Anales de Mecnica de la Fractura 28, Vol.

1 (2011)

FATIGUE STRENGTH AND FAILURE MECHANISMS IN THE VHCF-REGION B. Pyttel, D. Schwerdt, I. Brunner, C. Berger State Materials Testing Insitute and Institute for Materials Technology, Technische Universitt Darmstadt, Grafenstr. 2, 64283 Darmstadt, Germany E-mail: pyttel@mpa-ifw.tu-darmstadt.de

ABSTRACT Many components in the field of mechanical engineering are subjected to cyclic loading and have to withstand it over a number of cycles beyond 107. This can be a result of a high frequency or a long time. In this VHCF-region (very high cycle fatigue) failure occurs depending on the material and special failure mechanisms can appear. The paper gives a short overview of the topic and shows own results on aluminium wrought alloys EN AW-6082-T5 and EN AW-6056T6, quenched and tempered steel 42CrMo4 and nodular cast iron EN-GJS-900-2. First the material behaviour is of interest and afterwards the influence of notches and mean stress is discussed. So the practical relevance of this topic can be estimated. Failure in the VHCF-region is often influenced by defects or material inhomogeneities. Their type and size depends on the material or material state. In some cases a linear elastic fracture mechanics analysis can be performed to describe the defect behaviour assuming that the defects act like cracks. For calculation, plate models with semi-elliptical cracks at the surface or elliptical embedded cracks were used, taking into account the real size and position of the defect in the specimens. KEYWORDS: very high cycle fatigue, S-N curves, failure mechanisms, fracture mechanics analysis. 1. INTRODUCTION Many components in the field of mechanical engineering are subjected to cyclic loading and have to withstand it over a number of cycles beyond 107. This can be a result of a high frequency or a long time. In addition to the established terms Low Cycle Fatigue (LCF, N = 104105 cycles) and High Cycle Fatigue (HCF, 105 < N < 107 cycles) the term Very High Cycle Fatigue (VHCF, N > 107 cycles) has been introduced. In the VHCF-region failure occurs depending on material, design and manufacture and special failure mechanisms can appear. Although the international interest in investigations in the VHCF-region has been increasing in the last years there are few experimental results to separate the different influences on fatigue behaviour. The scatter of data is large because of microstructural effects. The statistical evaluation of fatigue strength is still a topic of research. The paper gives a short overview on fatigue strength and failure mechanisms and shows own results on aluminium wrought alloys EN AW-6056-T6 and EN AW-6082-T5, quenched and tempered steel 42CrMo4 and nodular cast iron EN-GJS-900-2. First the material behaviour is of interest and afterwards the influence of notches and mean stress is discussed. So the practical relevance of this topic can be estimated. Failure in the VHCF-region is often influenced by defects or material inhomogeneities. Their type and size depends on the material or material state. In some cases a linear elastic fracture mechanics analysis can be performed to describe the defect behaviour assuming that the defects act like cracks.

2. OVERVIEW ON FATIGUE STRENGTH AND FAILURE MECHANISMS Experiments in the VHCF-region can only be conducted with testing facilities, which run at very high frequencies or can test many specimens at lower frequencies simultaneously. In many cases ultrasonic fatigue test systems with a frequency of about 20 kHz are used nowadays. For reliability of the results it is important to compare these investigations with that achieved at lower frequencies. Differences, which can result in different stressed volumes, heating, test procedure, time-dependent cyclic material behavior or corrosive environment have to be discussed carefully. Experimental results on fatigue strength are often described as S-N curves by a straight line in a double logarithmic scale
N N k ( V na / V Nk ) k

(1)

There are k slope, Vna nominal or local stress amplitude and VNk stress amplitude at reference point Nk. The reference point usually is also the point of deflection for instance 106 for steel and cast iron in [1] or 5106 for steel in [2] and 108 for aluminium in [3]. For results in the VHCF-region the slope k = k*. S-N curves are

Anales de Mecnica de la Fractura 28, Vol. 1 (2011)

1 T

V na ( Ps V na ( Ps

10%) . 90%)

(2)

Stress amplitude a (log)

specified for probability of survival values Ps of for instance 50% or 97.5%. From experimental data the scatter of stress often is calculated as

I initiation at surface roughness or PSBs increasing surface roughness, notch factor 1 surface fatigue strength

II mixture of surface and internal initiation

III initiation at internal inhomogeneities

IV fatigue limit?

In [4] values are suggested for the use in very high cycle fatigue. Experimental results on fatigue strength including the VHCF-region can be described with four schematic types of S-N curves, Fig. 1 [5]. For low strength steels and sharp notched components there seems to be a fatigue limit or at least only a very low decrease of fatigue strength in the VHCF-region, Fig. 1a. In contrast there is a continuous decrease of fatigue strength especially for high and very high strength steels, Fig. 1d. Cracks start either at the surface or from inside the material. So one S-N curve for the fatigue strength of the surface and another one for the volume can be assumed as schematically shown in Fig. 2. According to different influencing factors both curves can be shifted, superimpose and result in the curves presented in Fig. 1. Whether there is a fatigue limit for the volume or which material condition would effect it, is still a topic of research. In the VHCF-region - material related causes, as special inhomogeneities or defects, anisotropy, precipitation state, hydrogen assisted cracking or inhomogenous material states with large property gradient and - stress related causes, as stress concentrations, statistical distribution of load and fabrication tolerances, can effect failure. Typical material inhomogeneities are shrinkage holes and inclusions, which in most cases cannot be avoided completely.
Va (log)
a)

2 volume fatigue strength

increasing increasing surface roughness, inhomogeneity notch factor size

Number of cycles to failure Nf (log)

Fig. 2: Double S-N curve with influencing factors and crack initiation site, adapted from [6, 7]). 3. RESULTS ON WROUGHT ALUMINIUM ALLOYS Investigations were done on the two wrought aluminium alloys EN AW 6082 and EN AW 6056 [8]. Fatigue tests on a servohydraulic testing machine were performed with smooth specimens with a diameter of 6 mm under axial loading at load ratios R = 0 and 0.1 respectively at a frequency f = 400 Hz. The results are shown in Fig. 3. For both materials no fatigue limit was observed in the investigated region. Examinations of the fracture surfaces by scanning electron microscope (SEM) show that the crack inititation sites are changing from the surface at higher amplitudes to the volume at lower amplitudes. Also with high magnification inclusions or other defects could not be found at the crack initiation sites. For the alloy EN AW-6082-T5 a typical fracture surface with internal crack initiation site is shown in Fig. 4. Investigations of the microstructure at the crack inititation site with electron back scatter diffraction analysis (EBSD) show that the reason for crack initiation there is a single large grain with a different orientation to the surrounding matrix material. For the alloy EN AW-6056-T6 a typical fracture surface with internal failure can be seen in Fig. 5. It shows a cleavagelike microstructure. Investigations with a transmission electron microscope (TEM) show that the maximum hardend precipitation state is responsible for this crack initiation [9]. Precipitations are found to be situated in special crystallographic planes and allocated at grain boundaries. Besides there are precipitations free zones. Further tests on the alloy EN AW-6056-T6 were conducted with notched specimens with a stress concentration factor Kt = 1.75 and screws M10 in combination with a steel nut taken as sharp notched specimens with Kt = 4.7. In all cases the maximum number of cycles was N = 2108. For the testing of the screws a high frequency pulsator with a frequency of f = 150 Hz was used. The results are shown in Fig. 6. Cracks always started from the surface because of stress concentration in the notches. For the sharp notched screws the slope of the S-N curve is increasing towards

Va (log)

b)

failure from surface

failure from surface

subsurface

Nk

N (log) Va d) (log)
failure from surface

Nk

N (log)

Va (log)

c)

failure from surface

subsurface

subsurface

Nk1

N (log)

N (log)

Fig. 1: Typical S-N curves including the VHCF-region and crack initiation sites a) low strength steels, components with sharp notches b) materials with body-centred cubic lattice under corrosive medium or elevated temperature, materials with face-centred cubic lattice c) some high strength steels, components with surface treatment d) high and very high strength steels, materials with face-centred cubic lattice.

Anales de Mecnica de la Fractura 28, Vol. 1 (2011)

Nominal stress amplitude Va [MPa]

the VHCF-region. It is assumed, that with increasing Kt and R-ratio this behaviour is continued.

200
k=14,5

k=14

240 220

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20

k=4

Nominal stress amplitude Va [MPa]

200 180 160 140 120 100

k=14,5

k=14,5
3 nf 1 nf 2 nf

k=8 2 nf

1 nf 1 nf

10 10
4

10

10

10

10

10

80

Number of cycles N
R=0.1 Kt = 1, mechanically polished Kt = 1.75, Rm = 393 MPa Kt = 4.7, screws M10, Rm = 393 MPa, f = 400 Hz surface failure internal failure no failure linear regression

60

10

10

10

10

10

10

Number of cycles N
EN AW-6056-T6 Rm = 393 MPa, A = 19% EN AW-6082-T5 Rm = 356 MPa, A = 11%

f = 200 and 400 Hz (VHF) thread rolled before head treatment f = 160 Hz f = 150 Hz (HFP) Rm(material) = 412 MPa, Rm(screw)= 350 MPa surface failure no failure surface failure, thread linear regression no failure (nf) linear regression

average grain diameter transverse: 41Pm average grain diameter: 12Pm Kt=1, R = 0 Kt = 1, R = 0.1 mechanically polished, f = 400 Hz surface failure internal failure no failure (nf) linear regression precision-turned, f = 400 Hz surface failure internal failure failure initiation undetermined no failure (nf) linear regression

Fig. 6: Experimental results and S-N curves for smooth and notched specimens of EN AW-6056-T6 under tension. 4. RESULTS ON QUENCHED AND TEMPERED STEEL Investigations on the quenched and tempered steel 42CrMo4 from two batches with tensile strengths Rm = 1100 MPa and 1350 MPa and cyclic softening material behaviour were done [10,11]. Fatigue tests were performed at R = -1 and R = 0 with smooth specimens with a diameter of 5 mm and notched specimens with Kt = 1.75 under axial loading. The maximum number of cycles was - N = 2108 when using a servohydraulic testing machine (VHF) with f 200 to 400 Hz and a high frequency resonant machine (HFP) with f 150 Hz and - N = 2109 for an ultrasonic test system (USP) with f 20 kHz (University BOKU, Vienna). Results are shown in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8. For analysis in the VHCF-region a recommendation with Nk = 5105, k* = 45 and 1/T = 1.4 from [4] was used which was derived from a literature study of several materials and fits the here achieved results very well. At lower number of cycles a regression line was adapted. A suitable method for the description of all results is still to be found. For smooth specimens of both batches and R = -1 there is a marginal decrease of fatigue strength in the VHCFregion, but notched specimens show a fatigue limit. The large scatter in lifetime in the VHCF-region shows the increasing effect of the microstructure in the volume and the decreasing effect of the surface.

Fig. 3: Experimental results and S-N curves for EN AW-6056-T6 and EN AW-6082-T5 under tension.

Fig. 4: Fracture surface with internal crack initiation site for EN AW-6082-T5 (a = 130 MPa, N = 6.7106, R = 0).

Fig. 5: Fracture surface with internal crack initiation site for EN AW-6056-T6 (a = 90 MPa, N = 1.2108, R = 0.1).

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900 800 Nominal stress amplitude Va [MPa] 700 600 500 400
Nk=510 , k*=45, 1/TV=1.4
5

* * k = 12,

VNk = 565 MPa

Vnk = 650 MPa,

Nk=510 , k*=45, 1/TV=1.4

11. The oxides are described in their real size with a and c as semiaxis of an ellipse, position h in the specimens with the thickness t = 5 mm and the applied stress range V = 2Va. Results are shown in Fig. 12. There seems to be a lower limit or threshold value of the stress intensity factor range of

'K th

5 MPa m

300
k = 6.8, VNk = 319 MPa, Nk=3.610
5

at R = -1, which is lower than typical values of steel measured in standard fracture mechanics tests at surface cracks. Additionally a runout specimen (Va = 525 MPa, N = 2108, R = -1, Rm = 1100 MPa, Fig. 7) was investigated to find out whether other defects exists in the specimen which did not cause failure [13]. The cylindrical part of the specimen with a diameter of 5 mm and a length of 11 mm was cut out and examined in steps of about 0.5 mm in 16 microsections by an optical microscope. From the stressed volume of the specimen of 216 mm3 so a volume of 131 mm3 was investigated. All inclusions > 10 m were documented by their position and size. No oxide could be found, but only sulfides with a maximum size of 30 m and a mean value of 12 m with an equal distribution in the section. The absolute inclusion frequency is increasing with decreasing size. Now assuming the maximum sulfide as a crack, as it was done before with the oxides, a stress intensity factor range K was calculated, which is much larger than the limit value for oxides, Fig. 12. As this and other sulfidic inclusion did not caused failure, the assumption of sulfides acting as cracks is not justified. In contrast oxidic inclusions with their high hardness act as stress concentrations in the material and can be treated like initial cracks.

200 4 10

10

10

10

10

10

Number of cycles N
smooth specimens Kt=1 notched specimens, Kt=1.75 machine VHF / HFP, f = 400 Hz / f | 140Hz machine VHF / HFP, f = 400 Hz / f | 140Hz surface failure surface failure internal failure no failure no failure S-N-curve, VHF * re-used specimen machine USP, f = 20 kHz S-N-curve, VHF surface failure machine USP, f = 20 kHz no failure surface failure no failure S-N-curve, USP

Fig. 7: Experimental results and S-N curves for smooth and notched specimens of 42CrMo4 (Rm = 1100 MPa, R = -1, tension/compression).

900 800 Nominal stress amplitude Va [MPa] 700 600 500 400

k = 15, VNk = 670 MPa

Nk=510 , k*=45

42CrMo4, Rm= 1350 MPa, tension, smooth specimens Kt= 1 machine VHF / HFP, f = 200 Hz / f | 150 Hz R=0 R = -1 surface failure surface failure internal failure internal failure no failure no failure * re-used specimen S-N curve

Oxid

300

200 4 10

10

10

10

10

10

Fig. 8: Experimental results and S-N curves for 42CrMo4 (Rm = 1350 MPa). Investigations of the fracture surfaces by SEM show crack intitation from the surface at lower number of cycles and oxides with a mean size of 80 m and a maximum size of 130 m at the crack inititation sites, Fig. 9 and 10, at higher number of cycles. The oxides act as crack starters and can be considered as initial cracks in a linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEBM) analysis. For calculation of the cyclic stress intensity factor range a a 'K 'V S a f ( , ,...) (3) t c plate models [11] with semi-elliptical cracks at the surface or elliptical embedded cracks were used, Fig.

Number of cycles N

Fig. 9: Fracture surface with surface crack initiation site for 42CrMo4 (a = 610 MPa, N = 4.9107, R = -1).
Oxid

Fig. 10: Fracture surface with internal crack initiation site for 42CrMo4 (a = 600 MPa, N = 1.1106, R = -1).

Anales de Mecnica de la Fractura 28, Vol. 1 (2011)

Vm Vb

Vm Vb

500 400 Nominal stress amplitude Va [MPa]

Ka2
k = 8.4, VNk = 313 MPa Nk=510 , k*=45, 1/TV=1.4 k = 5.3, VNk = 217 MPa Nk=510 , k*=45, 1/TV=1.4
5 5

2w
2w

Ka1

300 200

Ka2
Ka Kc

2a

Kc x h

2c

Ka1 2c

Fig. 11: Plate models with surface or embedded crack for fracture mechanics analysis.
42CrMo4 oxide inclusions causing failure at R=-1 largest sulfide inclusion found in analysis of a run-out specimen 3 3 (16 sections in 131 mm from 216 mm )

90 80 70 60 50 40 4 10 10
5

k = 3.6, VNk = 102 MPa, Nk = 1.310

20 stress intensity factor range 'K [MPam ]

0.5

18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 4 10

10 10 Number of cycles N

10

10

smooth specimens Kt=1 machine VHF / HFP, f = 400 Hz / f |140Hz surface failure internal failure no failure S-N-curve, VHF machine USP, f = 20 kHz surface failure internal failure no failure S-N-curve, USP

notched specimen Kt=1.75 machine VHF / HFP, f = 400Hz / f |140Hz surface failure no failure machine USP, f = 20 kHz surface failure no failure S-N-curve, VHF/ USP

'Kth# 5 Pam

0.5

Fig. 13: Experimental results and S-N curves for EN-GJS-900-2 (Rm = 930 MPa, R = -1, tension/compression).
9

10

10

10

10

10

Number of cycles N

Fig. 12: Stress intensity factor range for different defects at R = -1 for 42CrMo4. 5. RESULTS ON NODULAR CAST IRON Investigations on the nodular cast iron EN-GJS-900-2 with a tensile strength of Rm = 930 MPa and stable cyclic material behaviour were done [10]. Fatigue tests were performed at R = -1 with smooth specimens with a diameter of 5 mm and notched specimens with Kt = 1.75 under axial loading. Maximum number of cycles depend on the testing machine and are similar to the investigation on steel, Chapter 4. The results are shown in Fig. 13. As for the quenched and tempered steel in Chapter 4, in the VHCF-region a decrease of fatigue strength of 5 %/decade (k* = 5) can be assumed for the smooth specimens, but a fatigue limit for notched specimens. Investigations of the fracture surfaces of smooth specimens by SEM show crack inititation from the surface at lower number of cycles but also very often shrinkage holes as crack inititation sites and seldom cluster of graphite particles. With increasing number of cycles shrinkage holes dominate, Fig. 14 and 15. The size of the shrinkage holes is not smaller than 100 m, mostly 200 to 400 m with a maximum value of 585 m. In comparison to the results on steel, the inhomogeneities as graphite and shrinkage holes are more numerous and larger in size. Nodular cast iron is a very inhomogenous material with a large intrinsic notch effect.

shrinkage hole

Fig. 14: Fracture surface with internal crack initiation site for EN-GJS-900-2 (a = 217 MPa, N = 2.3107, R = -1).
shrinkage hole

Fig. 15: Fracture surface with internal crack initiation site for EN-GJS-900-2 (a = 180 MPa, N = 1.2108, R = 0). Now a linear elastic fracture mechanics analysis, as described in Chapter 4, was performed, assuming the shrinkage holes as initial cracks. The calculated stress intensity factor range K(N) is shown in Fig. 16. Here a lower limit of

'K th

8  9 MPa m

at R = -1 was found, with an exception of one specimen at a low number of cycles. This lower limit corresponds to threshold values measured in standard fracture

Anales de Mecnica de la Fractura 28, Vol. 1 (2011)

mechanics tests at surface cracks for nodular cast iron. Additionally a runout specimen (Va = 204 MPa, N = 2108, R = -1, Fig. 13) was investigated to find out which other defects exists in the specimen which did not cause failure [13]. Here a volume of 125 mm3 was observed in 16 microsections by an optical microscope. Shrinkage holes and degenerated graphite particles > 40 m were documented by their position and size. The maximum size of a shrinkage hole was 377 m and the mean size 83 m. The absolute defect frequency is increasing with decreasing defect size. For the maximum shrinkage hole the stress intensitiy factor range was caluclated and found to be close to the determined lower limit. Maybe this specimen could have been failed at higher number of cycles if the test would have been continued.
EN-GJS-900-2 shrinkage hole causing failure at R=-1 largest shrinkage hole found in analysis of a run-out specimen 3 3 (16 sections in 131 mm from 216 mm )

Results of fatigue tests with smooth specimens made of the aluminium alloys EN AW-6082-T5 and EN AW-6056-T6, the quenched and tempered steel 42CrMo4 and the nodular cast iron EN-GJS900-2 are presented. They show a decreasing fatigue strength with increasing lifetime. It is more pronounced in the aluminium alloys. Failure in the VHCF-region starts in the volume from oxidic inclusions in the steel and from shrinkage holes in the nodular cast iron and not from the surface. For the aluminium alloys material inhomogeneities as large grains or the precipitation state in the volume causes failure. A linear elastic fracture mechanics analysis can be done to describe the defect behaviour assuming that oxidic inclusions and shrinkage holes act like cracks. Different threshold values of the stress intensitiy factor range were calculated. For the aluminium alloys such a discription is not possible. Results of fatigue tests with notched specimens show, that with increasing stress concentration surface failure becomes dominating and the assumption of a fatigue limit could be more justified under special conditions. So far only the fatigue strength of metals at constant amplitude loading was investigated. It is the work of the future to investigate the fatigue behaviour under variable amplitude loading to give better recommendation to fatigue design of components. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

20 stress intensity factor range 'K [MPam ]

0.5

18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 4 10

'Kth# 8-9 MPam

0.5

10

10

10

10

10

Number of cycles N

Fig. 16: Stress intensity factor range for different defects at R = -1 for EN-GJS-900-2.

6. CONCLUSIONS The results of the fatigue investigations in the VHCFregion can be summarized as follows: Failure can occur depending on material, material state, design, manufacture and loading. It is often influenced by different distributed defects and inhomogeneities, which in most cases cannot be avoided completely. Then the scatter of data is large. The statistical evaluation of fatigue strength is still a topic of research. Experimental results can be explained by a double S-N curve, which consists of the S-N curve of the surface and the S-N curve of the volume. According to different influencing factors both curves can be shifted, superimpose and result in the different curves, which can be found in different investigations in literature.

The authors thank the Federal Ministry of Econimics and Technology, the German Federation of Industrial Research Associations Otto von Guericke e.V. (AiF 14874/N1), the Forschungskuratorium Maschinenbau e.V. (FKM) and the German Research Foundation (DFG PY 71/1-1) for the financial support. REFERENCES [1] FKM-Guideline Analytical strength assessment of components in mechanical engineering. Forschungskuratorium Maschinenbau: VDMA Verlag GmbH; 5th edition, 2003. [2] Eurocode 3, Design of steel structures, part 1-9 fatigue, DIN EN 1993-1-9, 2005. [3] Eurocode 9, Design of aluminium structures, Part 2, 2001. [4] C.M. Sonsino, Course of SN-Curves especially in the high-cycle fatigue regime with regard to component design and safety, Int. J. Fatigue 29, 2007.

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[5] B. Pyttel, D. Schwerdt, C. Berger, Very high cycle fatigue Is there a fatigue limit?, Int. J. Fatigue, 33, 49-58, 2011. [6] S. Nishijima, K. Kanazawa, Stepwise S-N curve and fish-eye failure in gigacycle fatigue, Fatigue Fract. Engng. Mater. Struct. 22, 601-7, 1999. [7] H. Tian, M.J. Kirkham, L. Jiang, B. Yang, G. Wang, P.K. Liaw, A review of failure mechanisms of ultra high cycle fatigue in engineering materials, Proc. VHCF 4, Ann Arbor, 2007. [8] D. Schwerdt, B. Pyttel, C. Berger, Fatigue strength and failure mechanisms of wrought aluminium alloys in the VHCF-region considering material and component relevant influencing factors, Int. J. Fatigue 33, 33-41, 2011. [9] D. Schwerdt, Fatigue strength and failure mechanisms of aluminium wrought alloys EN AW-6082 and EN AW-6056 and of the quenched and tempered steel 42CrMo4 at very high number of cycles, PhD TU Darmstadt, in preparation, 2011 [10] D. Schwerdt, B. Pyttel, C. Berger, Ermdungsfestigkeit von Konstruktionswerkstoffen bei sehr hohen Schwingspielzahlen (Fatigue strength of engineering materials at very high number of cycles), FKM-Heft 304, Forschungskuratorium Maschinenbau e.V., 2009. [11] B. Pyttel, D. Schwerdt, C. Berger, Fatigue strength and failure mechanisms in the VHCFregion for quenched and tempered steel 42CrMoS4 and consequences to fatigue design, Procedia Engineering 2, 1327-1336, 2010. [12] FKM-Guideline Fracture Mechanics Proof of Strength for Engineering Components, VDMA Verlag GmbH, 3rd edition, 2009. [13] I. Brunner, Analyse der Defekte in einem Kugelgrafitguss und einem Vergtungsstahl zur Beurteilung deren Schdigungsrelevanz bei sehr hohen Schwingspielzahlen (Analysis of defects in a nodular cast iron and a quenched and tempered steel for evaluation of their significance for damage), Studienarbeit FH Frankfurt am Main. 2010.