soldthem)."4 Thepreserved andtextbooks horoscopes ofastrology
F. Cumont, L'Egypte des astrologues (Brussels, 1937),as described by0. Neugebauer, TheExactSciencesinAntiquity, 2d ed. (Providence, New York,1969),56. 1957;repr.
' E. Garin, "MagicandAstrology," ScienceandCivicLifein theItalianRenaissance, tr.P. Munz(Gloucester, Mass., 1978). 13
influences."3
AngeloDecembrio, De politialitteraria, MS Vat.lat. 1794,fol.6 verso.
14 See, e.g. the famous woodcutthatDtilrer forthe 1496 syphilis astrological provided ofTheodoricus Ulsenius. Flugblatt
328 society.
ANTHONY GRAFTON
of a whole and terrors anxieties mirror thehopesand expectations, thatthese showed a hundred ago,Aby Warburg years Almost educated Thehumanistically didnotcome about bychance. resemblances astronomical readand used classical of the Renaissance astrologers ofFirmicus andtheMathesis theAstrologica ofManilius texts-notably of doctrines in detail notonlythegeneral Thesedescribed Maternus. eachofwhich divinities curious decans, butalsotheEgyptian astrology, origin ofNearEastern doctrines ofthe andother Zodiac, ten degrees ruled in period.Working to the West in the Hellenistic transmitted that astrology that the revealed Warburg with BollandSaxl, collaboration in lifeon thewallsofthePalazzoSchifanoia colored cameto richly down a revival ofthis ancient synthesis, andelsewhere represented Ferrara andpractice."5 ofimagery details tominute carried ancient andearly modern astrologers At thehighest level, Like totheeconomist. assigns that society tasks outthe twentieth-century of thechaotic tried to bring phenomena theastrologer theeconomist, them to sharply defined quantitative life intoorder byfitting everyday whenteaching or theastrologer Liketheeconomist, insisted, models. a limited to hadonly that ability astrology for peers, professional writing concerned itself, after all,astrology speaking, Formally thefuture. predict than rather forces ofgeneral the with scientific interplay level, atitsmost the Liketheeconomist, ofthem. ofa single configuration theoutcome demanded clients when inpractice, powerful it, willing proved astrologer the outcomes individual anyhow.Like the economist, to predict theprediction: didnotmatch theevents found that generally astrologer for received as a reward theastrologer normally andliketheeconomist, a better salary. ofhisart's job anda higher confirmation powers this thebutt ofuniversal became theastrologer Like theeconomist, of critics Eventhesharpest stillproved indispensable. criticism-and science. ofthis theinfluence ubiquitous didnotreally escape astrology ashe ridiculed Guicciardini Francesco historian astrologers Thepragmatic not intellect could human the that friend didhis arguing Machiavelli, He life. andpolitical ofsocial future course thetangled predict possibly of astrologers theesteem that forthefirst time, out,perhaps pointed shared that a confirmation they ona psychological bias, condition, rested the the remembered Both successes, clients. only astrologers' with their were errors far more Their outcorrectly. came frequent that predictions
15
(1920), Zeiten undBildzu Luthers in Wort Weissagung Heidnisch-antike See A. Warburg, 1980), 2d ed. (Baden-Baden, ed. D. Wuttke, undWurdigungen, Schriften inAusgewdhlte Lectures 1957),1: 73(London, ofLateAntique Astrology," F. Saxl,"TheRevival 199-304; 84.
GIROLAMO CARDANO
329
took thepopularity oftheastrologers as simply Guicciardini forgotten. of the human he of the intellect never clearproof fallibility (something For centuries, likeLuther, to assert). the hesitated Guicciardini, enjoyed the mostwidespread of havingseenthrough delusionof his reputation culture. Recently, however, Raffaella Castagnola has published ofother own horoscope, documents to Guicciardini's usinga widerange The historian, like the contemporaries he mocked, set it into context. a specialist in prediction after all. He had hishoroscope drawn consulted a former who retired to Florenceafter up byRamberto Malatesta, signore his wife and losing his possessionsto a popular revolt. murdering knewMalatesta Guicciardini evidently surprisingly well,to judgefrom the detailsgivenabout him in the text,and he seemsto have studied withsome care."6 The clear-eyed Malatesta'spredictions cynicwas no in his rejection of astrology thanthe foolsborn every more rigorous minutearoundhim.Nowadaysno one escapestheterrestrial economy; and Romanworld, in thesixteenth as in theHellenistic no one century, the celestial escaped economy. III. DisCONTINUITIES ANDEXPLANATIONS For allthese however, theastrology oftheRenaissance similarities, was morethana simple revival ofitsclassical forerunner. The astrological after does a not form seamless whole. The social context tradition, all, whichastrologers within workchanged between radically antiquity and the Renaissance,and their own activities changedwith the times, as theirart grewin popularity and sophistication fromthe especially onward. The astrologers twelfth of the Renaissance and their century coulduse new media,forexample, enemies thatno ancient writer could have imagined.In 1524 a threatening conjunction took place in the ofPisces. Paola Zambelli Zodiacalsign hasidentified several dozenprinted from broadsides to sophisticated texts, ranging primitive that treatises, a secondFlood for 1524 (none happened)."7 predicted Lutherfoundit thatso manyastrologers foresaw a deluge particularly telling thatdidnot take place,whilenone of thempredicted the Peasants'Revoltthatdid At allevents, occurinthenext ancient canshowno parallel year.18 history to thisfirst mediaeventof modern times-orfortheelaborately staged ritualsof humiliation to which some Italian cities subjectedlocal
16 17
e le scienzeocculte, See I Guicciardini ed. R. Castagnola (Florence, 1990).
p. Zambelli, ed., "Astrologi hallucinati": End oftheWorld Starsand the inLuther's Time (BerlinandNew York,1986). 18 Warburg, 231-32,277.
330
ANTHONY GRAFTON
theobject became As astrology therains didnotcome."9 when astrologers of newstrata reached in turn as these debate, ofpublic of newforms a public entered art theancient readers, anduneducated educated partly inantiquity. didnotexist that sphere major underwent of astrology as wellas theform, The content, of Itconsists a glacier. resembles Astrology inthecourse oftime. changes if of material; it movesconstantly, strata andforms different several on close and crevasses manyfissures and it reveals imperceptibly; ofthe that astrology-like ofRenaissance doctrines Central inspection. origins. nothaveclassical andJupiter-did ofSaturn Great Conjunctions disciplines andother predictive between astrology relationships Central In antiquity, astrologers world. modern intheearly tookon newforms who Ptolemy, ofseparate arts. as representatives competed, anddoctors of astrology to survive, handbook systematic wrotethe one ancient similar that served somewhat they admitting the twosciences, compared between the kindsof the differences ends.But he also emphasized asonewould inantiquity, Even hadtooffer.20 they knowledge specialized from one andtechniques ideas anddoctors borrowed astrologers expect, forunifying theEgyptians himself praised (Ptolemy another anyhow theIslamic andthe inboth Inthe Middle with Ages, medicine astrology). Italian universities the twoarts. tocombine tried many worlds, European man.Doctorsoften to a medical to be useful mostlikely arts liberal hadlearned since todraw they with uphoroscopes, astrologers competed
as one ofthe in astrology, formal courses offered "ofartsand medicine"
Some medicalmen triedto applythe precise, to do so at university. Doctorsplayeda in medical practice.2" methods of astrology quantitative list of prominentrole in Symon de Phares's late-fifteenth-century At the same time, who had attainedworldlysuccess.22 astrologers
werebest illnesses overwhether particular debateranged however,
BoththeBlackDeath foron medicalor astrological grounds. accounted of syphilis justbefore1500stimulated of 1348 and thesupposedadvent one anothers' treatises to direct anddoctors against polemical astrologers claims.23 explanatory
(Princeton, Italy,tr.L. G. Cochrane and Powerin Renaissance Niccoli,Prophecy werefully "urban that populations Niccoli'sconclusion that 1990),chap.6. Note,however, of her thelimits credit" (167) goes farbeyond but. .. gave it little aware of astrology, evidence.
19 o.
20 Ptolemy 1.3. Tetrabiblos
21N. Siraisi, (ChicagoandLondon,1990). Medicine Medievaland EarlyRenaissance

22 A. Murray, corrections, with 1978; repr. Ages(Oxford, intheMiddle ReasonandSociety
1985),208.
23
Studienzu den collectedby H. Pruckner, For the Black Death, see the materials
GIROLAMO CARDANO
331
followed doctrine of astrological the development Sometimes Some thinkers would never have that ancient directions expected. medical andParacelsus-went astotreat as the Ficino so far astrology men-like a central ofreliable anddietetic source therapies ofmedical doctrine, core so far as to treat Somephilosophers-like Pomponazzi-went advice.24 allphysical for inthe asa universal causal processes explanation astrology someoftheir ofprayers.25 theeffects Meanwhile, universe-including Pico as a tissue offraud anderror. tried to expose astrology competitors framed a brilliant, of for dellaMirandola, systematic critique example, different setofassumptions and which rested on a radically astrology, ofCicero and oftheolder from those anti-astrological polemics methods himself had admitted, as Pico of theChurch. Ptolemy someFathers could offer not that predictions, only approximate astrology emphasized, thewiderange ofother influences that and shaped precise ones,given andfates.26 characters Piconotonly this individuals' appropriated affected he addedto it a of astrology by an astrologer; critique searching examination ofastrology's claim to be founding penetrating philological evidence art.Usingonlythe fragmentary an ancient Near Eastern to expose inGreek andRoman Picomanaged scientific sources, available
as a relatively modernart.He showed, in itsclassicalform, astrology, a ofsagepriests that it was not creation who to widespread belief, contrary before the birthof Christ,but an application of lived long millennia
inthesecond that half tookshape of mathematical only theory planetary hecouldcomplete B.C. 27Sadly, Picodiedbefore his thefirst millennium inthe Buthiswork bytheastrologers.28 year predicted work-supposedly
des Heinrich vonLangenstein astrologischen (LeipzigandBerlin, 1933) andG. Schriften and theAstrologers W. Coopland, Nicole Oresme (Liverpool, 1952); forsyphilis see the inDie altesten inDeutschland, texts assembled uberdieLustseuche von1493 Schriftsteller of P. Zambelli, bis 1510, ed. C. H. Fuchs(Gottingen, 1843) and theanalysis L'ambigua naturadella magia(Milan,1991),chap.4. Theorie undPraxis in derHeilkunde W.-D. Muller-Jahncke, der Astrologisch-magische Neuzeit, Archiv, Supplement (Stuttgart, 1985); see also M. Ficino,Three Sudhoffs fruhen Books on Life,ed. andtr.C. V. KaskeandJ.R. Clark(Binghamton, 1989). (Alchemy, of roleinParacelsus's course, playedthemostcentral system.)
25 E.
24D. P. Walker, andDemonic Ficinoto Campanella(London,1958); Spiritual Magicfrom
and theCosmosinRenaissance TheIndividual tr.M. Domandi Cassirer, Philosophy, (New York,1963),chap.3.
inScience ForandAgainst," andSpeculation, 26SeeA. A. Long,"Astrology: Arguments ed. J.Barneset al. (Cambridge andParis,1982), 165-93.
27
G. Pico della Mirandola, contra ed. and tr.E. Disputationes astrologiam divinatricem, Garin(Florence, 1946-52).
28 Cf
Tractatus "etmultos L. Gaurico, edidit astrologicus (Venice,1552),58 recto: libros etunum volumen contra suae aetatis elegantissimos, astrologos admodum iratus, quoniam
332
ANTHONY GRAFTON
who doctors theGerman from readers, later andstimulated provoked downto century in thesixteenth early thecauses of syphilis debated of whomseriously the latter Kepler, and Johannes Scaliger Joseph and Thenature ofPico'sbook.29 edition a learned undertaking considered as as novel were inshort, astrology, about debate Renaissance ofthe level development. its that fostered andthemedia itreached thepublic some powerful have devised historians cultural Distinguished and thenature andexplain to describe which propose they with models, but a as vital, saw astrology Warburg modern astrology. ofearly impact inhis embodied Astrology tradition. oftheclassical part alsoa dangerous, the off to throw temptation Dionysiac likea perpetual eyessomething emotions one's over control ascribe to responsibility, ofpersonal burden of the Everythinker forces. malevolent and actionsto superior, inorder towintheroom force dark this with hadtostruggle Renaissance tookthis Cassirer Ernst require. activities that creative free thought for in ofastrology character that thesystematic showing further, lastpoint andothers Itaided Pomponazzi thinking. innovative for room fact created thesame oneinwhich oftheuniverse, newvision a radically todevelop worlds, and the physical and ruledthe celestial powerspervaded astrological absolutist and withoutinterference-an continuously Michel itself.30 tradition quite alien to the astrological cosmology
as a revealing Renaissance astrology portrayed Foucault,by contrast, as ofrules system "episteme"-a ofthewaysin whicha particular example
could or scientist ofa wholeepoch.No philosopher andwriting thought and to seethemselves, them that compelled thewebofassumptions escape lower and of higher a network as controlled by beings, all othernatural KeithThomas,finally, webofinfluences.3" in a sticky as prisoners forces, ofastrology. thanthetechnical content, rather thesocialrole, emphasized modern of situation and social early environmental the In hisview, fragile nonand other withastrology fascination their explained people clearly threatened of predictive magic.Fire,flood,and famine rationalforms or of means predicting No rational as the well rich as the poor. everyone, on whichrested statistical, Insurance, such eventsexisted. preventing
ex directione fere completo, anno33. suae aetatis ei mortem vaticinabantur potissimum tres accidit." sicuti ad Martem, horoscopi andhisSources," Pico dellaMirandola "Giovanni byP. 0. Kristeller, 9 See theclassicstudy 1: 34-133; A. Mirandola della 1965), Pico (Florence, di L 'operae ilpensiero Giovanni naturadella L 'ambigua 1983-93),1: chap.7; Zambelli, (Oxford, Scaliger Joseph Grafton, magia.
30 See 31
the basement-controlled as a Piranesi andsubterranean dark, grandiose,
(New Haven,1987). Formand History Symbolic J.Krois,Cassirer,
et les choses(Paris,1966). Les mots M. Foucault,
GIROLAMO CARDANO
333
came into beingonly in the rather than celestial, measurements, could usethebest seventeenth century. Onlytheastrologer quantitative to predict thefuture andoffer useful methods ofthetime counsels for risk andexploiting averting opportunities.32 models a vitalaspect ofastrology-but Each ofthese emphasizes never realized that noneofthem is comprehensive. Warburg astrology a great achievement ofclassical reason: that was,initsownway, it,like one of thegreat taxonomic of the geography, represented disciplines andearly Hellenistic whodidunderstand Imperial periods.33 Cassirer, inthis inthe tooklittle interest Renaissance astrology way, ofthe practice never Foucault hecertainly that the discipline. admitted, though knew, andnatural oftheearly modern astrology contained philosophy period and procedures takenover directly basic assumptions fromearlier thathas radical sources-anadmission forhis method. consequences thefirst time real whofor shed on thesocial Thomas, light background modern couldnotdo full to therichness ofearly and astrology, justice ofearly asanintellectual modern complexity astrology system, especially asthis reached itsfullest outside development England. The workofthese scholars-and ofmany historians of specialist Renaissance astrology, notably EugenioGarin,Paola Zambelli, and aid andstimulus. Germana Ernst-offers essential I have Nonetheless, different tried to raise to go a different to do questions, way.I wanted to boththe rationalism and the irrationality of Renaissance justice toboth its traditional anditsnovel astrology, toboth contents, itsancient anditsmodern I wanted social role. toaskiftheastrologers sources ofthe who occupiedthemselves in part with reading Renaissance, and onancient have to contribute tothe commenting texts, might something of ancient interpretation astrology-if theymight help us set the and Firmicus into a morefully seemingly dryworksof Ptolemy articulated social andcultural which couldhelp to restore their context, interest. human Aboveall,I wanted tobe surprised. I wanted todevelop notinadvance, butas I worked myspecific analytical questions through to putthem primary sources: to rawdataassembled notin accordance with a modern archivist's orhistorian's butbythose ofanearly choices, modern intellectual.
IV. GIROLAMO CARDANO(1501-1576)
In July an intellectual from theNetherlands 1572, HugoBlotius,

32
K. V. Thomas, and theDeclineofMagic (New York,1971). Religion
33 See 0. Murray, review ofR. MacMullen, Enemies oftheRoman Order, Journal ofRoman Studies59 (1969): 261-65at 262-63.
334
ANTHONY GRAFTON
Emperor to theHolyRoman librarian court whowouldsoonbecome the in Italyduring of his travels an account II, finished Maximilian and a guide as both toserve codex the He meant anda half. year previous many vonHutten. Hencehecast a young friend, Ludwig for a notebook hada sharp Blotius Though inthe form ofinstructions. ofhisexperiences to landscapes spectacular from anddangers, pleasures allofItaly's eyefor a a splendid with in Bologna, city interest he tookparticular bad inns, four visited mostforeigners Here,he remarked, university. splendid the Papius, Angelius the jurisconsult Sigonio, historian Carlo the scholars: meant and Giovanni-he Aldrovandi and philosopher Vlysse doctor a single clidnot assign to whomhe prudently Girolamo-Cardano, praising of all fourmen, Blotiusgave the addresses profession. amiable, arevery "Others with warmth: special hospitality Aldrovandi's whohasinhischarge ofallisVlysse Aldrovandi, accessible most andthe Athome he orGovernor. atthe ofthe Legate palace the ofsimples garden offlowering herb, and with kind stuffed every museum, hasa spectacular in other Aldrovandi, that areto be seen."34 things natural all theother ofthe museum access tohisfantastic callers northern open offered words, of ofdrawings andhundreds ofexhibits thousands with its natural world, did so withgreat and andevidently grace and animals, exotic plants Cardano to visit those Blotius wishing warned, warmth.35 Bycontrast, must him to hisface, notpraise they care: must extreme take "They must can expect askwhether must anymoreofhis andthey they be brief, histonesuggested, in thenearfuture."36 Otherwise, booksto appear thanthe thedoorrather hisguests showing explode, Cardanomight thisdangerous voyage Yet Blotius thought clearly of nature. secrets worthwhile. butintriguing thisdifficult to visit I havedecided Like Blotius, onhisastrological works, tofocus I have decided mystudy indeed, figure: not are The reasons and their sources. andhisreaders, ofhisrivals those at fantastic wrote Cardano werenotforBlotius). farto seek(as they aboutevery topicin the astrological style, and in a fantastic length,
praebent, "Aliise faciles MS 6070,fol.25 recto-verso: Nationalbibliothek 3 Osterreichische qui simplicium qui [Ms: cui] horti Aldrovandus Vlysses se exhibet facillimum omniumque habet hicmusaeum Domietiam estincumbit. seugubematoris Legati ad Palatium Bononiae quae sub rerum naturalium, caeterarumque fruticum, omniherbarum maximemirabile, On Blotius see H. Louthan,The Quest for oculos cadunt,genere,refertissimum." 1977),53-84. (Cambridge, Compromise Nature Possessing delmondo (Bologna,1992) andP. Findlen, L 'inventario 35 Cf.G. Olmi, andLos Angeles,1994). (Berkeley
36
cautio salutaturis "Cardanum MS 6070,fol.25 recto: Nationalbibliothek Osterreichische num quos alios libros rogentque utpaucisrem absolvant, inos laudent, ne ipsum essedebet, possint...." expectare aedendos propediem
GIROLAMO CARDANO
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His Opera his tradition (andmany others).37 omnia, published longafter and someseventhousand fillten foliovolumes death, pages.Every a striking orreference. offers Thisbrilliant column observation, anecdote, the andthe drew for wrote technical astrologer uphoroscopes living dead, ina uniquely frank andcommented treatises, wayon hisdiscoveries, his withhis clients. and his relations The vast size and experiences, of his books have deterred from considerable difficulty scholars him.Though describe hisworkon the approaching goodmonographs andhismedicine, ofchance, hisnatural ofgames mathematics philosophy, in Germana hasanalyzed hisastrological work onlyonescholar, Ernst, A projected critical edition of Cardano's anydetail.38 works has only Foryears allstudents a preliminary to come, reached stage. ofhiswork toplay the role ofcaterpillars willbecondemned exploring tiny portions Riddles outnumber ofanenormous anddark flowering garden. solutions, one.Evennow,inshort, theroadto Cardano areas surround every light ofdangers. hasitsshare in PaviaandPadua:after studied a very Cardano difficult early with andconsiderable he taught somesuccess career, at the notoriety inhistories ofPaviaandBologna. He makes of universities appearances ofmodern asoneofthe creators alsoinhistories of mathematics, algebra; as oneofthecreators ofwhat call"lecardan" or technology, Europeans the universal His books in "das soldwell, notonly Cardangelenk," joint. likehisencyclopedic Italy, butthroughout Europe; some, De subtilitate, that best-sellers received thehighest became ofthe literary compliments ferocious attack andshameless The most period, plagiarism. important ofthesixteenth andearly seventeenth natural philosophers centuries himregularly. mentioned andcited He evenreceived andaccepted an invitation to travel to far-off Paris-and to distant then, andbarbarous medical adviceforJohnHamilton, the last Edinburgh-to provide Catholic ofSt.Andrews. Cardano saved thearchbishop's archbishop life, an enormous honorarium andgiving hislucky receiving client fifteen to enjoy more before Protestants executed him. years life could for several Cardano's material kinds ofimaginative supply In hisyouth heplayed theroleoftheprotagonist ofa historical writing. inthebest ofthenineteenth novel purple style century. One day-ashe
37 The best short accounts ofCardano'sliferemain in 0. Ore,Cardano,theGambling that Scholar(Princeton, 1953),andDictionary s.n.Cardano, ofScientific Biography, Girolamo, di Cardano(Florence, byM. Gliozzi.See alsoA. Ingegno, Saggiosullafilosofia 1980); the inE. Kepler, important studies collected ed.,Girolamo Cardano:Philosoph, Naturforscher, Arzt (Wiesbaden, 1994);andthecomprehensive ofhismedical study career andthought by N. Siraisi, TheClockand theMirror (Princeton, 1997). 38
G. Ernst, "'Veritatis amordulcissimus': in Cardano," in Kepler, Aspetti dell'astrologia 158-84.
336
ANTHONY GRAFTON
with inhisautobiography-Cardano gambled much later, told thestory, hisway heforced wascheating, that hisopponent Realizing a Venetian. the thenwandered Cardano recovering hismoney. out of thehouse, a ship, he Trying toboard for some frightened ofdiscovery. hours, streets The relief andfell armor. intoa canal-infull onthegangway stumbled turned to himoutofthewater ofa boatpulled thecrew he felt when ofthe as hisopponent theship'scaptain whenhe recognized horror thecaptain decided to helphim,sincehe too Fortunately, morning. Venetian strict wanted no trouble withthenotoriously presumably ofthe played thepart As anoldman, Cardano bycontrast, authorities.39 a Lear.He raged when andmourned oropera-perhaps ofa tragedy hero in his own right, tried, was arrested, doctor his olderson, a gifted a focaccia for hiswife with andexecuted laced with murdering convicted, hisyounger sonturned outto be a worthless character andwhen arsenic, thief. andpetty hisbestroleas a middle-aged whenhe ButCardano man, played ofDavidLodge. As an inthestyle ofa university novel hero the became devised ofthecustoms andpractices Cardano many professor important a list oftheseventylife. He drew academic example, up,for ofmodern himwith writers who had cited him,or mentioned three important himin documenting which followed andbiographies, autobiographies thecredit indetail. He thus deserves credit is (if their reception subjects' think ofas a creation ofmodern a device most wrongly people due)for even index. Cardano thecitation ofscience, anticipated many sociology offered To andliterary newscientific computer. bythe ofthe possibilities an easyrecipe he offered for forexample, of his On subtlety, readers take twocopies ofthe anoldone.Simply a newbookorrevising writing in newsequences andtry them cutthem written up intosections text; notebook made ofcardboard intoa stout theresults until satisfied; glue or two whohasreadtwotexts, and giveit to thepublisher. Anyone howseriously hetookhisown knows ofonetext, versions byCardano of a function advice-andhow well he wouldhaveusedthe merge computer. personal allgreat that marks revealed the Cardano professors. vanity regularly aswellasthree ofhisautobiography, versions butfour notone, He wrote in themyth ofNarcissus He interpreted ofhisownhoroscope. analyses in the hisownreflection inlovewith whofell a novelway:theyouth
39 See the inCardano, De story ofthis versions
Cardano's list becamein its turna model forlaterscholars' praise.40
1663], 30 (Operaomnia[Lyons, vita propria inDe ludoaleae liber (ibid.5: 521); cf.theepisodedescribed xiigeniturarum 1: 19); Liber chap.20 (ibid. 1: 271). De vitaproprialiber48, Opera omnia,1: 45-47. Cardano,
40
GIROLAMO CARDANO
337
in pleasure forthe scholarwho lost himself waterstood, he thought, himself on thefact that-atleast reading hisown work.Cardanoprided form ofhisown books-he was regularly lovedby beautiful in thevirtual hisown,presumably ("women read readers too,"he reminded male,gentle ofsatirical he paidtheprice, reader).41 Andlikeallgoodheroes novels, and In 1557Cardanobecame hismisdeeds. theobject for morethantheprice, ofEuropean letters. book review inthehistory Caesar oftheworst Julius natural ofItalian vainandarticulate another Scaliger, philosopher origins, one of devoted more than nine hundredquarto pages to refuting to.return to thesubject andpromised Cardano's atstill books,On subtlety, died withoutproducing more than a greater length.Though Scaliger hisExercitationes ofthispromised becamea standard fragment polemic, the only book reviewever work in university curriculums-perhaps transformation intoa textbook.42 knownto undergo form ofastrology to every Cardanocontributed something practiced his customers withall the in earlymodernEurope. He also provided services that astrologers normallyoffered.His works yield rich but also about information not onlyabouthis own ideasand methods, and his relations withthem.And though those of his contemporaries thatone would liketo have are missing in his of evidence some forms which he burned-enoughcollateral case-like his correspondence, muchofwhathe saysandto provide bothto confirm material survives a forit. context in short,the investigation of Cardano's For all its difficulties, His interpretations of astrologyhas proved remarkably rewarding. andpenetrating hisfull classical astrological texts-especially commentary newlight bothon ancient on Ptolemy'sTetrabiblos-shed and astrology ofhisownpractice. His lively anddetailed on modemaspects of portraits whichhe worked, within takentogether thesocialcontext withfurther contemporary evidence,shed new light on the functions that the carried out-and suggest new andprovocative astrologer waysoflooking at ancient,as well as early modern,astrology. What began as a a fine-grained and minute examinationof a single microhistory, has graduallyevolved into an oblique but large-scale astrologer, oftheclassical in astrology tradition as a whole. investigation IV. THE PoLmCs OF SCIENCEAND THE SCIENCEOF POLMCS IN CARDANO'S ASTROLOGY
41 42
De librispropriis Cardano, (1554), Opera omnia,1: 78.
See thefineanalysis ofNatural byI. Maclean,"The Interpretation Signs:Cardano'sDe subtilitate VersusScaliger'sExercitationes," in Occultand Scientific Mentalities in the ed. B. Vickers Renaissance, (Cambridge, 1984),231-49.
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ANTHONY GRAFTON
the art. He urged a political sawastrology as,atitscore, Cardano political above alltopredict tomake a career totry whowished astrologer so, theastrologer By doing for clients. prominent events andmilitary into himself bringing healsorisked a name. Unfortunately, couldmake through hisgreat voyage During discredit. or scientific either political for the French northern Europe,Cardanodrew up horoscopes andthe andstatesman Cheke, John inLondon, humanist the ambassador in particular, proved youngkingEdwardVI. The last horoscope, that young client his Cardano predicted more than delicate. politically and a successful reign. Such children, many wouldhavea longlife, result ofcomputations ofcourse, thenatural were, predictions positive a royal for ornoblepatron. low-born astrologer made byan ambitious, toldtheHabsburg archduke LucaGaurico, for rival example, Cardano's intriumph with hisarms theTurks, leadthesultan defeat that hewould thanthe emperor moreimportant boundbehind him,and become to keepthe theHabsburgs were when lucky this at a time himself-all Cardano's client Vienna.43 proved Unfortunately, Turksfrom taking Cardano atonce, butwellafter almost He died, than Gaurico's. unluckier faceda in question. The poor astrologer the horoscope published an error, howhecouldhavemadeso gross hehadto explain dilemma: into discredit. himself orhisart either without bringing at leasta thathe had devoted Cardanoexplained, articulately, ofthehoroscope. ofa few chosen aspects hours to thestudy hundred henowsaw Sadder but the truth. tolearn hehadfailed wiser, Nonetheless to hisresults. him would have enabled hour oflabor rectify that onemore hiserror astheresult toexplain feel onecould headmitted, tempted True, thatdangers confessed If he hadopenly decision. of a clever political of under he wouldhavefallen suspicion theyoung threatened king, saved ordivine himself. Edward providence, Onlyluck, against plotting a technical mistake. Otherwise him tomake Cardano's life, byinducing thatno levelof technical a political dilemma he wouldhavefaced it becameclearthatthe court couldsolve.Paradoxically, expertise outhisprincipal insome duty could carry circumstances, not, astrologer truth." exact his the client oftelling
4
ni me celestia recto: "Immo, MS 7433,e.g. 2 verso-3 Nationalbibliothek Osterreichische mox rabiem Rex invictissime RegumTurcharum proculdubioMartetuo poteris fallant, duces.Dein Magno Ducem manibus posttergarevinctum malam,ipsorumque superare for1534-35): 10 recto (revolution tuaeMaiestati"; blandior Nil profecto eris. Caesaremaior et coronamsuscipiesuti ex illius urbissceptra ". . .et uti reorConstantinopolitanae elicitur." etannuaehuiusconversionis horoscopo " Cardano, Opera omnia,5: 507-08. Cardanothusbothhas his Liberxii geniturarum, death-and eats it theking's imminent cake-shows thathis artcould have predicted outtheprediction that he had carried to pretend he is too honest that too-by insisting
GIROLAMO CARDANO
339
thathedged the political WhenCardanoemphasized problems theastrologer's heself-consciously drew attention around drawing board, toa long-established feature oftheastrological tradition as a whole. Like Cardano wasa goodhumanist medical menofthetime, as many other wellas a goodastrologer, one dedicated to closephilological study of andthe traditions towhich ancient texts they belonged.45 Accordingly, he to drive did historical research homehis pointaboutastrology and outthat He pointed theastrologers oftheRoman court politics. imperial inhisexile similar hadfaced When on Capri, exactly problems. Tiberius, his astrologer a slave(or the emperor took advicefrom Thrasyllus, to hurl theoceanifhelied.After himself) stood ready theseer into the that astrologer predicted recall toRome would come soon, Tiberius asked for himself. what heforesaw Thefuture, looked Thrasyllus replied, very hislife. dark-and answer saved bythis melancholy OnlyThrasyllus's him hisowndeath, inother topredict enabled to avoid it: ability words, of courtlife with a heavy entered the quicksands the astrologer professional burden, underwhichhe could easilysink.Manyhad. for hisprediction Diocletian's astrologer Ascletarion, example, paidfor with hisown(which oftheemperor's In insisting death hehadforeseen). on telling Diocletian thetruth his Ascletarion nonetheless, displayed andhisprofessional atoneandthesame technical ethics time.46 ability Extinction threatenedRoman astrologersmore than in thelater of theempire, whentheir once-especially years way of and history cameintoconflict withthoseof the explaining politics Christian church andthe since both claimed dominion over the emperors, Firmicus universe. andChristian Maternus, astrologer bishop, proposed a solution thatbecame popular. Emperors, he explained, being gods, thecontrol oftheplanets.4' Renaissance cited escaped Many astrologers Cardano's rival anda major this inthe saying. Gaurico, player papal Curia oftheHighRenaissance, treated as a prime inhiswork, Firmicus source eventhough his own technical of the subject farexceeded mastery
properly andconcealed theresults.
45 Cf. M. Muccillo,"Luca Gaurico:astrologie e 'prisca theologia,"'Nouvellesde la 2 (1990): 21-44. Re'publique des Lettres 46 On thesocial history of astrology at Rome see therecent studies of M. T. Fogen,Die Enteignung der Wahrsager and Emperors (Frankfurt a.M., 1993); D. Potter, Prophets PowerandKnowledge (Cambridge, Mass.,1994);andT. S. Barton, (AnnArbor, 1994). On thepolitical activities ofmedieval see H. Carey, astrologers Courting Disaster:Astrology in theLaterMiddleAges(London,1992). at theEnglish Courtand University 47
Firmicus Maternus, Mathesis context of thisargument-which 2.30.5; fortheoriginal perhaps reflected Diocletian's insistence on hisowncontrol ofall earthly powers andevents, hisrefusal toaccept, as earlier emperors had,thesuperiority oftheskiesto hisownwill-see Fogen,276-84.
340
ANTHONY GRAFTON
authority andhismessage. both theancient Firmicus's. Cardano rejected heaccurately notan astrologer: he insisted, wasa grammarian, Firmicus, bits ofastrological doctrine nounderstanding for the but showed collected astrologer might facea core of the art.48 The high-flying technical itsimply byducking situation, but hecould notescape politically delicate politics. responsibility for high themore hazardous his theastrologer, in short, The moregifted than once.It seems likely drove this point home more career. Cardano he drew byno means thefirst that thehoroscope up for Jesus, though a major rolein landing andcultural him,as thereligious one,played bytheRoman Inquisition.49 ofItaly became chillier, under arrest climate risk inthe trade. Gaurico made Buthisexperience ofhigh wasnot unusual whenhe described theoutcome ofthe thesamepointmoredirectly, he had made"in a certain The accurate printed forecast." prediction warned that Giovanni would himself and destroy Bentivoglio astrologer himself before Julius II. Bentivoglio his houseif he did not humble him tortures ofthearms"-the to"four same terrible torture condemned wouldholdup,many later, years which Tommaso Campanella under him insane-and inprison. histormentors declared until twenty-five days theBentivoglio andleveled their to II soondefeated When palace Julius butthat didnothing to he boreoutGaurico's prediction, theground, thetruth hurt the theastrologer's long-remembered pain:"Thus mitigate as Cassandra.50 himself Gaurico wrote casting years later, poorprophet," aswellas astrology, must understand A political astrologer politics, thebookofthe As Cardano ina subtle andsophisticated interpreted way. ofthe other to find hemanaged messages, many there, among heavens, ofthe Thegeneral science sixteenth ofthe newpolitical century. precepts must control human andtheir andplanets, stars ideathat some children, on a standard for drew Lorenz new. washardly example, Beheim, others, whenhe used to Ptolemy, the Centiloquium long ascribed source, thestrange to explain Pirckheimer's Willibald relationship horoscope client declared that thegifted Thestars andPirckheimer.51 Diirer between
read largeportionsof the would rule his patron.Cardano,however,
48 Ptolemy, 34, Opera omnia5: ed. Cardano, Quadripartitum,
Fromthe constellations. intothe classic of the Renaissance politics

118: "cumille purusesset bona,mala, nonsolumomniaabsqueiudicio, huiusartis, omnino expersque grammaticus absque in unum disiunctaque coniuncta continentia, etex parte veritatem ex toto vera, falsa, . ." atquecorruperit. confuderit nonintelligens sed quod multa compegit, discrimine '9 See Siraisi, epilogue. vativeritas nocuit." 49 verso:"Itaquemisello Tractatus, 50 Gaurico,
51 L.
Nachlass,ed. H. Schriftlicher 23 May 1507,inA. Diirer, Beheimto W. Pirckheimer, 1956-69),1: 254. (Berlin, Rupprich
GIROLAMO CARDANO
341
and planets, he argued, one could explain positionsofthezodiacalsigns In were destined to one could whycertain individuals slavery. particular, understand found themselves deceived whycertain kings friends bytheir The powerofthestars or obedient to evilcounselors.52 in other explained, words, notan individual casebuta general situation: whyso manyIagos listeners foundmorevirtuous to accepttheir ready poisonouscounsels. were even more up-to-date. From the factthat Other interpretations takeplaceattheequinoxes, revolutions Cardanodrewan explanation for ofthePeasants' Warof 1525andtheKingdom thespecial ofGod cruelty at Miinster. The powerofthesun,he inferred, dissolved inhibitions and "lita torchin themindsofmen." It causedtheneglect ofmorality, the ofthefamily thatcharacterized disdain forlaw,andthedestruction early in short, modern revolutions.53 Cardano'spolitical bothsheds astrology, a light on theastrological tradition as a wholeand represents something ofhistime.54 characteristic Cardano'sastrology was political in another as well-in the respect best sense conveyed by the GermantermWissenschaftspolitik. Many of revealthatthe Renaissance Cardano's remarks workedin a astrologer a dangerously and highly publicsituation, exposedone in whichclients to undermineor overthrowhis competitors threatened constantly The sameclients who askedCardano'sadvice authority. deliberately gave him falsedataabouttheplacesand datesoftheir births as some (rather clients hadgiven medieval doctors theurineofdogsor horses to analyze as their surrounded theastrologer, own).Jealous competitors andlostno to criticize opportunity everyaspectof his work unmercifully. They attacked Cardano,forexample, on thegrounds thathe confined himself thehoroscopes ofindividuals to analyzing who hadalready grown up and madetheir careers-but didnotdareto publish theoutcome horoscopes ofwhichhe couldnotforetell.55 thatCardanomusthave Othersinsisted his own horoscope: falsified thisprediction of a series of disasters, they could not be the argued,showinga nice sense of the paradoxical,
52Ptolemy, Quadripartitum, ed. G. Cardano (Basel, 1554),73 (Opera omnia5: 148-49)on
1.15-16.
53
Ptolemy, Quadripartitum, ed. Cardano, 138-39,Opera omnia, 5: 199: "faxquaedamin mentibus hominum accensa."
54 Cf. also Cardano'sinteresting discussion of anthropophagi and other monstrous races, off againtaking from topursue a period Ptolemy theme: ed. Cardano,108 Quadripartitum, (Opera omnia5: 176-77). See F. Lestringant, La Cannibale(Paris,1994).
Cardano, Libelli duo (Nuremberg, 1543), ep. ded., sig. [A iiij recto]:"Addidimus et illustris puerigenituram, utquod nobisobiicisoletdilueremus, nos publicede praeteritis tantum pronunciare."
55
342
ANTHONY GRAFTON
rolesin making themplayedthechief ideas who between Copernicus's Petreius to reissue public.The Nuremberg publisher Johannes proposed which had appearedin a very Cardano's Latin works in astrology, Milan editiononly.60 of horoscopes His collection and his unattractive on astrology became part of the same list,which treatises suddenly ofthetime.In 1543Petreius out included theleading scientists brought De revolutionibus also but notonlyCardano's nativitatum, Copernicus's orbium coelestium. edition soonreached De revolutionibus The Nuremberg for writer his a widepublic: themedical Janus Cornarius, example, bought
expertes eam "Itaquecumquidamnonhuiusartis 19,sig. [P iiij recto]: 56 Ibid.,horoscope
ofa brilliantly horoscope successful manlikeCardano.56 Astrologers had alwaysconfronted jealous competitors. The ofthegroups members that worked up predictions in ancient Babylon one another attacked continually. The astrologers who drew up insand tables inthe horoscopes public markets ofmedieval Baghdad and ina terrifyingly Damascus worked exposed position, ringed bycrowds of EvenPtolemy's articulate critics.57 dry textbook, theTetrabiblos, came alive on the fewoccasions whenhe feltobliged to abusethe more primitive methods ofhiscolleagues.58 hadnewways ofestablishing Cardano, however, hisreputation and those ofhisrivals. Aboveall,ofcourse, he hadaccess demolishing to printing. Even quite ordinary men who harbored astrologers, no ofelaborate ambitions short broadsides and literary careers, published intheir almanacs which thenatural andpolitical vernaculars, predicted climate for thenext month anddaybyday.Theyaimed year bymonth ata limited, localpublic, texts towinmore these clients for their hoping in exactly a short Cardano this practices. began way,with astrological a curious written in Italian, whichoffered its readers pamphlet, oftechnical Savonarolan combination astrology, apocalyptic prophecy, andweather predictions.59 In the1540s, Cardano cameintocontact with German however, Andreas andGeorg Osiander intellectuals-notably Joachim Rheticus,
quod nec sumpto, argumento meamesse posse negarunt, vidissent, [Cardano'sgeniture] Cf. Ptolemy, invenirent." vestigium nec ullius dignitatis vitae qua hucusquefungor 21 (Opera omnia5: 108); 76-77(151). ed. Cardano, Quadripartitum,
57
in byG. Saliba,"The Role oftheAstrologer synthesis On thesepoints see thesplendid 44 (1992): 45-68. dEtudes Orientales Bulletin MedievalIslamicSociety,"
58 59
1.20. Tetrabiblos See e.g. Ptolemy
Pronostico o veroiudiciogenerale... dal 1534 insinoal 1550 (Venice, G. Cardano, 1534): Paris, BibliothequeNationale,Res. V. 1179; cf. Ernst,"'Veritatisamor dulcissimus."' (Milan,1538).
60 Cardano, ... almanach Libellusqui dicitur supplementum
GIROLAMOCARDANO
343
inMarburg inthe Some ofpublication.6" wreathed their copy year readers inwhich books with elaborate notes ofCardano's copies they compared decorated their ofGauricus with hisresults toGauricus's-or notes copies a European The Italian localherobecame and on Cardano.62 savant, new him tothe tooloffered andhisownsense chiefly thanks byprinting it.No wonder that hispupil ofhowtomanipulate for a Blotius, priming that visit toldhimto assure Cardano "his to Bologna, works were read inGermany with great eagerness bymany eager readers andBelgium."63 either that hadto payfor hisearly Cardano inthe No wonder success inItaly ascensorhip hold andhisconnections Protestant took world, with prominent heretics became a cause for suspicionratherthan
congratulation.64 This analysis maysoundtoo modern, or postmodern, to be true. Afterall, fewof Cardano'sletters and none thatdescribe survive, his in theworldofthepublishers maneuvers in detail.But portions of the of anotherastrologer who publishedwith Petreius, correspondence Erasmus do survive, andtheseoffer somesuggestive Reinhold, evidence. In a long letterto Reinhold,the publisher invitedhim to writean in whichhe wouldgivefullandprecise treatise astrological instructions to drawup a horoscope:a how-tobook forastrology. on how actually Petreiuscarefully asked Reinhold to definea basic technicalterm, declaredthathe had no "angulus."On the otherhand,he expressly inelaborate ofworked interest series andfor commercial examples, purely as thepredictions reasons: "So far theseconstellations yield, theyneedn't since lotsofthem havealready beenwritten be included andprinted, here, andI think a textbook likethisshouldn't be unsaleable."65 Petreius knew
61Houghton Library, Harvard on thetitle University, *IC5.C1782.5431, signed page: "Janus
Comarius Med. physicus," and datedat thebottom ofthepage:"Marpurgi, menseOctob. 1543."

62
See e.g. the copies of the Libelli duo in the HoughtonLibrary, Harvard;the Osterreichische Vienna(72 J 123,Melanchthon's Nationalbibliothek, copy;72 X 5); and thoseof hisLibelliquinquein theBritish Library (53 b 7; C 112 c 5), as well as Gabriel Harvey'scopyof Gaurico'sTractatus, citedbelow.Forinterestingly contrasting accounts of theimpact of printing on Cardano'scareer see W. Eamon,Scienceand theSecretsof Nature(Princeton, rather 1994), and thedetailed, pessimistic case study by I. Maclean, inKepler,309-38. "CardanoandhisPublishers, 1534-1663,"
63 Osterreichische Nationalbibliothek MS
etBelgio legi." ipsiusoperainGermania
6070, fol.25 recto:....
magnaenimcupiditate
6 65
andhisPublishers, inKepler, See I. Maclean,"Cardano 309-38. 1534-1663,"
Petreius to Reinhold, St. Lucy's day 1549; Geheimes Archiv Preu,ischer Kulturbesitz, HBA A4 223: "Itemmeinswissens/ so hab ich bisherin truck nitgesehenein kurtz scilicet sint nativitates et inscribendae in schema Compendium, quomodoprimo erigendae etquomodosigna, etstellaeintaleschema, etin 12 domos, et in angulos celeste, planetae
344
ANTHONY GRAFTON
ofdiverse works astrological included hadlong hislist hespoke: whereof joint oftheir inthediffusion interest expert Hisandhisauthors' kinds.'6 for example, Petreius, ofproduction. toallthedetails extended products is,in beprinted-that itshould "inwhich type todecide Reinhold asked De likeCardano medium, orthe wasprinted, asCopernicus thebig type,
opuscula." forexample, Schoner's as I printed, orthesmall, nativitatibus, ... on ordinary "the as Cardanowas printed medium, He recommended of theframework within worked andprinter Astrologer paper."67 crown saleable a forproducing Bothtook responsibility marketplace. a literary as well as product,and each triedto steerthe otherin economically The sceneseemsall too familiar-rather directions. culturally productive to Linguafranca. prelude likea sixteenth-century
V. ECLECTICISM
competednot only with one another,but with Astrologers ofa modem Unlikethevotaries arts. ofother ofa widerange practitioners to own and their inability this situation, regarded evidently they science, Sincelateantiquity, as quitenatural. their for art, validity claimexclusive for medicines had beeneclectics. Theychosetheir mostclients it seems, as secular as well sacred varied a from including repertoire, melancholy whichlastedas medical ofMediterranean koine, andcures-asort healers of andthecomponents as astrology as gradually itself, longand changed for as In Cardano's time, premises.68 rested on divergent radically which life on a normal to carry who felt too lethargic an Italian centuries before, makea pilgrimage or an exorcist-or an astrologer, a doctor, couldconsult knownto heal the sick.In SouthItalyone could also hire to a shrine
kan. denichsanzeigen wisset, welchesirbesser (et quid angulisint)dividenda, domorum hierein mannicht das dorft constitutionibus, ex talibus sindt Was aberdie praedictiones michein solch und getruckt ist,und deucht setzen/ den von solchenviel geschrieben sein." unkeuflich soltnicht Compendium
66
nativitatum De iudiciis de Montulmo, in Antonius to Rheticus, letter See his prefatory 1540),sig.A ij verso. (Nuremberg, liberpraeclarissimus HBA A4 223: .. . undmitwas schrieft Kulturbesitz, GeheimesArchiv Preupischer /wie derCopernicus schrieft obs mitdergrossen /nemlich soltwerden gedruckt solcher /wie /odermitderkleinen de nativitatibus /wieCardanus dermittel ist/odermit gedruckt /diewoltichdieweil gemhetten einschrieft /was irfur getruckt opuscula ichetwaSchoneri papir Cronen aufgemein ambesten mir /gefiel getruckt /wieCardanus /diemitler zurichten zu bekommen." danMedienoderregalpapiris hirschwerlich
68 Cf. G. Dagron, A hagiographiques Etudede themes le savant, I'astrologue: "Le saint, Hagiographie, des Ve-Vlle siecles," et reponses' de 'Questions quelquesrecueils travers and the Authority sie'cles(Paris,1981), 143-56;P. Brown, et societes,ive-xiie cultures 1995),69. Sacred (Cambridge,
67
GIROLAMO CARDANO
345
Tarantella whoplayed theso-called inthis disease: specialists musicians, danced himself backto health.69 Bitter whilethe patient complaints and ofindividual circulated about thecharlatanry doctors, astrologers, as to argue, in a polemic or a a critic went so far Sometimes exorcists. ofastrology ora rival art were On the allpractitioners that satire, quacks. seem tohavebelieved, to some most in whole, however, patients extent, ofthese to consult a particular thecompetence practitioners. Theychose that are oftenanything but clear-especially one on grounds as ofsacred andscientific, learned andpopular ofhealing arts practitioners from oneanother's ofprocedures. borrowed regularly repertoires fortheir didnotfind thissituation or Astrologers, part, wrong andmany ofhisrivals On thecontrary, Cardano were as unfair. exactly astheir customers. aswehave mastered more than eclectic Cardano, seen, human fates. A doctor as wellas an astrologer, he one artofpredicting medicine than other andprided more about as wrote any subject himself, hasshown, on hisability to read thesigns ofthehuman NancySiraisi Moresurprisingly, atfirst oftheheavens. he bodyas wellasthose sight, onforms ofprediction that seem far more alien than alsorelied medicine from the rigorous, rule-bound worldof astrology. Cardanotook a for inthe ofdreams. In oneof passionate interest, example, interpretation theSomnia herecounted hismost successful a longseries books, Synesia, in meticulous of his own dreams theprinciples of detail, confirming from his own experience.70 He developed a theory of interpretation and one forreading he also physiognomics, palmsas well (though the latter art asfalse). Andhefound vital clues tothefuture in denounced a vast ofeveryday inthe smell ofhotwax, where there range phenomena: were no candles; in the buzzingof a great wasp; and in whathe called"theobstinate behavior of my clock,"without frustratingly itfurther1-rather asa character ina story tells explaining byM.R.James hisownghost which consists ofa spare butchilling outline: a story, only man locks hisbedroom climbs into hisold-fashioned the door, bed, pulls andthen a thin bedcurtains hears voice shut heavy shut, say, "Nowwe're in for "Wearepermitted," thenight." Cardano in his explicitly argued "todraw from thesmallest ifthey conclusions last autobiography, things, I have elsewhere that shown asa net consists ofindividual, unusually long. inhuman uniform so everything life consists oftiny which holes, things, andover andformed, likeclouds, arerepeated over intoa variety again,
69 See D. Gentilcore, FromBishopto Witch (Manchester and New York, 1992); cf. G. Tomlinson, MusicinRenaissance Magic (Chicago,1993). 70
See A. Browne, "Girolamo Cardano'sSomniorum Synesiorum libriIIII," Bibliotheique etRenaissance d'Humanisme 40 (1979): 123-35. De vitaproprialiber43, Opera omnia1: 38: "contumacia Cardano, horologii."
71
346
ANTHONY GRAFTON
and accompanied alsoheld that a supernatural being Cardano offigures."72 perhaps notall,of him most ofhislife. Thebulk, though through guided to spirit's efforts heexplained astheresult ofthis hisstrange experiences with him.73 communicate and that Cardano usednotonly astrology Itmay seem paradoxical rule-bound and technical methods of prediction, but also medicine, he On theone hand, revelation. forms of direct prodigies and other On oftheplanets. theregular motions thepast andfuture from inferred to that appeared weight on events theother hand, healsoplaced special violate the normallaws of nature.Not only twentieth-century ofthese but some Renaissance onessawtheapplication two intellectuals, interms. for asa contradiction Peucer, example, agreed Caspar approaches which onthe in inhisCommentary appeared ofdivination, principalforms held view thatdivineprovidence normally 1553,withthe widely the birth of misshapen animals and similar itself through expressed for ofa two-headed offered Theabnormal example, calf, shape portents. future. muchoftheimmediate By contrast, a keythatcouldunlock celestial which admitted that were took events, regular eclipses Peucer itentirely that a reader andforseeably: hefound plausible place regularly them content.74 tohisascribing "portentous" strenuously might object of read the Cardano's In practice, contemporaries many however, a high for so required tolerance worldmuchas he did,evenifdoing role ofdivine stars the insisted that the Peucer signs, played inconsistency. after inthe when underwent past, all,had eclipses. Eclipses they especially andtragic events. GodHimself, oraccompanied great regularly preceded Peucer insigna." "Erunt vobis asmuch: haddeclared Logically, moreover, and should not could work;theologically explainwhy astrology andscriptural evidence asempirical nodoubt arose, however, empirically,
ex minimis 41, Operaomnia1: 35-36,e.g.:"Nonnumquam liber propria De vita 72Cardano, ac utalias declaravi, licet:cumex minimis, facere coniecturam perseverant, cumimmodice et in diversas repetitis, constent, maculisomniaapud homines velutretium uniusmodi, in sensim sed etilla minima augeantur, nec solumperminima utnebulaeformatis: figuras in negociis inconsiliis, iisquesolusinartibus, oportet: dividere utitadicam, partes, infinitas et in culmen qui haec intelliget et ad summum perveniet, erit, civilibuspraestantissimus talia minimaerunt eventibus in quibuslibet noverit: quamobrem opere ipso observare observanda." proprialiber47, Opera omnia1: 44-45. n See esp. De vita 1553),291 (Wittenberg, generibus divinationum depraecipuis Commentarius 74C. Peucer, casus etsingulares faciam deliquia, curportentosa quispiam, obiecerit "Sed fortasse recto: naturae etusitatum notum, observatum, cumnec contra affirmem, tristia praeire eventaque ea luminibus accidere rationem ordinariam insuetiorem minusque nec secundum cursum, necessaria." motuum constet, sed ex legeet consequutione
GIROLAMO CARDANO
347
TheCatholic both confirmed.75 Boclin jurist thefates of Jean interpreted countries ina similarly eclectic herejected way. True, astrological history, attacking Cardanoand Gauricus alike.But he developed elaborate todetermine numerological rules thefates oflands anddynasties, trying tosetabsolute limits for the duration ofany Atthesame state. given time, hedrew onthe Hippocratic theclimates tradition, ofthelands using from which peoples came originally toexplain their characters.76 ButBodin also hada tutelary which himwith spirit, blows on theshoulder guided and other signs. Cardano'sfellow professional resembled him most astrologers of all. His competitor closely Gaurico boasted of his divine gift for aswellas ofhisquantitative foretelling thefuture skills as astrologer and astronomer. He devotedconsiderable space, in his collection of to explaining horoscopes, theastrological causes ofthesuccess ofnonWhenGiovanni astrological prophets. de' Medici, justhaving escaped French after thebattle ofRavenna, captivity came to Mantua, Gaurico tookhimto see "a certain monkwitha woodenleg,named brother an oldman." Serafino, He promised that Serafino would draw from the lines inGiovanni's hands ofthefuture ofthe "precise predictions events" cardinal's life. After three ofsilent days carried outevery palmistry, day in before lunch a little Serafino garden, toldGiovanni that theMedici wouldsoonreturn to Florence andthat Giovanni himself wouldsoon become pope.Theseapparently ludicrous predictions proved entirely accurate, that Serafino showing was, as Gauricohad claimed,a Later "Chyromanticus likeSimon egregius."77 Forman astrologers and Dee assumed John without further adothat astrology formed only oneof themany colors on thepalettes ofpredictive methods that they deftly Numerous show that ofeclecticism this form examples wasnotnew. inRoman occur Revealing parallels astrological literature andintheNeoPlatonism oflate antiquity. Censorinus, writing hisstrange little bookDe
. . insisto reliquis duobus kriteriois, eruditae ac veraeexperientiae ac verboDei." On thetensions in Peucer'sthought see R. Barnes, Prophecy and Gnosis(Stanford, 1988), 99, 107-08,148. Barnesalso offers a wealthof information aboutthelarger context within which Peucerworked, theluxuriant jungleof different forms ofprophecy that flourished in Lutheran Germany throughout thesixteenth century. J.Bodin,Methodus adfacilemhistoriarum cognitionem (Paris,1566); De re publica (Paris,1576). 77 Gaurico, Tractatus, fol.19 recto-verso. further example ofeclectic use ofastrology andmany other disciplines ofprediction, also from England, see thefine edition ofAnAstrological Diaryofthe Seventeenth Century: SamuelJeakeofRye,1652-1699byM. Hunter andA. Gregory (Oxford, 1988).
78 Fora 76 75 Ibid., - 292 recto, 291 verso esp.291 verso: ".
wielded.78
348
ANTHONY GRAFTON
up for ofRomedrawn notonlythehoroscope dienataliinA.D.238,cited seenat vultures butalsothetwelve ofFirmum VarrobyLuciusTarrutius the lengthof the city's when he triedto determine Rome's founding sage,used inspired of the divinely Proclus,thatquintessence future.79 The theholycityofAthens.80 to defend together andtheurgy astrology she principles used both the astrological Sosipatra astrologer brilliant powerofher two mysterious Chaldeansand themystical learnedfrom by outthewonderful deedsdescribed to carry gift own divine prophetic Eunapiusin hislivesoftheSophists.8" loomed large in of late antiquity The eclecticwonder-workers shouldbe and do. The English visionsof whatprediction Renaissance humanistGabriel Harvey, who read both Cardano and Gaurico, whom he read about in Serafino, comparedthe modernpalm-reader Gaurico, to the ancient eclecticdivinerSosipatra (the comparison and more "Buthow muchtruer to her,not his,advantage): redounded which rested,as it seems,on the certainwas Sosipatra'sdivination, and was accomplished oftheChaldeans, by andphysiognomy astrology andtrials."82 GabrielNaude,who wrotethe Cabalistic certain principles it obviousthathis superstitious, of Cardano,thought first biography oflater Platonism.83 stoodin thetradition protagonist gifted to possessnot the astrologer in otherwords,required Tradition, accessible ofknowledge forms onlyto butalsosecret rules, onlytechnical couldnotclaim theastrologer therules, Without knowing theinitiated.84 that secrets no rules Without science. a mathematical knowing to practice couldemploy theastrologer divine to a special, thanks gift, couldconvey, ofmanyarts, theorists Renaissance oftechniques. aggregate onlya lifeless oftherelation between raised thequestion to courtiership, from painting andsprezzatura. and inspiration, system andspontaneity, discipline rules a foundtheyhad to raiseit too. But in claiming astrologers Evidently basisoftheir from thetechnical often art, divine departed astrologers gift, basis.The or astronomical cluesthatlackedanymathematical following
7'
De die natali17.15,21.4-6. Censorinus and Emperors. Prophets Potter, See generally
VitaProcli. 80Marinus
81
82Gabriel Tractatus (Venice,1552), astrologicus noteinhiscopyofLuca Gaurico, Harvey, Sosipatrae verior certiorque adhuc "Sed quanto 4toRawl.61,fol.19 verso: Library Bodleian nescioquibus Cabalisticis etPhysiognomia: utvidetur Astrologia e Chaldaeorum divinatio, expedita." mirabiliter etexperimentis principiis
83 G. Naude, "De
2d ed. (Amsterdam, liber, De vita propria inCardano, iudicium," Cardano recto. 1654),sig. *6 verso-*7
84Cf.Barton, Powerand Knowledge.
GIROLAMO CARDANO
349
a divinely inprediction became gifted specialist astrologer divinely gifted he onhis has seen as eccentric because insisted Cardano been ofallsorts. ofpredictive allsorts tofuse orcombine disciplines tried owndivine help, that forms ofprediction that same time admitted with hisown, andatthe "exquisitius" rather art could reach their results than relied oninspiration ofscientific In fact, in suchcases thelover "subtlety" thanastrology.85 with his predecessors and agreed, for once, whole-heartedly showeda larger In thisrealmtoo Cardanowentfurther-or most.At leastonce,he portrayed forcontradiction-than tolerance an austerely cosmos as inhabiting Cartesian andhiscolleagues himself andmenin motion, withmatter propelled onlyby impersonal filled orsympathies forces ofanykind, emotions. No occult forces orpersonal thiscosmos-which Cardanohimself pervaded visibleor invisible, In asinaccessible toanyofhistraditional disciplines. predictive described considered thepossible outcomes of De ludo aleae, Cardano histreatise mathematical could ofdice.He insisted thata simple formula throws thenumber of ofa successful theprobability one. Determine predict a throw oftwodicemay itbythe that favorable outcomes have;divide that andyouhavetheprobability ofpossible outcomes; wholenumber will that win. denied outside any throw Cardano explicitly anygiven He treated this strict rule. diceas rigid force couldmodify quantitative to the musicof mathematics, theirsteps dancing piecesof matter
or incantation.86 prayer, unaffected antipathy, by sympathy, worldreveal accounts ofthehuman thesame Cardano's Sometimes, contemporaries.
of dice,the same as his discussions bleakmodernity fundamental, not ofdivine clear sense that events because happened many despairingly chance. Milan for orstellar influence but from blind Leaving order simply almost losthisstore ofunpublished He Cardano manuscripts. Bologna, he tells he hadbroken hisgarter. When found us,onlybecause them, herealized that into hiscarriage toleave, hehadtourinate. After climbing notdo uphishose, hecould andfound no newgarters for sale urinating in theneighborhood. He turned in thethree haberdasheries backto ina chest inhishouse. oneofthenewpairs ofgarters hehadleft obtain wasopened he saw,hishairstanding on endwith And oncethechest he hadtaken with themanuscripts that hethought him.Some horror, inquestion house wasbroken into andthe ofthe the contents weeks later, Cardano "I should "If for taken. ithadnotbeen wrote, chest mygarter,"
I shouldhavelostmyposition, I nothavebeenableto givemylectures,
85See Ptolemy, 18 (Opera omnia5: 105). ed. Cardano, Quadripartitum, 86See thetranslation in Ore. ofandcommentary on De ludoaleae liber,
350
ANTHONY GRAFTON
haveperished, would monuments allthose a beggar, become have would on aninstant! Andallthis depended soonofgrief. have died andI should mankind."87 rather the wretchedness-of Alas forthe condition-or to holddominion seem willandaccident, human andfortune, Chance a seems prediction ofrational thewhole project light, overall. In this future. on the a firm handle rather than fantasy dream-a quixotic mere or his Cardanoneverseemsto have takensuch experiences, saw Ifheoccasionally astrology. for rejecting asreasons tothem, reactions he consistently in influences, occult belief interms that rejected theworld
set of tools,worn and a well-used as a practice, resorted to astrology, to or setoffailures failure No particular polishedby theuse ofdecades. its from itself astrology remove could event astrologically predictan different to use other, radically As to Cardano's ability status. established in a society surprise tools at the sametime-thisshouldoccasionlittle to to writeand faxmachines use computers some of whose members science as a social all ofmodern unmask in which they submit thepapers a gamelikeanyother. product,
VI. THE ASTROLOGER AS MORALIST
side, however,when he Cardano showed his more traditional This assertion as a moraldiscipline. may on describing insisted astrology all theStoics-insisted thinkers-above Manyancient soundparadoxical. Since one in the future. thatthe wise man does not take any interest to say and family, familiars, cannotcontrolthe fateof one's fortune, one shouldkeepone's andeconomic ofpolitical developments, nothing (ust as thefuture to predict undercontrol by noteventrying emotions uncontrollable another the past, go over one should not continually thatmorethanone in a brilliant essay, Hadot has argued, Pierre realm). school saw the dutyof the wise man as Goethe ancientphilosophical alleinist unser it in one versein Faust:"Die Gegenwart encapsulated
profiteri 49, Operaomnia1: 47-48:"Si ligulanonfuisset, liber propria De vita 87Cardano, brevi ex tristitia totmonumenta perierant, mendicassem, excideram munere, nonpoteram, In the autmiseriam." o humanam conditionem, perpendit, atqueid ex momento obiissem: care oftheprovidential as an instance thesameepisode treats Cardano however, Proxeneta, quid 1635),28-29 at 28: "Dicam autem Arcanapolitica1.4 (Amsterdam, he has enjoyed: autperdat quemvelit."For Deus servet quamminimis utintelligas nuper, mihicontigeret causesand their to with astrological specify attempts on near-disasters, ruminations similar andGregory, ed. Hunter 176-77,188-89, Diary, seeAnAstrological theroleofprovidence, the 236-37,240-41,245 (30 August1694): "About9h 8'a.m.A Tile from 226-27,230-31, thedustoftheMortar justclearofmyhead:so nearthat felldown Eves ofmywoodhouse, ofGod preserved Providence it,flewuponmyHat.Butthemerciful camedownwith that &c." risen: Marswasjustthen Notethat oftheheavens follows] me ... [a figure
GIROLAMO CARDANO
351
seemsto lie at an extreme Gliick."88 distance from Astrology such of disciplines present-mindedness. to defend tried hisartagainst Ptolemy already such criticisms. He man infact, held that thewise direct hisattention would, regularly tothe One who loseshis fortune future. or his children unexpectedly will certainly notmaintain a philosophical calm.Buttheclient of a good ofthese inadvance, disasters will astrologer, beableboth knowing tofend off andto prepare someofthem himself forthose he cannot morally Cardano discussed this inhisowncommentary passage extensively inthe onPtolemy, further same borrowing arguments vein from Peucer.90 from He departed when heargued precedent, however, that theastrologer could best attain the moral ends ofhisart byanalyzing hisowncharacter inpublic. drew Cardano and andexperiences commented on hisown up Hereasinhisautobiography, which with ananalysis horoscope. of began andfollowed hishoroscope the form ofhoroscopic traditional, disjointed hishabits inminute Cardano described detail: "Ilike analysis, tospend ten inbed.... Fordinner I like hours tohave a dish ofvegetables, most ofall sometimes alsorice orendive salad." He recounted mangold, hisstrangest as I layinbedinthemorning, I saw]forms of experiences: "[Asa child, like which seemed toconsist oflittle different like kinds, airy bodies, rings I hadnever chain seen chain mail.... There were mail, though uptothen of castles, horses withriders, pictures houses, animals, plants, trees, medical He even criticized hisowncharacter inunsparing instruments."'91 himself detail. described inhiscommentary on hishoroscope Cardano as a lover ofwisdom, a contemplative curious ... modest, "pious, faithful, in miracles, aboutmedicine, interested an architect, tricky, deceptive, a specialist inmysteries, bitter, serious, hard-working, laborious, diligent, for the a despiser ofreligion."92 ingenious, living From his day, frivolous, ownaccount, heemerged asa figure offun, a wacky whomade professor himself ridiculous even byhisirregular wayofwalking. Staggering along thestreet, embodied thedignity Cardano for gesturing wildly, hardly
88 89
avoid.89
P. Hadot,Exercices spirituels etphilosophie antique (Paris,1981). Ptolemy Tetrabiblos 1.3.
90Ptolemy, Quadripartitum, ed. Cardano, 24-25(Opera omnia5: 110-1 1).

91 Cardano, De
vita propria liber 37, Operaomnia1: 27: "Videbam ergoimagines diversas quasi corporum aereorum ex annulisminimis, (Constareenimvidebantur quales sunt loricarum, cum tamenloricasnunquam eousque vidissem)ab imo lectiangulo dextro ascendentes lente et in sinistrum persemicirculum, utprorsus occidentes, nonapparerent: cumequitibus, Arcium, domorum, animalium, equorum herbarum, arborum, instrumentorum medicorum, hominum theatrorum, diversorum habituum, vestiumque variarum....."
92
Cardano, Liberxiigeniturarum, Opera omnia5: 523.
352
ANTHONY GRAFTON
inmuch ofhiswriting.93 hestrove so hard which as they so frank werenot, of course, Cardano'sconfessions madehima that inclinations thesexual He didnotdescribe appeared. The flood of lesser him legal penalties. brought pedophile-and in letter thepurloined surrounded thebric-a-brac that revelations-like well might this andother traits that attention from Poe'sstory-distracted headmitted.94 Still, many discredit than those havedoneCardano more of weaknesses so many that Cardano revealed it bizarre found readers with Cardano reproached Naude,forexample, voluntarily. character Inhis Proxeneta, andintellectual position. hisownsocial having destroyed to advised thecourtier forsuccessful lifeat court, Cardano a manual
aboutone'smeansor emotions silence aboveall.Anyrevelation maintain his revealed Yet Cardanographically couldonlyhelpone's competitors. and rivalsalike. In the age of flawsto readers and character mistakes hard and the philosophyof the personality Gracian'scold morality, a basic as a billiardball, Cardano's frankness represented featureless oftherulesofprudence.95 violation The In fact,however,Cardano broke the rules deliberately. vital to explore the Renaissance sawitas absolutely ofthelater astrologers theworstofthem-so faras characters-even flawsin theircustomers' ofcourse, allowed.In somecontexts, unpleasant basic self-preservation drewup ends.Whena Viennadoctor couldserve traits practical character to reveal ofMaximilian impelled II, he felt horoscopesforthechildren would show a masculineseverity, that Maximilian'seldestdaughter andvengeful. However,he also commented to be bothirritable inclining that these qualitiesshowed that she was well equipped for public for no suchcompensations appeared however, Usually, responsibility.96 a horoscope WhenCampanella in thestars. written produced thedefects in Naples,he had oftheInquisition intheprison Vernote forSirPhilibert and towardsexualpassivity tended to explainthathis youngcustomer The had he not been a northerner. could evenhave becomea pervert, a offered and priapism.97 Astrology clientbarelyescapedboth sterility
proprialiber21, Operaomnia1: 14-15. 9Cardano, De vita
9' Cf. Hunter, 26, An Astrological Diary, ed. Hunterand Gregory, "Introduction,"
muchinmind. very hisaudience with Jeake-likeCardano-wrote that emphasizing
95Naude,sigs.*5 verso-*6 recto.
Osterreichische of Austria, forAnna,archduchess horoscope Reisacher, Bartholomew virilemquandam MS 10754, fol. 40 recto:"Prae se feretigitur Nationalbibliothek erit ad iramprocliviset vindictaecupida. Erit idonea ac authoritatem, severitatem alicuius." ac administrationi gubernationi
96
etsol in "Cumlunain signomasculino 176,fol.36 recto: MS Ashmole 97Bodleian Library eoque invenereis, nuncmollem nuncvirilem, vicibus mutatis faciunt reperiantur, feminino
GIROLAMO CARDANO
353
one's own character-and not allowing meansof understanding it to Butonly frank the become one'sdestiny. about could speech unspeakable in advance as deeply afflicted as Vernote-or serve a client as Cardano himself. these into when heanalyzed Cardano hisown put principles practice hisastrological intoa workable form oftherapy. making characterology ofhisautobiography offers a striking ofhis Thesecond chapter example hehadbeenimpotent success attreating himself. There heconfessed that for tenyears. Theposition ofthestars as a young athisbirth, he man, accounted for wretched this condition: "Because wasinthe argued, Jupiter andVenus wastheruler ofthehoroscope, I washarmed ascendant only inmygenitals, sothat from tomy I could my twenty-first thirty-first year with women andoften mourned notsleep allothers mysadlot,envying theirs."98 for must find Cardano's In his Anyhistorian remarkable. explanation andfear ofimpotence were time impotence pandemic. Everyone knew, thatwitches causedthisdreaded condition. The German moreover, so theDominicans Kramer andSprenger in theMalleus woods, argued swarmed with evil women whostole men's andhid maleficarum, penises them inbirds' nests. Worse some of accused witches eating yet, the penises for stole the that witches they (consider, example, sausage-like objects grill in theworksof thatgifted Hans Baldung).99 misogynist This widely disseminated contributed to thesixteenth-century witch fantasy greatly butit didnotinfect Cardano. He firmly believed in witchcraft, craze, to write a testimonial for a woman accused ofit(tobe sure, refusing he the invitation todosoasa trap set his interpreted Buthealso by enemies). a woman refused toblame for hisownimpotence -ven oneofthe young oneswith whom he madeenergetic, ifineffectual, efforts to relieve his Histherapy condition. worked: anditworked when itenabled him again to survive andgoon working after theterrible death ofhisson.Evenin hislastyears ofhousearrest in Rome, heemerged as a powerful figure, in themeetings oftheRoman actively participating doctors' guild and as wellas modifying, hisearly booksin thehopeofgaining enlarging,
deterius et marsfoemininus ex natura quod venusest masculina signi:et pollutiones hi naturales, non tamencontranaturam indicant, praesertim in boreali viro, sicuti in docuimus." Astrologicis
98Cardano, De vita proprialiber2 (Opera omnia1: 2). 99 Cf. S. Schade,Schadenzauber unddie Magie des Korpers(Worms,1983), and J.L.
He seemsto have succeeded, in star-haunted personality. moreover,
TheMoment Koemner, inGerman ofSelf-Portraiture Renaissance Art (ChicagoandLondon, 1994).
354
ANTHONY GRAFTON
of condescension Only the monstrous approval fornew editions.1?? therapies Cardano's toseehoweffective hasmade itimpossible posterity really were. predictions, inshort, thelarge-scale provided notonly Astrology, that character sixteenth-century clients butalsothefine-grained analyses, character analyses of penetrating some the most that needed. No wonder as brash Aubrey's wonderfully ofthetime-like John BriefLives-began either that modern a editors, showing collections (nowonder horoscope obscured in these origins for havethoroughly astrology, disdain typical with Thelate-seventeenth-century Aubrey's manuscripts).101 their dealings whoseastrological SamuelJeake, diaryhas recently Rye merchant from MichaelHunterand Annabel edition an exemplary received inhisPuritan in astrology, even more than the found beliefs, Gregory, ofthetiming andmeaning of hismeticulous for examination inspiration in aneventful life. hesuffered Gabriel andnear-disasters allthedisasters hesystematically when the real showed compared then, insight, Harvey with PaoloGiovio's andCardano ofGaurico collections Elogia horoscope thegoodbiographer-promised men. Thegoodastrologer-like ofgreat at least, Cardano's In thisrealm a Menschenkenner. to makehisreader andthat ofhiscompetitors something typical clearly represents astrology ofa classical butalsopart notonly andplace: tradition, oftheir time part thathistorians havetraditionally of endless of thatculture curiosity theRenaissance.102 identified with
100See
Siraisi.
101See Aubrey ed. 0. 's BriefLives,

102
AnnArbor, 1957),liv-lv, L. Dick (London,1949;repr. (London,1975). and theWorld ofLearning John Aubrey c; cf.M. Hunter,
theEcole des HautesEtudesen zu Berlin, to theWissenschaftskolleg Warmthanks Kulturwissenschaften, Forschungszentrum andtheIntemationales Paris, Sociales, Sciences and to Ian Maclean and Nancy Siraisi fordiscussion.I support; Vienna,forresearch the with aboutastrology conversation a longandhelpful with specialgratitude remember was delivered. thislecture after tookplaceon themorning lateThomasKuhn,which

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Girolamo Cardano and the Tradition of Classical Astrology the Rothschild Lecture, 1995 Author(s): Anthony Grafton Source:

of Cardano andtheTradition Girolamo Classical Astrology 1995 TheRothschild Lecture,

ortwoanda half theskies in millennia, astrologers havescrutinized

H. Gombrich, Symbolic Images(Oxford, 1972; repr. 1978),66-69.

(San Marino,1974). ofSweetHarmony Touches see S. K. Heninger, Europe, modem early

8 J.North, 24 (1980): Centaurus ofChurches," andtheFortunes "Astrology

GIROLAMOCARDANO OF FUNCTION II. CONTINUITIES

AngeloDecembrio, De politialitteraria, MS Vat.lat. 1794,fol.6 verso.

e le scienzeocculte, See I Guicciardini ed. R. Castagnola (Florence, 1990).

werebest illnesses overwhether particular debateranged however,

21N. Siraisi, (ChicagoandLondon,1990). Medicine Medievaland EarlyRenaissance

24D. P. Walker, andDemonic Ficinoto Campanella(London,1958); Spiritual Magicfrom

and theCosmosinRenaissance TheIndividual tr.M. Domandi Cassirer, Philosophy, (New York,1963),chap.3.

the basement-controlled as a Piranesi andsubterranean dark, grandiose,

(New Haven,1987). Formand History Symbolic J.Krois,Cassirer,

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In July an intellectual from theNetherlands 1572, HugoBlotius,

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G. Ernst, "'Veritatis amordulcissimus': in Cardano," in Kepler, Aspetti dell'astrologia 158-84.

Cardano's list becamein its turna model forlaterscholars' praise.40

De librispropriis Cardano, (1554), Opera omnia,1: 78.

Fromthe constellations. intothe classic of the Renaissance politics

52Ptolemy, Quadripartitum, ed. G. Cardano (Basel, 1554),73 (Opera omnia5: 148-49)on

1.20. Tetrabiblos See e.g. Ptolemy

60 Cardano, ... almanach Libellusqui dicitur supplementum

Comarius Med. physicus," and datedat thebottom ofthepage:"Marpurgi, menseOctob. 1543."

etBelgio legi." ipsiusoperainGermania

6070, fol.25 recto:....

andhisPublishers, inKepler, See I. Maclean,"Cardano 309-38. 1534-1663,"

De die natali17.15,21.4-6. Censorinus and Emperors. Prophets Potter, See generally

84Cf.Barton, Powerand Knowledge.

P. Hadot,Exercices spirituels etphilosophie antique (Paris,1981). Ptolemy Tetrabiblos 1.3.

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muchinmind. very hisaudience with Jeake-likeCardano-wrote that emphasizing

95Naude,sigs.*5 verso-*6 recto.

He seemsto have succeeded, in star-haunted personality. moreover,

TheMoment Koemner, inGerman ofSelf-Portraiture Renaissance Art (ChicagoandLondon, 1994).

101See Aubrey ed. 0. 's BriefLives,

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95Naude,sigs.5 verso-6 recto.